UNIT 1 HISTORY OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

Comparative education is a field of study that emphasizes the provision of organised

learning activities across international and intercultural boundaries and employs
comparative study methods. Comparative education is a well-established academic field
that examines education in a country or group of countries by employing data and insights
derived from the practises and circumstances of another country or countries.

What is Comparative Education?

Comparative education is a field of study that focuses on the delivery of

structured learning activities across international and intercultural boundaries and employs
comparative methods of study. Comparative education is a well-established academic field
that examines education in one country or a group of countries by employing data and
insights derived from the practises and circumstances of another country or countries.

Comparative education has four purposes:

• To characterize educational systems, procedures, or outcomes.

• To support the growth of educational institutions and methods.
• To demonstrate the connections between education and society.
• To establish statements about education that may be applicable in multiple nations.

Kidd (1975) provides the following detailed list of purposes. According to Kidd the most
common goals for engaging in comparative education are:

• To become more knowledgeable about the educational systems of other nations;

• By means of education, to become more knowledgeable about how people from
other cultures have performed certain social functions;
• To become more knowledgeable about the historical origins of specific activities
and to use this knowledge to formulate criteria for evaluating contemporary
development and testing potential outcomes.
 • To gain a deeper comprehension of the educational forms and systems in one's own
country;
• To satisfy a curiosity about how other humans live and learn;

The Meaning of Comparative Education

Humans have a natural tendency to compare the things in their immediate

environment, especially when they exist in different locations. This may occur due to
man's desire to understand the relationship between or among the objects being
compared. When a man must choose between two alternatives, he may also engage in this
type of enterprise.

The concept of comparison is not exclusive to those in the education industry.

Children compare their parents at home and elsewhere because one of them may be more
affectionate than the other. Additionally, schoolchildren compare their teachers, especially
when the teachers are absent. The parents can make moral and academic comparisons
between their children.

Whenever we have two or more things at the same time, we can compare them in
order to gain a better understanding of their relationship or to make a more informed
decision. Comparative education, like other concepts, is susceptible to diverse
interpretations or definitions. In other words, there are the same number of definitions as
Educational Comparativists. Adeyinka (1994) provides the following concept definitions:

• A comparison of at least two educational systems

• A study of how the philosophy, objectives and goals, policy and practise of
education in other nations affect the general development, policy and practise
of education in a specific nation.
• A study of how the evolution of education throughout the ages and continents
has influenced the evolution of education in specific nations.
• An examination of the school systems of two or more nations, as well as the
administrative apparatuses established to implement or supervise the
implementation of government policies at various levels of education systems.
 Definition of Comparative Education

Many comparative education scholars do not appear to agree on a single definition

of the field. Nevertheless, there is widespread agreement that a good definition of the
comparative discipline should include at least the study's content, methodology, and
purpose. In this regard, we examine some widely accepted definitions within the field
of comparative education:

• Nicholas Hans, (1958): defines comparative education as a step-by-step study

of different and often contrasting educational systems with a view of
understanding their differences and similarities.
• E.H. Epstein, (1995): defines comparative education as a field of study that
applies historical, philosophical and social science theories and methods to
international problems in education.
• Vernon Mallinson, (1975): defines comparative education as the analytical
study of factors that influence the development of education in historical and
comparative perspectives to identify the principles upon which solutions to
educational problems are based.
• Fraser and Brickman, (1968): they defined comparative education as the
analysis of educational systems and problems of social, political, economic,
cultural, ideological and other contents in order to understand the factors
underlying similarities and differences in education in various countries.
• Beredy GZF, (1964): defines comparative education simply as the analytical
study of foreign education systems.

The Scope of Comparative Education

Evans (2013) has elaborated the scope of comparative education under following five
perspectives:

i. The subject matter and content; this covers the essential components of
educational systems such as structure, aims, content or curriculum,
administration, financing, teacher education.
 ii. Geographical units of study; these comprises intra-national, international,
regional, continental and global or world systems studies and analysis.

iii. Ideological scope; this compares countries' educational systems on the

basis of different political, social and economic ideologies. For example,
democratic, communism, socialist, capitalist, free market and mixed
economies.

iv. Thematic scope; this scope focuses on educational themes, topical issues
or problems and compares them within one or more geographical units.
For example free primary and secondary education, universal primary
education, education for all and universal higher education.

v. The historical or spatial scope; this deals with the study of the historical
development of the discipline from the earliest (pre-historic) phase
known as the period of Travelers' Tales to the modern phase known as
the period of social science perspectives.

So, it is apparent that the scope of comparative education could be viewed in the
following ways:

• First, there is the subject matter/content perspective, which encompasses

the essential components of educational systems, such as goals, content or
curriculum, administration, financing, and teacher education.

• The second perspective is the geographical unit/area study perspective,

which includes intranational, international, regional, continental, and
global or world system studies and analyses. Intranational studies involve
research conducted within a single nation. Multiple nations within a region
or continent may be involved in national studies.

• There is also the ideological approach, which compares the educational

systems of countries based on their divergent political, social, and
economic ideologies.
 • A country's national philosophy influences the type of education that is
provided. This can be further influenced by the manifestos of political
parties that promote a particular ideology. Socialism has been the
dominant ideology in socialist nations, which has had an effect on their
educational systems. In contrast, Western nations have utilised multiple
ideologies, such as pragmatism, nationalism, and democracy, to advance
their educational goals. The thematic scope compares themes, current
issues, and problems within one or more geographical units. This can be
achieved by analyzing and comprehending a timely issue in education.

• Finally, the special/historical scope examines the historical evolution of

education.

