READINGS IN PHILIPPINE HISTORY

Tejeros Convention 1897

The Tejeros Convention of 1897 was a crucial event in the history of the Philippine Revolution
against Spanish colonial rule. It marked the first attempt to establish a unified revolutionary
government among Filipino revolutionaries, replacing the Katipunan, which was then functioning
as a revolutionary movement and shadow government.

What Happened at the Tejeros Convention? March 22, 1897 Location: Tejeros, San Francisco
de Malabon (now General Trias, Cavite) The convention was called to settle growing leadership
disputes between two main factions of the Katipunan in Cavite: The Magdiwang faction (led by
Andres Bonifacio) The Magdalo faction (led by Emilio Aguinaldo, represented at the time by his
cousin Baldomero Aguinaldo) The attendees agreed to form a central revolutionary government
and held elections to fill its top positions. The results were: President: Emilio Aguinaldo, Vice
President: Mariano Trías Captain-General: Artemio Ricarte Director of War: Emiliano Riego de
Dios Director of the Interior: Andres Bonifacio However, Bonifacio’s election to a lower post
(Director of the Interior) was challenged by Daniel Tirona, who questioned Bonifacio’s
qualifications, suggesting that the post should be given to a lawyer instead. Bonifacio felt
insulted and declared the election null and void. Tensions escalated between the factions.
Bonifacio and his brother were eventually arrested, tried, and executed on May 10, 1897, under
Aguinaldo’s authority, a decision that remains controversial. Historical Significance, The Tejeros
Convention marked the beginning of formal governance in the revolution. It also revealed deep
divisions among Filipino revolutionaries, particularly between the working class katipuneros led
by Bonifacio and the more educated and elite group led by Aguinaldo. The event is often seen
as both a step forward in organizing the revolution and a tragic turning point due to the fall out
between leaders.

Biography of Prominent Filipinos

1. Emilio Aguinaldo
The first President of the Philippines and a key figure in the Philippine Revolution. First
President of the Philippine (1899–1901) Leader of the Philippine Revolution against Spain. Birth
and Early Life, Born on March 22, 1869 Place: Cavite El Viejo, Cavite (now Kawit, Cavite)
Parents: Carlos Aguinaldo (municipal mayor) and Trinidad Famy. Emilio came from a wealthy
and influential family and studied at Colegio de San Juan de Letran, though he did not complete
his degree due to a cholera outbreak. Role in the Philippine Revolution, joined the Katipunan (a
secret revolutionary society founded by Andres Bonifacio) in 1895. Became a

leader of the Magdalo faction in Cavite during the revolution against Spain in 1896. Won major
battles in Cavite, making him a key military leader. Tejeros Convention (1897) Elected President
of the Revolutionary Government, replacing Katipunan leadership. Conflict with Andres
Bonifacio followed, eventually leading to Bonifacio’s arrest and execution — a controversial
decision in Aguinaldo’s legacy. First Philippine Republic Declared Philippine Independence from
Spain on June 12, 1898, in Kawit, Cavite. Became President of the First Philippine Republic in
1899 under the Malolos Constitution — the first constitutional republic in Asia. Led resistance
during the Philippine-American (1899–1901). Capture and Later Life: Captured by American
forces on March 23, 1901, in Palanan, Isabela. Pledged allegiance to the U.S. and retired from
politics for a time. Returned to public life in later years and ran unsuccessfully for president in
1935, losing to Manuel L. Quezon. Became active in veteran affairs and nationalism. Death and
Legacy: Died, February 6, 1964, at age 94 — the longest-living president of the Philippines.
Honored for his role in achieving independence from Spain. Criticized for his handling of
Andres Bonifacio and actions during the Philippine-American War. Memorials and Honors:
Aguinaldo Shrine in Kawit is a national heritage site. Appears on the Philippine 5-peso coin
(older series). Streets, schools, and towns named in his honor.