However, subjects from were Comparative Education draws its contents include the
following:

(a) History of Education

(b) Philosophy of Education

(c) Sociology of Education

(d) Anthropology

(e) Economics

(f) Geography

(g) Psychology

(h) Statistics

(i) Literature

(1) Political geography

(k) Political science and

(1) The International relations.

The above explanation clearly shows that the subject is not independent of other
subjects; it is a discipline that relates to other subjects for the accomplishment of its
aims and objectives. It may be reasonably concluded that the interdisciplinary nature of
the subject has contributed to the wideness of the discipline.

The Need of Comparative Education

Comparative education, like other subjects taught in educational institutions, is not

a meaningless subject. In other words, the subject has certain aims that it intends to
accomplish. Hans(1992) concludes that the primary purpose of comparative
education is the comparative analysis of these factors from a historical perspective and
the comparison of proposed solutions to the resulting problems. Mallinson (1975)
described the purpose of Comparative Education when he stated, "To become familiar
with what is being done in some countries... and why it is being done, is a necessary
part of the training of all students of educational issues of the Only in this way will they
be properly equipped to study and understand their own systems and plan intelligently
for the future, given the fundamental cultural changes that have occurred with such
astonishing rapidity throughout the centuries." From the preceding, it is clear that
Comparative Education helps students better comprehend their educational systems.

In his own contribution to the purpose of comparative education, Marc-Antoine

Jullien de Paris (1817) states, as cited in Hans (1992): The purpose of Comparative
Education is to perfect national systems with modifications and changes that the
circumstances and local conditions would require. Similar to other Education
Comparativists, the purpose stated above indicates that the study of Comparative
education contributes to the adaptability of a country's educational system.

Other reasons for Studying Comparative Education includes

• To facilitate comprehension of one's educational institutions and educational

practises.
• To aid in the comprehension of the factors responsible for diverse educational
changes.
• To educate students and instructors on the process by which educational change
occurs.
• To contribute not only to the educational development of society, but also to
its overall development.
• To serve as an academic field of study.
• To aid in the resolution of educational issues
• To expose oneself to the philosophies, theories, and educational practises of
other nations.
• To assist discipline students and teachers in locating credible information about
the educational system.
• To help promote international relations.
• To aid in the development of a country's educational systems.

Aims and Objectives of Comparative Education

According to Harold Noah (1985), and Farooq Joubish(2009), comparative

education has four objectives:
1. To describe educational systems, processes, or outcomes.
2. To assist in the development of educational institutions and practices.
3. To highlight the relationships between education and society.
4.To establish generalized statements about education those are valid in more
than one country.
Comparative education is often incorrectly assumed to exclusively
encompass studies that compare two or more different countries. In fact, since
its early days researchers in this field have often eschewed such approaches,
preferring rather to focus on comparisons within a single country over time.
Still, some large scale projects, such as the PISA and TIMSS studies, have made
important findings through explicitly comparative macro analysis of massive data
sets.
Uses of Comparative Education
• More Information: "Men study foreign educational systems purely out of a desire
to learn." The study of comparative education is primarily intellectually
motivated.
• By studying foreign educational systems, one would be able to comprehend his or
her own system better.
• 3. Greater Comparative Readiness The study of comparative education
contributes to the development of "Comparative Readiness."
• 4.More Information: The purpose of this research is to acquire encyclopaedic
knowledge regarding the educational systems and related issues of foreign nations.
• 5. Additional Borrowing: The study is used to investigate institutional
transplantation forms and practises. The study is undertaken for cultural
borrowing.
• The study is undertaken with the intention of reforming the individual's own
educational system.
• 7. Improved Leadership: The purpose of this study is to develop the ability to
exercise intelligent leadership in educational endeavours, based on knowledge of
both ends and means.
• The research may result in the development of universally applicable general
theories.
• The study is anticipated to result in the enrichment of education as a philosophy,
science, and cultural practise.
• 10.Discovering Differences: The study may permit us to discover the differences
in the forces and causes that produce differences in educational systems.
• 11. Global Perspective This study enables us to comprehend educational issues
from a global standpoint.
• Humanitarian Ideals: This study aids in advancing humanitarian ideals and
practises.
• 13. Predictions that can be relied upon: The study may enable us to make
accurate predictions about the solutions to the prevalent problems.
BRIEF HISTORY OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

• Comparative education is a well-established academic discipline that examines

education in one country (or group of countries) using data and insights gleaned
from the practises and circumstances of another country (or countries).
• Comparative education has experienced a "crisis of identity" regarding its boundaries
over the past century.
• Sadler emphasised the importance of considering the entire society when evaluating
educational systems, while Kandel clarified some of the objectives of comparative
education.
• Several authors, such as Harold J. Noah, helped to challenge and clarify comparative
theory in the mid- to late-20th century, as the field of comparative education
methodology emerged.
• In 1954, the School of Education at New York University initiated a conference
whose third meeting two years later, in 1956, led to the formation of the
Comparative Education Society.
• In 1968, the Comparative Education Society became The Comparative and
International Education Society (CIES).
• In Europe, the Comparative Education Society was founded in the 1960s, which led
to the publication of Comparative Education beginning in 1964.
• The World Council of Comparative Education Societies (WCCES) is a non-
governmental organisation affiliated with UNESCO that was founded in the late
1960s and held its first world council in 1970 with representatives from five
comparative education societies, including the United States, Europe, etc.
• The mission of the WCCES is to promote worldwide comparative and international
education research.

DETERMINANTS OF NATIONAL EDUCATION SYSTEM

A national education system is frequently defined in terms of the formal education

system. This comprises early childhood education, primary education, secondary
education, postsecondary education, and university education. The informal and non-
formal education subsets are frequently assumed to be a part of formal education, and if
they are not completely ignored, they receive minimal consideration. Nevertheless, it is
essential that the national educational system include all subsets of the educational system,
namely formal, informal, and non-formal education.

In light of this simple understanding of a national education system, it is essential to

recognise that, behind every system of education, there are factors or characteristics that
determine, influence, and thus shape each system. However, the national identity of a
given education system is never determined by a single factor, but rather by the
combination and interplay of multiple factors. In one system, certain factors are
predominate, whereas in another system, they would be less so. Therefore, national factors
of a country are closely associated with nationalism and the national education system. As
a result, in the study of comparative education, we must examine the factors that make
the education of a nation unique. Geographic, economic, social, cultural, historical,
religious, political, linguistic, and technological factors are included. In this chapter, we will
examine some of these factors.

Geographical Factors

Frequently, the geography of a particular location is natural, meaning that it has not
been shaped by humans. Man should act in accordance with geography and nature in
particular in this regard. In this regard, the geography of a region affects the school
system. In general, the geography of a region determines the type of school building and
equipment, the means and methods of transporting students to school, and the school-
going age of students, among other factors. However, there are three major geographical
factors that significantly impact the educational system. These include climate, population
distribution, and topography. Regarding climatic conditions, they influence the educational
system in terms of the content of education; for instance, medical training in the tropics is
likely to place a greater emphasis on tropical diseases such as malaria. Young children in
Europe are impeded in their ability to attend school by extremely low temperatures. The
morning and afternoon start and end times of schools are also influenced by the
temperature. In Norway, for example, the sun does not rise until ten o'clock in the
morning during the winter, and temperatures frequently drop to negative 20 degrees. Due
to the extreme temperatures, there are no infant schools or early childhood education
departments in some Scandinavian countries. The timing of school breaks is also affected
by climate. In North America and many European nations, school vacations occur during
the cold winter months, while in other nations they occur during the warm summer
months. In hot climates, particularly in arid and semiarid regions, learning frequently
occurs during the cool morning hours. Due to the excessive heat, there is little afternoon
learning when it is hot.

Regarding population distribution, which is frequently influenced by geographic

factors, the educational system is also affected. The majority of the world's population is
either concentrated in urban centres or dispersed in rural areas. Australia, for instance, has
two educational systems, one for urban and one for rural areas. There are well-equipped
schools with qualified instructors and administrators in urban areas. In rural areas, schools
are typically small, with one teacher per ten to forty students. This is due to the fact that
farms are located far from the nearest schools, making daily attendance difficult.
Therefore, their administration and financing are the responsibility of the central
government. Additionally, the government provides the means and organisation for
correspondence, tuition, and travelling teachers. As a result, the majority of students
receive their education via mail and are occasionally visited by travelling education
inspectors.

Regarding land configuration, this also influences the education system in terms of
architectural structure of farm houses, school buildings, village location, and also the entire
way of life and thinking of people due to the rigours of the climate; in some cases, due to
the closeness of family ties, boarding schools for children do not exist, except for the few
who come from distant and inaccessible places on a daily basis. Largely, the landform
determines the location of settlements and schools.

Economic Variables.

The type of education in a country is largely determined by its level of economic

development. The economic factor also determines the content and methodology of an
education system. It is crucial to note that formal education is frequently attainable in
regions where production exceeds consumption. In indigenous traditional education,
people were trained based on the community's economic conditions and needs. From an
economic standpoint, expenditure on education refers to the amount or proportion of
national revenue spent by both individuals and the government on education. In numerous
ways, education falls behind when the economy is weak. In contrast, if a nation's economy
is robust, educational objectives and the curriculum are given a special focus on making
the nation prosperous. In the United States and Japan, for instance, the education system
is structured to produce graduates who are independent and self-sufficient. In India,
college and university graduates do not know where to go after completing their
education, and the majority of students remain in school as long as possible to postpone
the educated-unemployed problem for a few years.

Richer classes are able to keep their children in school longer because they can
afford the costs. In a subsistence economy, that is, one in which people can barely make
ends meet, educational systems are typically informal and occur on the job. In contrast,
when there are sufficient grants in educational systems, minimum requirements are met,
and the quality of education is frequently high. For instance, the United Kingdom, France,
Japan, and the United States, as well as other countries with robust economies, provide
sufficient grants to their education systems; in fact, they have sufficient funds to support all
educational programmes within their education systems. In contrast to the situation in
developing countries, where a severe lack of funds affects even the payment of teachers'
salaries, essential resource materials such as textbooks are inadequate and, in some
instances, unavailable. As a result, this has a significant impact on the nature of
educational systems in terms of the content and methods utilised in learning institutions, as
well as the education system as a whole.

In this regard, the development of the capabilities of individual citizens and the
progress of the nation are crucial. In actuality, the education system should provide
opportunities for the maximum growth of each citizen. The objective is to ensure that the
nation's wealth is not concentrated in the hands of a few capitalists with a high level of
education. It is through the development of individuals that the nation's overall growth
can be ensured. In addition, there should be no distinctions based on social class in the
planning of education, as such distinctions result in the neglect of the education of more
capable citizens. If this occurs, it frequently leads to social disparities and ultimately
weakens the nation. Proper planning of the education system necessitates the establishment
of a proper national character; if this is lacking, the necessary leadership and cooperation
of the people will also be absent. The inability of the national education system to achieve
its goals due to a lack of national character. Therefore, with good leadership and the
cooperation of the populace, much can be accomplished even when adequate economic
resources are lacking. Thus, there is evidence to suggest that economic security and a
country's national education system are closely related.