Cry of Balintawak
The "Cry of Balintawak" (sometimes referred to as the "Cry of Pugad Lawin") marks the
beginning of the Philippine Revolution against Spanish colonial rule in August 1896. It is one of
the most significant events in Philippine history and symbolizes the Filipinos' open defiance
against centuries of Spanish oppression.​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
​ ​ ​
What Happened During the Cry of Balintawak?
The Cry refers to the moment when Filipino revolutionaries (Katipuneros), led by Andrés
Bonifacio, tore up their cedulas (residence certificates) as a sign of rebellion. This act was a
declaration that they no longer recognized Spanish authority. Date: Disputed, but often
commemorated on August 23, 1896. Place: Also debated—either Balintawak or *Pugad Lawin,”
both in the vicinity of present-day Quezon City. Leader: Andrés Bonifacio, founder of the
Katipunan, a secret revolutionary society. Significance Start of the Philippine Revolution: It
marked the shift from secret organizing to open armed struggle against Spain. Symbol of
Defiance: Tearing the cedulas symbolized a break from Spanish colonial control. Nationalism :
It united Filipinos from different regions in a common cause for independence. Historical
Debate: Historians have long debated : The exact location: Balintawak vs. Pugad Lawin. The
exact date: Ranges from August 20 to August 26. The nature of the event : Some argue it was a
meeting, others a spontaneous uprising. In Summary : The Cry of Balintawak was a defining
moment when Filipinos collectively said "enough" to colonial oppression. It wasn't just the start
of a revolution—it was the birth of a national identity built on resistance, bravery, and the dream
of independence.
2. José Rizal
The National Hero of the Philippines. Full Name: José Protacio Rizal Mercado y Alonzo
Realonda. Born: June 19, 1861, Calamba, Laguna, Philippines. Died: December 30, 1896
(executed by the Spanish colonial government in Manila) Profession: Ophthalmologist, writer,
reformist, and nationalist. Education and Skills: Studied at Ateneo Municipal and University of
Santo Tomas in Manila. Completed medical studies and further education in Spain, France and
Germany. Mastered over 22 languages including Spanish, German, French, and Japanese.
Also a skilled poet, sculptor, painter and scientist . Major Works 1. Noli Me Tangere (1887) – a
novel that exposed the abuses of Spanish friars and colonial authorities 2. El Filibusterismo
(1891) – a darker sequel pushing for social reform through revolution 3. Mi Último Adiós (My
Last Farewell) – a poem written the night before his execution, expressing love for his country
and hope for its freedom. Contributions to the Philippines : Advocated for peaceful reforms,
equal rights, and Filipino representation under Spanish rule. Inspired the Propaganda
Movement, a campaign for political reforms. His writings awakened national consciousness
among Filipinos and fueled the Philippine Revolution. Even though he did not support armed
revolution, his martyrdom united Filipinos in the struggle for independence. Martyrdom and
Legacy: Executed by firing squad at Bagumbayan (now Rizal Park) on December 30, 1896.
Widely regarded as the Philippines' National Hero for his intellect, patriotism, and
sacrifice.Honored in schools, monuments, currency, and national holidays. His life and works
remain essential in the fight for freedom, justice, and Filipino identity.

3. Andrés Bonifacio
One of the most prominent and heroic figures in Philippine history:Father of the
Philippine Revolution. Full Name: Andrés Bonifacio y de Castro. Born: November 30, 1863
Tondo, Manila, Philippines. Died: May 10, 1897 – Maragondon, Cavite (executed). Known for
founding and leading the Katipunan, a revolutionary movement against Spanish colonial rule.
Early Life : Came from a poor family and was orphaned young, forcing him to work early to
support his siblings. Worked as a messenger, clerk and bodeguero (warehouseman). Despite
limited formal education, he was self-taught and read works by Rizal, Victor Hugo, Alexander
Dumas, and other Enlightenment thinkers. Katipunan and the Revolution In 1892, after José
Rizal’s exile, Bonifacio founded the Kataas-taasan, Kagalang-galangang Katipunan ng mga
Anak ng Bayan (KKK), The Katipunan. The goal: complete independence of the Philippines
through armed revolution. Used the name Maypagasa in secret documents. The Katipunan
grew rapidly, with thousands of members across the country. In August 1896, the Cry of
Balintawak/Pugad Lawin marked the start of the Philippine Revolution Leadership and Conflict.
Bonifacio was known as the Supremo or Supreme Leader of the Katipunan. He led early attacks
against Spanish forces, including the Battle of San Juan del Monte. In 1897, during internal
disputes in Cavite, a rival faction (Magdalo) led by Emilio Aguinaldo sought leadership. At the
Tejeros Convention. Aguinaldo was elected president, and Bonifacio’s authority was questioned.
Bonifacio attempted to assert his legitimacy, but was arrested, tried for treason by Aguinaldo’s
men, and executed on May 10, 1897. Though he died at just 33 years old, Bonifacio’s courage
and leadership ignited the first national armed resistance against colonization. He is celebrated
as the “Father of the Philippine Revolution” and a symbol of bravery, justice, and nationalism.
Bonifacio Day is a national holiday celebrated every November 30. Monuments, schools,
streets, and cities across the country honor his name. Famous Quote:

“Aling pag-ibig pa ang hihigit kaya sa pagkadalisay at pagkadakila gaya ng pag-ibig sa

tinubuang lupa?” (“What love can be purer and greater than love for one's native land?”)