The Social and Cultural Factor

Schools frequently and closely reflect the predominant social patterns in a country.
Consequently, the education system is commonly viewed as a social factor that must
reflect the values of the people it serves. In this regard, the primary objective of education
is to ensure cultural continuity by fostering the growth and development of national traits
that frequently serve as stabilising forces. The simplest definition of a society's culture is
the total way of life of the society. Every society consists of human beings, and wherever
they are, they always have an educational system of some kind. This form of the society's
education will always seek to perpetuate and safeguard its traditions and aspirations.
Consequently, a thorough examination and analysis of each educational system will always
reveal the cultural concept and pattern of the community in question. Also, the
educational system of a community or country reflects the social patterns of its
inhabitants.

It is essential to recognise that the culture of the people frequently changes slowly.
In each culture, there are certain values that are unaffected by time and place, such as
belief in God, respect for truth and nonviolence, and the ideal of universal motherhood
and justice. These values are shared by many cultures around the globe. As a result of
cultural lag, radical reforms in a society may be slowed or blocked at the level of
implementation. From the colonial period to the post-independence period, Africans have
been subjected to fundamental cultural costs, as evidenced by the numerous educational
reform initiatives. In many countries of the world today, the attitude of youth towards
their elders has changed; for instance, students no longer respect their teachers as they did
some twenty-five or thirty years ago. Additionally, teachers care more about salary
increases and other benefits than about teaching. In many teacher meetings, groupism,
backbiting, and salaries are discussed more than student welfare. In some circles, parents
and guardians no longer respect teachers as they once did. All of these are clear
indications that the relationships between parents and children, sisters and brothers,
husbands and wives, masters and servants, and many other social units have undergone
significant transformations. Thus, we have begun to abandon numerous antiquated
customs and practises and have adopted more liberal attitudes. As a result, time and place
have altered many aspects of culture, which is reflected in various ways in the educational
system.

A second perspective on cultural and social change is the reformatting of the

educational system to ensure equal educational opportunity for all. This has resulted in a
broadening of the school curriculum and a greater emphasis on the significance of the
appropriate technical education for the new technological era. As a result, the old
dichotomy between a liberal education and a technical education is gradually disappearing,
and the social distinctions that existed primarily as a result of this divide have become
irrelevant and have diminished over time. In this regard, it is essential to cultivate an
appreciation for one's own culture through the educational system, as this strengthens
nationalism. To make the nation strong and prosperous, it is necessary to foster a sense of
nationalism. There are various communities, classes, castes, and interests in each country,
but due to a lack of national pride, many people disregard national interests. In many
instances, minorities are suspicious of the majority, and this may also be true of the
majority in certain situations. This necessitates the adoption of a national education system
and the inculcation of an appreciation for the country's culture.

The Historical Factor

 Each nation in the world has a unique history that influences its goals, aspirations,
activities, and destiny. This is frequently reflected in the education system. Colonialism has
been a significant historical force that has shaped the education systems of many African
nations and others around the globe. For instance, the 1815 Berlin conference was known
as the scramble for Africa. At this conference, European powers distributed African
nations as if they were a cake. This resulted in the colonies having to adopt a large portion
of their colonial master's homeland, and to this day, aspects of their education are
reflected in their former colonies.

The missionary factor also significantly shaped the educational systems of the
majority of African nations. Christian missionaries from Britain, France, Holland,
Germany, Switzerland, and the United States, among others, have had a substantial impact
on the evolution of the education system in Africa. In this regard, the current educational
systems in many nations of Africa, Asia, North and South America are the direct result of
colonial influence. As a result, the majority of these countries' current educational
endeavours are largely the result of their heroic colonial past.

A second historical element is evident between historical periods in which attempts

were made to unite groups within close geographical boundaries, such as East Africa,
South Africa, West Africa, and North Africa. A closer examination of these groups reveals
similarities between their educational systems. On the other hand, there have historically
been struggles for the formation of national states, with each state desiring its own distinct
national identity. The national characteristics of these nations frequently reflect differences
in their educational systems. Consequently, the similarities and differences of education
systems throughout the world have a history.

Political Factor

Frequently, the political philosophy that guides the government of a nation

has an inevitable effect on education. The administration of the education system will be
determined by political considerations. In addition, they underpin the characteristics of the
educational system and its operation. The fundamental ideas of socialism as a political
philosophy, for instance, centred on the exploitation of labour by capital, which resulted in
class mass. As a political philosophy, socialism recognises property as the foundation of the
economic structure of the state, resulting in the concentration of civil and legal power in
the hands of the property owning class. Socialism advocates for the nationalisation of the
means of production; where owners of the means of production do not work and workers
who produce do not own anything. Education reform is the only means of altering such a
social order. This would be accomplished through a state-run mechanism with complete
control over education and curricula, requiring citizens to be educated by the state, for the
state, and in state-run institutions. In such instances, the specifics of the curriculum are
often determined by state authorities and involve the functional training of citizens. The
curriculum may also include scientific instruction for social application.

Mexico, Bulgaria, and Cuba are excellent examples of nations that have adopted a
socialist education system. Common characteristics of their education system include state
control monopoly, secularism, physical and military training, political indoctrination in and
out of school, and a greater emphasis on science subjects. Individual liberty and the
concept of tolerance are not tolerated in these nations. In contrast to these nations,
France's educational system is centralised and based on its political philosophy. In France,
the central government controls all matters pertaining to education from the centre
(metropolis). In the case of the United States and Japan, their educational systems are
highly decentralised and frequently based on the democratic influence and capitalist
political philosophy of these nations.

There is also a strong connection between the national character and the national
educational system. As a result of the democratic nature of the United States' national
identity, its educational system is largely democratic. A country's educational system is
influenced by nationalism as a political ideology. Nationalism can be defined as a
psychological feeling within a group that believes they share a common perspective and
traditions based on a myth of shared ancestry. These common ancestries, which include
race, language, religion, and territory, frequently strengthen national identity. The racial
aspect that is frequently a component of a nation's political ideology may play a significant
role in determining the characteristics of its educational system. The term "race" refers to
a tribe, nation, or group of nations. There are a variety of racial origins within the modern
population. The British colonial policy was predicated on the principle of decentralisation
and the formation of a commonwealth of nations, each of which was free to develop its
own culture and national identity. Consequently, there is a close relationship between
national character and national system of education, and the former has been universally
acknowledged as an essential component of national system of education. Thus, a
country's educational programme is closely tied to its political system.

Linguistic Factor

Multiple languages may be spoken in a country, but only one can be designated as
the official language. In each nation, the national language holds a special place. In
addition, each government endeavours to ensure that every citizen is able to communicate
in the national language. No nation can be considered strong without its own national
language.

The language is a symbol of the people. Each community or group has its own
distinct language, which frequently corresponds to its environment and level of cultural
development. Individuals become members of a community through the use of language,
and this is crucial to national development.

Kiswahili has had a gradual impact on the education systems of Kenya, Uganda,
Tanzania, Rwanda, and Burundi in East Africa. In Kenya and Tanzania, Kiswahili is a
required subject in primary schools. In Tanzania, Kiswahili is used in all primary schools as
the language of instruction. There are two linguistic groups in South Africa: the English-
speaking and the African-speaking. After the British colonisation, English became the
medium of instruction in schools. The population spoke Afrikaans and was familiar with
the Dutch educational system. The use of English failed, and in 1914, Afrikaans was also
recognised as a language of instruction for African-speaking children in schools. As a
result, a bilingual system of education was established in South Africa, in which some
schools use English, while others use Afrikaans or even both.

Former French colonies such as Cameroon, Tunisia, Madagascar, Senegal, Rwanda,

and Burundi also speak French as a second language. Cameroon is also a bilingual country
with two official languages and two educational systems, namely the Anglophone in the
west and the Francophone in the east. Despite the government of Cameroon's efforts to
unite the two zones, the task has proven difficult. Intriguingly, the ex-British Anglophone
system of education continues to produce local curricula with the goal of creating
secondary school examinations, whereas the ex-French Francophone system clings
tenaciously to the outdated and outmoded formal baccalaureate.

By the end of the colonial period in Africa, the language of instruction in schools
had been influenced by colonialism. In the former British colonies, lower elementary and
primary school students were instructed in their native language. The French colonies
place greater emphasis on French as an instructional language. The colonial masters'
influence on the school system and education system as a whole is still evident in the
majority of inherited educational systems. Consequently, the role of national language in
the formation of a national identity cannot be overstated. As a result, in a national system
of education, the study of national language is given special emphasis.

APPROACHES TO COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

During the course of the development of comparative education, several methods

and approaches have been applied at different stages. With the help of these methods one
can assess the achievements and failures of the systems of education of different countries.
There has been a gradual development or evolution of methods and ways to approach the
study. Followings are the more popular methods:

• Descriptive Method
• Historical Approach
• Social Approach
• Societal Approach
• Psychological Method
• Quantitative and Statistical Approach
• Scientific Approach.

Descriptive Method:
 Concerning the simple description of educational systems in foreign countries, it
may be an unsystematic random survey like that of Marco Polo, exhaustive and
authoritative like that of Hiuen Tsang, or encyclopedic in scope like that of Bache. In the
previous descriptions, the individuals who travelled abroad were not fundamentally
interested in the educational systems of other countries for any utilitarian reason, but were
rather curious about the world. Their description was highly subjective

During the Middle Ages, the most significant event was the "Decree by Grand
Council of Venice" (1268 A.D.), which required all Venetian ambassadors to write a full
account of their activities abroad, including schools.

During the 19th century, the majority of travellers were politicians, statesmen,
scholars, and educators who went abroad to learn lessons and borrow excellent examples.
Their reports detailed educational theory, methods, finances, organisation, teacher
training, curriculums, etc. Bache compiled a list of questions under sixteen headings,
conducted interviews, and inquired into such specifics as diet charts, timetables, and
school activities, among others. This method is devoid of objectivity and quantitative data,
thereby limiting its usefulness. Nonetheless, it is an essential component of comparative
education, despite being of questionable value in modern scientific methodology.

Historical Approach:

Traditionally comparative education had developed as the contemporary past of the

history of education. The pioneers of comparative law, comparative grammar or
comparative religion looked deep into history to discover the comparison of different
patterns and to trace upwards the gradual evaluation through the course of development.

Though initially the emphasis was only historical, later on were also introduced
sociological, political, cultural, religious, economical and other factors.

Social Approach:

It depends upon the belief that 'as is the society, so is the school'. In the words of
Sadler "the things outside the school matter more than things inside the school."
Education is a forceful factor for the modification of society' Hence dictatorial societies
use more control and in democratic societies, democratic ways and means are introduced
in the educational system.

A dynamic relationship between society and education can be called 'forces and
factors' approach. Education is the mirror of society. Changes in society are reflected in
changes in education. Appropriate educational reform can be devised to engineer future
shape of the society and to achieve proposed national objectives.

Sandiford viewed national education as a reflection of "the theory of state and

society held by people." Nicholas Hans identified the natural, religious and secular factors
while Mallinson elaborated the theme of national character and its impact on education.

Sociological Approach

A study of how the development of education in the past across the ages and
continents has influence the development of education in particular countries A study of
two or more school systems

Social science approach

Comparative sociology involves comparison of the social processes between nation

states or across different types of society.