4. Apolinario Mabini
One of the greatest Filipino thinkers and heroes: The Sublime Paralytic, The Brain of the
Revolution. Full Name: Apolinario Mabini y Maranan. Born: July 23, 1864 – Tanauan, Batangas,
Philippines. Died: May 13, 1903 – Manila, Philippines. Known For: Chief adviser to President
Emilio Aguinaldo, intellectual leader of the Philippine Revolution. Early Life and Education :
Born to a poor family, yet showed great intelligence and discipline. Studied at the Colegio de
San Juan de Letran and University of Santo Tomas, earning a law degree. Became a lawyer,
writer, and political thinker. Known for his sharp mind, he advocated for justice, freedom, and
equality. Paralysis and Perseverance. In 1896, Mabini was struck by polio, which left him
paralyzed from the waist down. * Despite his disability, he continued to write and advise the
revolutionary government. Nicknamed "The Sublime Paralytic" due to his unwavering dedication
and brilliance despite physical limitations. Role in the Philippine Revolution : Became Emilio
Aguinaldo’s adviser and later, the first Prime Minister of the revolutionary government. Authored
key documents like: “True Decalogue” (1898) – moral and civic guide for Filipinos. The
Constitution of the First Philippine Republic. Strongly opposed any compromise with the United
States after they took control of the Philippines following the Spanish-American War. Advocated
for full independence, not American annexation. Exile and Death : Captured by American
forces in 1901 for refusing to swear allegiance to the U.S. Exiled to Guam for two years.
Returned to the Philippines in 1903 but died shortly after from cholera, likely from contaminated
water. Legacy : Remembered as one of the most brilliant minds of the Philippine Revolution
Symbol of intellectual courage, moral integrity and nationalism. His writings remain a powerful
guide for ethical leadership and citizenship. Honored on the P10 coin, monuments, schools, and
a university (Apolinario Mabini Award and Polytechnic University of the Philippines - Mabini
Campus).Famous Quote:

*“A man who does not know how to look back at where he came from will never get to his
destination.”*

5. Sultan Kudarat
One of the greatest Muslim leaders in Philippine history.The Defender of Mindanao,
Sultan of Maguindanao (1619–1671). Full Name: Muhammad Dipatuan Kudarat. Born: 1581
(exact date unknown), in what is now Maguindanao. Died: 1671. Known For: Uniting Muslim
tribes in Mindanao and successfully resisting Spanish colonization. Early Life : Sultan Kudarat
was born into a powerful ruling family of the Maguindanao Sultanate, an Islamic kingdom in
Mindanao. From a young age, he showed strong leadership skills and a deep understanding of
both Islamic governance and military strategy. Rise to Power : He became Sultan of
Maguindanao in 1619, succeeding his father, Sultan Laut Buisan. During his reign, he united the
various Muslim tribes of Mindanao, strengthening their resistance against Spanish expansion
into the south. The Spanish attempted to colonize Mindanao and convert its people to
Christianity, as they had in Luzon and Visayas. Sultan Kudarat firmly resisted, leading
successful military campaigns against the Spanish and their allies. He encouraged unity among
the Moro people (Muslims of Mindanao) to protect their land, religion, and sovereignty.

Famous Quote (addressing his people):

“Do not be like the chicken who, when hit, runs away and hides in the bushes. Be like the
honeybee that defends its hive.”

Leadership and Diplomacy : Aside from military strength, Kudarat was known for his diplomatic
skills, He formed alliances with other sultanates such as Sulu and even with foreign traders. His
leadership ensured that Islamic culture and independence were preserved in Mindanao for
many years.Legacy : Sultan Kudarat is honored as one of the greatest Filipino Muslim leaders
who resisted colonization. A province in Mindanao is named after him: Sultan Kudarat
Province. Statues and monuments have been built in his honor, especially in Mindanao.
Recognized by historians as a symbol of Filipino resistance, unity, and pride, especially among
the Moro people. Significance : National Hero (Mindanao) : Though not always highlighted in
mainstream Philippine history books, he remains a hero in Muslim Mindanao and is gaining
more national recognition. He proved that Filipino resistance to colonization wasn't limited to the
Tagalog revolutionaries. Muslim Filipinos were fighting for their freedom centuries earlier.

6. Marcelo H. del Pilar

One of the leading figures of the Philippine reform movement : “Father of Philippine
Journalism,” Full Name: Marcelo Hilario del Pilar y Gatmaitán. Born: August 30, 1850 – Cupang,
Bulacan (now Barangay San Nicolas, Bulakan, Bulacan).Died: July 4, 1896 – Barcelona, Spain.
Known For: Reformist writer, lawyer, editor of La Solidaridad, and propagandist. Pen Names:
Plaridel, Dolores Manapat, Piping Dilat. Early Life and Education : Came from a well-educated
and prominent family. Studied at Colegio de San José and earned a law degree at the University
of Santo Tomas. Became a lawyer, writer, and editor, focusing on injustices by the Spanish
colonial government and friars. Contributions to the Propaganda Movement : One of the key
leaders of the Propaganda Movement that advocated for peaceful reforms in the Philippines.
Used his writing to criticize the abuses of the Spanish friars, injustice, and lack of Filipino
representation. Founded Diariong Tagalog, one of the first nationalist newspapers in the
Philippines. Went to Spain in 1888 to escape persecution and continue the reformist movement
abroad La Solidaridad. Became editor-in-chief of La Solidaridad in 1889, succeeding Graciano
López Jaena La Solidaridad was the official publication of the Filipino reformists in Europe.Del
Pilar’s leadership made the publication a powerful voice for: Representation of Filipinos in the
Spanish Cortes, Secularization of Philippine parishes, Equal rights for Filipinos, Press
freedom and civil liberties. Struggles and Death : Lived in poverty while in exile in Barcelona,
Spain. Continued writing and fighting for reforms despite illness and financial hardship. Died of
tuberculosis on July 4, 1896, just months before the Philippine Revolution began. Wished to
return home, but died alone and far from his country. Legacy: Remembered as a brilliant writer,
patriot, and reformist. Known as the "Father of Philippine Journalism," for his fearless and
powerful articles. One of the great minds of the Propaganda Movement alongside José Rizal,
Graciano López Jaena, and Antonio Luna. His writings and advocacy laid the intellectual
groundwork for the eventual Philippine Revolution. Famous Quote:

*“Kailan ma’y hindi mawawala ang katwiran at katwiran ng taong naglilingkod sa kanyang
bayan.”* (“The reason and the righteousness of a person serving his country will never
disappear.”)