Examples:

Capitalist

Socialist

Aims of social education

• Creating global citizens Aware of the world around them

• Respect and value diversity
• Take action for human rights social justice and sustainability
• Take responsibility for own action
Knowledge and understanding

• Interconnectedness and interdependence

• Environmental sustainability
• Economic development
• Diversity
• Change management
• Conflict resolution and peace building

Skills and processes

• Framework of knowledge
• Critical literacy
• Developed and expressed point of view
• Identity unfairness and action to redress it Empathy for others and
environment
• Cooperation

Action and participation

• involvement
• Identify and investigate opportunities
• Consider consequences
• Identify and overcome barriers
• Cooperate and value participation of others
Reflect and evaluate action

Psychological Approach:

Psychologists compare educational values by administering various tests to students.

in different countries. The International Project for the Evaluation of Educational
Achievement (IEA) was a unique effort on a world-wide basis to measure differences in
school achievement, subject by subject according to internationally agreed upon objective
tests. The first important publication of the IEA is the International Study of Achievement
in Mathematics: A Comparison of Twelve Countries (1967). In each country objective
tests were administered to representative samples of nineteen-year-old students and to pre-
university mathematics and non-mathematics students. The final form of the test
instrument was prepared after extensive scrutiny, discussion and modification by the
international and local specialists. The findings threw light on some major educational
controversies and problems like comprehensive versus selective schooling, traditional
versus reformed curricular, co-education versus single sex education. Such a pioneer study
cannot be considered free from some weaknesses which are inevitable. It was found that
representative sampling was not on a scientific basis Data gathering procedures were not
uniform. It was also found difficult in ensuring accuracy in recording data.

Quantitative or Statistical Approach:

Quantitative approach depends upon statistical approach. The statistical data

provides objective evidence for any comparisons. The observer may be subjective, but the
data are neutral. In comparative education the data is used for measuring things like the
size of school enrolment. But, use of statistics is not helpful in other spheres like the
consideration of curriculum or discipline. Errors cannot be avoided even in a simple work
like counting school enrolment. Allowances for such possible errors will have to be made.
Still more serious is the problem of willful misrepresentation of data by various agencies
for various reasons. The questionnaire circulated may not be replied accurately.

After the World War I, Social Sciences came to rely more and more upon
quantitative methods for comparative studies. Since World War II, these trends have
accelerated and resulted in the production of a huge pile of statistical material in an
improved technology for storing, manipulating and retrieving data and in the formulation
of more sophisticated models. Today comparative education employs quantitative or
statistical techniques. Which characterizes the most recent stage in the development of
comparative education.

Scientific Approach:
 It attempts to eliminate subjectivity offer objective observation. It is based on a
method of enquiry which minimizes the possibility of observer's bias and maximizes the
validity of data. It implies a scientific attitude and research strategy.

UNIT-II
PRIMARY EDUCATION AND SECONDARY EDUCATION
PRIMARY EDUCATION IN USA
In USA though States vary in the length of compulsory schooling required, over
90per cent of the population between 6 and 18 are in school. By 1918, 48 States of
America passed compulsory school attendance laws. Generally speaking
and city children can find an elementary school within about a mile from their homes.
Objectives
Helen Heffernan, formerly Chief Bureau of Elementary Education California, has
described following objectives of elementary education:
1. To Develop Arts of Communication: To develop the basic skills and understandings
essential to the effective use and Comprehension of the arts of communication.
2. To Develop Character: To promote the development of character and right social
conduct through activities and give satisfying experiences in co-operation, self-control and
fair play.
3. To Develop Physical Health: To provide instruction and practice, leading to the building
of habits that are conducive to health, safety and physical well-being.
4. To Develop Understanding: for Measurement Computation: To develop the skills and
understanding necessary for effective measurement computation and
problem solving.
5. To Develop Understanding of Relationship: To help children learn how basic human
needs for food, clothing, shelter, safety, protection and comfort are met in their
community and in other regions throughout the world and thus to lead them to an
understanding of the relationship and interdependence of the agricultural, industrial,
governmental and other essential services in civilized society.
6. To Develop Scientific Attitude: To help children Understand how man has used science
and invention to meet his needs and to improve his living, and how the scientist uses
certain methods to unlock these secrets of nature.
7. To Develop Understanding of the develop a Responsibilities: To sympathetic
understanding and appreciation of the movements, struggles and ideals interwoven with
the building of the nation and their responsibilities resting upon its citizens.
8. To Provide First Hand Experiences of Democratic Environment: To provide through
class-room organisation and activities, the first-hand experiences of working in a
democratic environment in which participants learn the satisfaction of growth in self-
direction and personal responsibility.
9. To Develop Creative Interests: To promote wholesome cultural, recreational and
creative through experiences with music, art, bodily rhythmical activities, literature and
similar forms of enjoyable expression that brighten life and give it
greater depth and richer meaning.
10. To Develop International Understanding: To build understanding of and friendliness
for the people of the world and respect for the belief that man can find ways to settle
conflicts of interest through discussion and conciliation.
Structure
1. One-teacher School: In the rural areas of the country there are many one-teacher
schools. Under this system of education, one teacher teaches all the subjects to all the
classes in one room.
2. Female Dominant: In the elementary education, women dominate in numbers. Only 11
per cent of teachers in elementary schools are men.
3. Working Days and Hours: The average working days of the schools at the State level
vary from 152 to 187 days. The Education Department made an effort in 1953 to have
a total minimum of 171 days. The working days of the schools are
from Monday to Friday. The daily timings of the school are 5 or 5½ hours, beginning at
9 in the forenoon to 12 at noon and then again from 1 to 3.30. The total working days
within a year are comparatively less in village schools than those in urban areas. Working
hours are shorter in lower classes.
Activities
1. Formal class teaching is relatively rare.
2. The day's programme is not so clearly marked off in periods or time-table allocations as
in other countries.
3. A great number of different activities are taken at the same time.
4. Boys and girls are educated together throughout the public system.
5. Clothing usually bright colored.
6. Desks, chairs and tables can be moved around to serve different types of needs.
7. Teachers move around a good deal to pay attention to individual needs. They are not
expected to impose firm authority. They use persuasive methods. They make their work
'child-centered!
8. The children "make plans" and the teachers fit those planes in the school programmes.
9. School environment fosters co-operation and group respect.
The Non-graded School
Although not yet well established, non-grading has captured the attention of
educators in all sections of country. In a non graded school, there is no reference to
grades 1,5 or 9 Pupils do not pass, fail, or repeat grades. There are no grades. Pupils
advance at differing rates of speed. A single pupil advances at various rates in his several
subjects.
The assumptions behind the philosophy and practice of non graded school pertain
to individual differences among learners. Children of the same age differ in their initial
readiness to learn. They proceed on any given learning task at differing rates of speed;
some acquire sophisticated and others superficial insights into phenomena; some learn well
in one field and others well in something else. In the most advanced forms of non-grading-
as in the University Elementary School at UCLA (the University of California at Los
Angeles) each child's program individualized to the point of being virtually tailor-made.
A Report on Elementary Education in USA
William J. Bennet, the Secretary of Education constituted a study group of 21
experts to study the Elementary Education. The Report was popularly known as the
Bennet Report produced by the study group in 1986. It is the first comprehensive study
of Elementary Education in the United States in 30 years.
 It observed that the American elementary schools were in good condition. It
concluded that elementary education was not menaced by "a rising tide of mediocrity".
According to Bennet First Lessons seek to answer two fundamental questions. What
should children know and how can they learn it? First Lessons call for a stronger arts
curriculum and more stress on 'common knowledge of the American culture. The report
also urges "much more rigorous preparation for principals than is commonly the case
today" including "intensive pre service training and a carefully monitored apprenticeship."
Principal Observations
1. American children seem to be getting better at basic skills reading, writing and
computation. There is no rising tide of mediocrity flooding our elementary schools.
2. In a number of curriculum areas, international comparisons have found students in our
later elementary grades failing to hold their own against students in other countries.
3. Our elementary schools should be doing more; not just teaching children how to add
and subtract, how to write the alphabet and fill-in worksheets, but also encouraging to
solve problems, to think critically, to acquire knowledge, and to organize disparate kinds of
information.
4. When our children are well-educated in the early years, a great number of social
problems can be averted far ahead of time. A child who cannot read when he leaves the
eighth grade is a much more likely candidate for the unemployment
line than his class mates who can. If prevention is the best medicine, then attending to the
well-being of our elementary schools is crucial to our society as a whole.
5. Reading must be more strongly emphasized through the use of phonics, more literary
and imaginative texts, more time allotted for actual reading-not filling out skill sheets or
workbooks-and better access to books.
6. The elementary school must assume as its sublime and most solemn responsibility the
task of teaching every child in it to read.
7. Social studies as currently constituted should be transformed. Instead of. focusing on
social living and be children's immediate environment and experiences, social studies
should concentrate on the interrelated disciplines of
history, geography and civics.
8. The teaching of mathematics should be improved to help students understand the
relationship between formal computational skills and solving real problems.
9. Nothing short of a revolution is needed in the teaching of science in elementary
schools.
10. Writing should be paid of teaching strategy.
SECONDARY EDUCATION IN USA
Cardinal Principles
‘Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education' published in 1918have greatly
influenced all subsequent statements on objectives of the secondary education and have
enjoyed a position of prestige as a guide to educational thinking. These principles are:
1. Safeguarding and promoting health.
2. Increasing the proficiency in fundamental processes more effectively.
3. Building right attitudes towards home responsibilities.
4. Developing an effective programme of Vocational guidance.
5. Providing civic education so that the individual may well act his part as a member of
neighbourhood, city, State and nation and understand international problems.
6. Training in the worthy use of leisure.
7. Developing ethical character through wise selection of content and methods of
instruction, social contacts and opportunities for developing sense of personal
responsibility, spirit of service and principle of democracy.