Marcelo H. del Pilar Day is celebrated in Bulacan every August 30. Honored with monuments,
schools, and streets named after him. Featured on Philippine currency and commemorated as a
national hero.

7. Gabriela Silang
One of the most iconic Filipina revolutionaries:“The Joan of Arc of the Philippines.” First
Filipina to lead a revolt against Spanish colonizers.Full Name: María Josefa Gabriela Cariño
Silang.Born: March 19, 1731 – Santa, Ilocos Sur, Philippines. Died: September 20, 1763 –
Vigan, Ilocos Sur (executed by the Spanish). Known For: Leading an armed resistance against
Spanish colonial forces after her husband’s death. Early Life : Born to an Ilocano mother and a
Spanish-Ilocano father. Grew up in the Spanish-controlled province of Ilocos was first married
to a wealthy man, but became widowed early. Later married Diego Silang, a revolutionary leader
fighting for Ilocano autonomy from Spain, joining the Revolt. When Diego Silang was
assassinated in 1763 by pro-Spanish allies, Gabriela took up his cause. She assumed
leadership of the revolutionary movement. Led Filipino troops in battles against Spanish forces
in Northern Luzon, particularly in Ilocos Military Leadership. Known for her bravery, strategic
skill, and charisma. Wore traditional warrior clothing and rode on horseback into battle. Became
a symbol of courage and defiance for both women and men. Despite limited weapons, her
forces managed to capture several towns temporarily. Capture and execution her army was
eventually overpowered by the better-armed Spanish colonial forces. Gabriela and her followers
were captured in Vigan. On September 20, 1763, she was publicly executed by hanging, just six
months after Diego’s death. She was only 32 years old. Legacy: Gabriela Silang is honored as a
national heroine. A symbol of Filipina strength, resistance, and leadership. The women’s rights
group “GABRIELA” (General Assembly Binding Women for Reforms, Integrity, Equality,
Leadership, and Action) is named in her honor. Statues and schools across the country are
dedicated to her memory. Her life shows that women played crucial roles in Philippine
resistance movements. Famous Legacy Theme : “If men fall, women must take their place.”
8. Melchora Aquino
A beloved heroine of the Philippines: She became known as “Tandang Sora” (because
of her old age during the Philippine Revolution).Full Name: Melchora Aquino de Ramos. Born:
January 6, 1812 – Balintawak, Caloocan, Philippines. Died: March 2, 1919 – Quezon City,
Philippines. Known For: Supporting the Katipunan by providing food, shelter, and care to
revolutionaries; known as the “Mother of the Katipunan.”Early Life : Born to a modest family of
farmers. Despite having no formal education, she was taught to read and write and was known
for her wisdom and kindness. Married Fulgencio Ramos, with whom she had six children;
widowed at a young age. She supported her family by running a small business and managing
their farm. Role in the Philippine Revolution : When the Philippine Revolution against Spain
broke out in 1896, Melchora Aquino was already 84 years old. She opened her home in
Balintawak to the Katipuneros (revolutionary fighters). Provided food, medical aid, and shelter to
wounded and tired revolutionaries. Hosted secret meetings of the Katipunan, led by Andrés
Bonifacio. Her courage and maternal care earned her the titles: “Mother of the Katipunan” and
“Grand Woman of the Revolution” Arrest and Exile : The Spanish authorities discovered her
support for the revolutionaries. She was arrested and interrogated, but refused to give
information about the Katipunan. As punishment, she was exiled to Guam in 1897, where she
stayed until her return after the end of Spanish rule. Later Life and Legacy : Returned to the
Philippines in 1903. Lived a peaceful life until her death at the age of 107 in 1919. She is
remembered as a symbol of selfless patriotism, especially for older citizens and women.
Tandang Sora Avenue and several schools and monuments are named in her honor. Her
remains are now enshrined in Tandang Sora Shrine in Quezon City. Legacy Quote: “Even the
elderly can serve their country.”Significance : She showed that supporting a revolution does not
always require fighting—care, compassion, and courage can be just as powerful. “A true Filipina
hero*, honored on coins, textbooks, and public places. A reminder that age is never a limit when
it comes to patriotism.

9. Emilio Aguinaldo
A key figure in Philippine history : First President of the Philippines. Revolutionary
Leader and Statesman. Full Name: Emilio Famy Aguinaldo y Famy. Born: March 22, 1869 –
Kawit, Cavite, Philippines. Died: February 6, 1964 – Quezon City, Philippines. Known For :
Leading the Philippine Revolution, first President of the Philippine Republic. Early Life : Born
into a wealthy family in Cavite. Educated in local schools and studied Spanish, history, and
politics. At a young age, he became involved in local politics and eventually joined the
Katipunan, the secret society fighting for independence from Spain. Role in the Philippine
Revolution : Became a prominent leader in Cavite and was elected President of the Katipunan's
local government. Led successful military campaigns against Spanish forces in Cavite. After the
Tejeros Convention in 1897, he was elected the *President of the revolutionary government,”
replacing Andrés Bonifacio. Declared Philippine independence on June 12, 1898, in Kawit,
Cavite, waving the Philippine flag for the first time.
First Philippine Republic Proclaimed as the first President of the Philippines in 1899. Oversaw
the drafting of the Malolos Constitution, the first constitution of the Philippines. His government
was the first attempt to establish a Philippine nation-state.Philippine-American War and Later
Life : Faced the challenge of the *Philippine-American War* after the United States took control
of the Philippines from Spain. Led Filipino forces against the Americans but was eventually
captured in 1901 * After his capture, he pledged allegiance to the United States. Later involved
in politics during the American colonial period. Served in various government roles and
remained active in public life until his death at age 94. Legacy : Recognized as the first
President of the Philippines and a symbol of Filipino nationalism and independence.
Controversial Figure: some criticize his role in the execution of Andrés Bonifacio and his
eventual cooperation with the Americans. Remembered for his leadership during a critical time
in Philippine history. His birthday, March 22, is commemorated in his hometown, Kawit, Cavite
Monuments, streets, and schools bear his name nationwide. Famous Quote: “Filipino is worth
dying for.”

10. Macario Sakay

​ One of the last Filipino revolutionaries who fought for genuine independence : “The
Last Filipino Revolutionary,” General and President of the Tagalog Republic.” Full Name :
Macario Sakay y de León. Born: 1870 – Tondo, Manila, Philippines. Died:September 13, 1907 –
Manila, Philippines (executed). Known For : Leading continued resistance against American
colonizers after the official end of the Philippine-American War. Early Life : Born in Tondo,
Manila, to a poor family. Worked as a laborer and later joined the Katipunan during the
Philippine Revolution against Spain. Fought alongside Andrés Bonifacio and other Filipino
revolutionaries. Resistance Against the Americans : After Spain ceded the Philippines to the
United States in 1898, Filipino revolutionaries continued fighting for independence Sakay
refused to surrender when the official Philippine Republic fell in 1901, Formed the Tagalog
Republic* in 1902, proclaiming himself as president. Continued guerrilla warfare against
American forces in the mountains of Southern Luzon. Struggles and Capture : His resistance
was considered a threat by the Americans. In 1906, he was promised amnesty if he would
surrender and hold a theatrical play to declare the end of the rebellion. Sakay was tricked,
arrested, and imprisoned. He was tried and executed by hanging on September 13, 1907, in
Manila.Legacy : Remembered as a hero who never gave up the fight for true independence. A
symbol of Filipino nationalism and perseverance despite overwhelming odds, Streets and
schools are named after him. His story highlights the continuing Filipino struggle beyond the
official end of the revolution. Famous Quote: “Freedom is worth dying for.”

11. Graciano López Jaena

A key figure in the Philippine reform movement : “The Great Orator of the Propaganda
Movement.” Founder and Editor of La Solidaridad. Full Name: Graciano López Jaena y
Florencio. Born: December 18, 1856 – Jaro, Iloilo, Philippines. Died: January 20, 1896 –
Barcelona, Spain. Known For : Journalist, orator, and leader in the fight for Philippine reforms
under Spanish rule. Early Life and Education : Born to a poor family in Iloilo, Studied at the
University of Santo Tomas in Manila, pursuing medicine but did not finish due to financial
problems. Became a skilled orator and writer, inspiring others with his speeches and articles.
Role in the Propaganda Movement : In 1889, he went to Spain and became one of the leading
figures of the Propaganda Movement. Founded La Solidaridad, the official newspaper of Filipino
reformists in Spain, advocating for: Political reforms, Equality before the law, Secularization of
the clergy, Representation of Filipinos in the Spanish Cortes (parliament). Contributions Known
for his fiery speeches and persuasive writing. Inspired Filipinos to push for reforms through
peaceful means. Used his pen name Diego Laura in some writings. Worked alongside other
reformists such as José Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar, and Mariano Ponce. Death and Legacy :
Suffered from tuberculosis and died young at the age of 39 in Barcelona. Remembered as a
passionate voice for justice and Filipino rights. Inspired future revolutionaries with his courage
and commitment to change. Honored with monuments and historical markers in Iloilo and other
parts of the Philippines. Famous Quote : “Our country will rise again, as the sun always rises
after the darkest night.”

12. Juan Luna

One of the Philippines’ most celebrated artists and patriots: Juan Luna y Novicio. Master
Painter and Filipino Nationalist. Born: October 23, 1857 – Badoc, Ilocos Norte, Philippines.
Died: December 7, 1899 – Manila, Philippines. Known For: Being a leading Filipino painter and
an active participant in the Propaganda Movement. Early Life and Education : From a cultured
Ilocano family, Studied at the Ateneo Municipal de Manila and later at the Academia de Bellas
Artes in Manila. Continued his art studies in Madrid, Spain and Paris, France—the art capitals of
Europe. Artistic Achievements Famous for his historical and patriotic paintings Most renowned
work: “Spoliarium” (1884), a dramatic painting depicting dying gladiators being dragged from the
arena “Spoliarium” won the First Gold Medal at the Exposición Nacional de Bellas Artes in
Madrid in 1884. His art symbolized the *Filipino struggle* against oppression and inspired
national pride. Role in the Reform Movement Active member of the Propaganda Movement
alongside José Rizal and Marcelo del Pilar. Used his fame and art to promote Filipino
nationalism and reform. Supported the La Solidaridad newspaper through his works and
connections. Later Life and Legacy : Despite personal tragedies and political turmoil, Luna
remained a symbol of Filipino talent and patriotism.His works are displayed in museums
worldwide and remain important cultural treasures in the Philippines. Remembered as a pioneer
who helped place Filipino art on the international stage.Famous Quote : “The artist’s work is to
stir the soul of the people.”
13. General Antonio Luna
​ One of the most brilliant military leaders in Philippine history : “The Fiery General”
Filipino Revolutionary and Military Strategist. Full Name: Antonio Narciso Luna de San Pedro y
Novicio Ancheta. Born: October 29, 1866 – San Nicolas, Manila, Philippines. Died: June 5, 1899
– Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija, Philippines. Known For : Brilliant military leadership during the
Philippine-American War and his fiery temperament. Early Life and Education : Born into a
cultured family; brother of painter Juan Luna Studied pharmacy and chemistry at the University
of Santo Tomas and later in Spain. Earned a doctorate in pharmacy in Spain. Also trained in
military science, which later helped him become a top general. Role in the Revolution : Joined
the Philippine Revolution against Spain, then fought in the Philippine-American War. Appointed
as Chief of War Operations for the Philippine Republic under President Emilio Aguinaldo.
Known for his discipline, strictness, and tactical genius. Organized and trained the Philippine
Revolutionary Army, creating better defensive strategies against American forces. Advocated for
modern military tactics and organization. Nicknamed : “The Fiery General” due to his passionate
and often stern leadership style. Known to be strict with his officers and soldiers to maintain
discipline. Clashed with some politicians and leaders, which eventually led to conflicts within the
revolutionary government. Death : Assassinated on June 5, 1899, in Cabanatuan by soldiers
allegedly loyal to political rivals. His death was a major blow to the Filipino resistance against
American colonization. Legacy : Remembered as one of the greatest Filipino military geniuses
and a symbol of patriotism. Honored in various monuments, schools, and military camps in the
Philippines. His life and leadership inspired many, and he is considered a national hero. Subject
of films, books, and documentaries highlighting his contributions and tragic death. Famous
Quote: “The youth is the hope of our future.” — a call to inspire future generations.
 Filipino Cultural Heritage
Filipino Cultural Heritage is the legacy of physical objects, customs, beliefs, artistic
expressions and practices that a community inherits from past generations and shares
with future generations.
Traditional Practices and Beliefs. The Philippines has a mix of indigenous, Asian, Spanish,
and American influences. Many customs are rooted in indigenous animism, with respect for
nature, spirits, and ancestors.
1.Bayanihan: The spirit of communal unity and cooperation, like neighbors helping each other
2.Fiestas: Celebrations honoring patron saints, blending Catholic and local traditions with music
and dance.
3.Architecture and Houses : > Bahay Kubo : Traditional Filipino stilt house made of bamboo
and nipa palm, designed for tropical climate. > Bahay na Bato : Spanish colonial houses
combining stone foundations and wooden upper floors.
4.Arts and Crafts : > Weaving: Indigenous groups produce beautiful textiles like the Inabel of
Ilocos and T'nalak of Mindanao.> Pottery and Basketry: Functional and decorative crafts using
local materials.
5.Traditional Music and Dance : Instruments like the kulintang (gong ensemble), rondalla
(string ensemble), and dances such as tinikling and singkil.
6.Painting and Sculpture : Influenced by indigenous and colonial traditions.
7.Cuisine : A fusion of indigenous, Malay, Spanish, Chinese, and American flavors. Popular
dishes include adobo, sinigang, lechon, pancit, and halo-halo. Food is an important part of
family gatherings and celebrations.
8.Language and Literature : The Philippines has over 170 languages and dialects, with
Filipino and English as official languages. Oral traditions include folk tales, epics, riddles, and
proverbs.
9.Religion and Spirituality : Predominantly Roman Catholic due to Spanish colonization
Indigenous beliefs and practices coexist, such as belief in anitos (spirits) and folk healers
(albularyos). Festivals often blend religious devotion with cultural expression.
10.Festivals and Celebrations : Celebrations like Sinulog (Cebu), Ati-Atihan (Aklan), Pahiyas
(Quezon), and Panagbenga (Baguio) showcase music, dance, and colorful costumes. Reflect
deep community ties, history, and faith.
11.Cultural Values : > Respect for elders (Mano po), > Family-orientedness: Family is central to
Filipino life, > Hospitality : Known worldwide for warm and generous hosting of guests,
12.Resilience and optimism despite challenges.

Cultural heritage provides a sense of identity and community for a group of people. It helps to
connect the past with the present and future, allowing for the transmission of values, beliefs and
lifestyles across generations.
 FILIPINO - AMERICAN RELATIONS
U.S.- Philippines relations are multifaceted, built on a strong alliance, historical and cultural ties,
rooted in shared democratic values from the U.S. colonial rule and World War 2, and significant
people-to-people connections, particularly the large Filipino American.

A. Key Aspects of the Relationship :

1.Alliance and Security -

The two countries share a Mutual Defense Treaty, supplemented by the Visiting Forces
Agreement and the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement. The Philippines is a major
recipient of U.S. military assistance in the Indo-Pacific region.
2. Economic Ties -
The United States is a significant trading partner and investor for the Philippines, with strong
trade and investment flows between the two countries, according to the Embassy of the
Republic of the Philippines.
3.Development Assistance -
The U.S. has provided significant development assistance to the Philippines through
organizations like USAID, focusing on areas like disaster relief, economic growth, and good
governance.
4. People-to-People Connections -
Over four million Filipino Americans reside in the U.S., and a significant number of U.S. citizens
live in the Philippines, fostering close people-to-people ties.
5.Historical Context -
U.S. colonial administration of the Philippines has shaped the relationship, creating both strong
bonds and, for some, a degree of wariness.
> Colonial Rule - The U.S. governed the Philippines from 1898 until granting it independence in
1946. This period saw the establishment of a public school system, which fostered shared
linguistic and cultural connections.
> Post-Independence - The U.S. and the Philippines established diplomatic relations in 1946
and solidified their alliance with the Mutual Defence Treaty.

B. Areas of Cooperation and Potential Challenges :

1. South China Sea -

The Philippines relies on U.S. support in addressing maritime security concerns in the South
China Sea.
2. Counterterrorism -
The U.S. has partnered with the Philippines in addressing separatist movements and other
security challenges.
3. COVID-19 Response -
The U.S. has provided significant COVID-19 assistance to the Philippines, including vaccine
donations.

4. Potential for Divergence -

While the relationship is strong, there can be occasional differences in foreign policy priorities or
approaches, as seen in past shifts in the Philippines' stance towards China.
 Government Peace Treaties with Muslim Filipinos
Focusing on key agreements between the Philippine government and Muslim groups
seeking peace and autonomy: Background: The Muslim Filipinos (also known as Moros)
primarily live in the southern region of the Philippines called Mindanao and the Sulu
Archipelago. For centuries, Muslim Filipinos resisted Spanish, American, and later Philippine
government control, seeking to preserve their culture, religion (Islam), and political autonomy.
Armed conflicts and rebellions have occurred due to demands for self-rule and recognition of
ancestral domains.

Major Peace Treaties and Agreements

1.Tripoli Agreement (1976) - Signed between the Philippine government and the Moro
National Liberation Front (MNLF). It aimed to establish an autonomous region for Muslim
Filipinos in Mindanao. * The agreement led to the creation of the Autonomous Region in Muslim
Mindanao (ARMM) in 1989. However, implementation faced challenges and some rebel groups
rejected it.
2. Final Peace Agreement (1996) - Signed between the Philippine government and the MNLF
under President Fidel V. Ramos. Confirmed the establishment of the ARMM and promised
more autonomy and development programs. Helped reduce violence but did not end all conflict.
3. Comprehensive Agreement on the Bangsamoro (2014) - Signed between the Philippine
government and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), a breakaway group from the MNLF.
Established a new political entity called the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim
Mindanao (BARMM) to replace the ARMM. BARMM has greater self-governing powers, control
over natural resources, and its own justice system based on Islamic law.
4. Bangsamoro Organic Law (2018) - Passed by the Philippine Congress to implement the
2014 peace agreement. Created the legal framework for the BARMM. Supported by a plebiscite
where the majority of voters in Muslim Mindanao approved the new autonomous region.

Significance of These Treaties - These peace treaties aim to:

➔​ End decades of armed conflict

➔​ Recognize the cultural and religious identity of Muslim Filipinos
➔​ Promote political autonomy and development in Mindanao
➔​ Foster lasting peace and stability in the region

While challenges remain, these agreements represent major steps toward peace and inclusive
nation-building. ​
Institutional Histories of Schools -
1. University of Santo Tomas (UST) - Founded in 1611 by Spanish Dominican priests in
Manila. Oldest existing university in Asia and one of the oldest Catholic universities in the world.
Played a major role in Philippine education, producing national heroes like José Rizal and other
prominent Filipinos. Known for its academic excellence and historical significance during
Spanish, American, and modern periods. 2.
Ateneo de Manila University - Founded in 1859 by the Jesuits in Manila. Initially a school for
boys, now a prestigious university offering various academic programs. Has been influential in
shaping Filipino leaders, writers, and intellectuals. Known for its emphasis on liberal arts,
leadership, and social justice.
3. Philippine Normal University (PNU) - Established in 1901 as the first normal school during
the American colonial period. Focused on training teachers to support the new public education
system introduced by the Americans. Continues to be a leading institution for teacher education
in the Philippines.

Institutional Histories of Industries -

1. Philippine Sugar Industry - Dates back to the Spanish colonial period with the
establishment of haciendas (sugar plantations). Became a major export commodity under
American rule in the early 20th century.The industry shaped social structures in places like
Negros Occidental. Still a significant contributor to the Philippine economy.
2. Philippine Coconut Industry - Philippines is one of the world’s top producers of coconuts
and coconut products. Coconut farming and processing became vital during American
occupation and continued through modern times. Supports millions of farmers and provides raw
materials for many products like oil, copra, and coir.
3. Philippine Mining Industry - Mining activities date back to pre-colonial times, but modern
mining expanded during the American period. Minerals like gold, copper, and nickel are major
exports. Mining has economic benefits but also environmental and social challenges.

Institutional Histories of Religious Groups -

1. Roman Catholic Church - Introduced by Spanish colonizers in the 16th century. Became
the dominant religion and a major social, political, and cultural force in the Philippines.
Responsible for building churches, schools, and hospitals. Played significant roles in historical
events like the Philippine Revolution and People Power Revolution.
2. Iglesia ni Cristo (INC) - Founded in 1914 by Felix Manalo in the Philippines. A homegrown
Christian church known for its centralized organization and large following. Influential in social
and political spheres within the country.
3. Islam in the Philippines - Islam arrived in the southern Philippines in the 14th century
through traders and missionaries. The Sultanates of Sulu and Maguindanao were powerful
Islamic states before Spanish colonization. Islam remains a major religion in Mindanao, with
efforts to preserve its cultural and religious traditions ​
Critical Evaluation And Promotion
Overview of key aspects of Filipino local history and culture, including museums,
shrines, cultural performances, indigenous practices, and religious rites:

1. Local History / Critical Evaluation - Local histories often suffer from limited documentation
and preservation efforts, leading to gaps or biases in the narrative. Sometimes overshadowed
by national history, which focuses on prominent figures and events, local histories can offer a
more nuanced and diverse understanding of Filipino identity. Efforts to digitize and archive oral
histories and regional narratives are growing but need more support. Promotion:
Encourage local historians and communities to document their unique histories. Support local
museums and heritage societies to showcase these stories. Integrate local history in school
curricula and community programs. 2.
Museums / Critical Evaluation - Museums in the Philippines face challenges like funding,
modern facilities, and curatorial expertise. Some museums focus heavily on colonial and
nationalistic narratives, sometimes neglecting indigenous and marginalized perspectives.
Accessibility and promotion are limited outside major cities.
Promotion: Invest in modernizing museums and training staff. Promote inclusive exhibits that
represent diverse Filipino cultures and histories. Encourage community participation and
partnerships with indigenous groups. Use digital platforms for wider reach.
3. Historical Shrines and Monuments / Critical Evaluation - Many historical shrines are
poorly maintained or under threat due to urban development. Some monuments emphasize
colonial or elite figures, lacking representation of grassroots heroes and events. Public
awareness about the significance of these sites can be low.
Promotion: Government and private sectors should fund restoration and preservation.
Promote heritage tourism highlighting historical sites. Educational campaigns to raise public
appreciation.
4. Cultural Performances / Critical Evaluation - Traditional dances, music, and theater
sometimes risk commercialization or loss of authenticity. Younger generations may show
declining interest without active cultural education. Performances are often limited to festivals,
lacking year-round exposure.
Promotion: Support cultural groups and schools in teaching and performing traditional arts. *
Use media and social platforms to showcase performances globally. * Encourage fusion projects
that blend tradition with contemporary art to engage youth.
5. Indigenous Practices / Critical Evaluation - Indigenous cultures face threats from
modernization, land conflicts, and marginalization. Many practices are endangered due to loss
of elders and oral transmission.There is often a gap between government policies and actual
protection of indigenous rights.
Promotion: Strengthen legal protection of indigenous lands and cultural rights. Fund programs
that document and revitalize languages, crafts, and rituals. Promote respectful cultural tourism
that benefits indigenous communities. 6.
Religious Rites and Rituals / Critical Evaluation - Religious rites often blend indigenous
beliefs and Christianity, forming unique Filipino spirituality. Some rituals face misunderstanding
or stigma in mainstream society. Preservation is threatened by modernization and decreasing
participation. Promotion: Encourage respectful interfaith and intercultural dialogue. Document
and archive rites with community consent. Highlight the cultural and spiritual importance of
these practices in education and tourism.

Overall Promotion Strategies Community Involvement - Engage local communities as

custodians and storytellers of their own heritage.
>Education: Integrate heritage education at all levels to foster pride and awareness.
>Government Support: Increase funding, enact protective laws, and promote heritage tourism
responsibly.
>Sustainable Tourism: Develop cultural tourism that respects and benefits local people and
environments.