Objectives
The most popular and comprehensive statements are those made by the
Commission on Life Adjustment Education appointed in 1947 by the Federal
Government to go into the details of the requirements of secondary education. The
Commission laid down the following objectives of secondary education:
1. Education for successful citizenship.
2. Education for training the young men in the day-to day life requirements.
3. Education for making worthy members of the family.
4. Education for enabling him understand the basic rules of learning.
5. Education for preparing an individual for a vocation.
6. Education for enabling to make a worthy use of leisure.
7. Education for developing the spirit of appreciation of beauty.
8. Education for understanding the significance and method of science.
9. Education for the development of mental health and physical fitness.
10. Education for moral and ethical development.
In the words of President LB. Johnson, "The secondary school is the keystone of
American education; for millions of our young people, it lies on the threshold of higher
learning: for millions more it is the pathway into adult life and useful citizenship."
Organisation
The first secondary school in USA was established by the Puritan sect of Christians
in the year 1635 in the city of Boston. No uniform system of classes could be evolved in
USA, two types of arrangements are usually found in secondary schools, In One
arrangement secondary stage consists of four classes ie, from 9th to 12th. In the
recognized system of education, the educational structure is divided into 6, 3, 3 and 2
years. The first six years constitute elementary stage, three years each for junior secondary
and higher secondary and two years for junior college stage.
Junior High Schools: These schools have been formed by taking away the last two
classes i.e., classes 7th and 8th of the primary stage and class 9th of the secondary stage.
These schools were created with a view to imparting education to
adolescents in the first two years; i.e., from 12 to 14 years for a proper utilization of
educational potentialities. The classes differ from the traditional 7th and 8th classes of a
primary school and the 9th class of a secondary school in respect of their courses. They
are mostly housed in independent buildings.
High Schools or Higher Secondary Schools: High School is the common term used
in USA for a higher secondary school. Generally, the higher secondary classes consist of
10th, 1lth and 12th classes.
Comprehensive High Schools: These schools include four classes i.e., from 9th to
12th which start at the end of 8-year course of the primary stage. A comprehensive high
school is supposed to be well-equipped. Provision is made in imparting education in a
variety of subjects. There are even such schools where as many as two hundred subjects
are taught.
Main Features of Comprehensive Schools
i) There is no distinction of class, colour, sex, etc., in getting admission in these schools.
These schools are open to all.
ii) This school provides for the teaching of many subjects.
iii) They are based on a democratic spirit.
iv) Comprehensive school have proved more economical.
v) Education in different subjects i.e., arts, profession, commerce, agriculture, etc., is
being given in these schools according to local needs under one administration.
Specialized Schools: Most of these are technical, commercial, art, agricultural and business
schools. These schools provide introductory vocational training.
Vocational and Industrial Schools: These have been established mostly in big industrial
cities of the country. These too are included in the category of specialized schools.
Part-time Schools: These are of two types: These are of two types:
i) Continuation schools which provide education for 144 hours during a year, i.e.,
3 to 4 hours a week.
ii) Evening Adult Schools which run their classes daily in the evening.
Junior Colleges: These comprise the first two classes of the college stage, i.e, 13th
and 14th. These colleges are helpful to those students who do not want to go to distant
places for college education.
Salient Features of Secondary Education
1. Education for All: Today 90 per cent of boys and girls between the ages of 14 and 17
are enrolled in high schools. A secondary school education for every American youth-boy
and girl-is the goal of education into the United States.
2. Varied Courses: Students are given opportunities to select those subjects in which they
are most interested, or which further the career they plan to follow. Some of the larger
urban schools offer as many as 100 courses. The choice for the students is unlimited.
3. Outside Activities: In addition to class-room work each student is encouraged to take
part in one or more outside activities.
4. Students' Self-Government: A democratic form of student self-government is to be
found in most of the large high schools.
5. Gymnasium: Almost every school has a gymnasium for indoor sports and playing fields
for outdoor athletics.
6. Grading in Attitudes: Students are graded not only in subjects but also in their
attitudes.
7. Comprehensive Type: The secondary schools in America have come to be known as
comprehensive high schools, because they offer many different subjects under one roof
preparing for different careers and accommodating both bright and not so-bright students.
James B. Conant, former President of Harvard University wrote, "The comprehensive high
school is characteristic of our society. It offers in one spot secondary education for almost
all the high school-age children of our town or neighbourhood. It educates the boy who
will be an atomic scientist and the girl who will marry at 18; the prospective captain of a
ship and future captain of
industry."
8. Specialized Type: There are also 'some specialized high schools, chiefly in the large
eastern cities, which emphasize science, or music and art, commercial and industrial
courses or pre-college academic subjects.
Curriculum
1. Regulations: The responsibility for setting graduation. Requirements and curriculum
regulations lies with the State legislature, the State board of education and the State
department of education. Few curriculum requirements State legislative mandates. They
are instead, standards set up by the State department of education or regulated by the
State board. They are designed to enable the secondary schools to maintain standards
recognized by colleges and universities as suitable for admission. But most State legislatures
and boards, even if they specify requirements, leave much latitude to the local school
boards to create their own programmes of required subjects and to add to them if they
desire. Approximately 1,60,000 local school board members throughout the country,
serving usually without pay, give time and thought to these matters with reference to their
community needs.
2. Study of English, Mathematics, Science, Social Studies: State legislatures are concerned
with prescribing how and to what degree the teaching shall be devoted to American and
State history, government and physical education. Although different States have varying
requirements, large city school systems usually require four years of English, one year of
mathematics, one year of science, two to three years of social studies (that is government,
history, political science and the
like), and four years of health study and physical education.
3. Foreign Languages, Psychology, Fine Arts, etc.: The required subjects from about half
of the usual course of study, the remaining subjects are chosen by the student. He may
choose such subjects as foreign languages, psychology, fine arts, shorthand and typing, and
in Some school automobiles driving.
4. Broadened Curriculum: The trend today is to increase the number of required units in
science, mathematics and social studies. More emphasis also is being placed on foreign
language study. In many schools the curriculum is being broadened in keeping with the
times.
The National Science Foundation has developed, and is developing, new
programmes in science and mathematics. Designed to broaden and deepen the teaching of
these vital subjects. Efforts to improve the curricula of the nation's schools are being made
by the Office of Education of the Department of Health, Education and Welfare through
various projects such as one in English and one in social studies.
Extra-Curricular Activities
1. Student Council: In both the junior and senior secondary schools, work of the student
council is an important and rewarding activity. This type of student government forms a
strong link between students and faculty and helps to create
an environment in which they can work effectively together for the well-being of the whole
student body and the general benefit of the school. But the main work of the council,
work to which about half its time is devoted, involves the social programme of the school.
As part of this it sponsors such social events as picnics, dances, carnivals and parties-social
events that bring the students together for recreation away from the class-room.
2. Sports: Sports have an important place in most secondary schools. The school
authorities require that those skillful enough to get on the various school teams also
measure up to the school’s academic standards.
3. Club Activities: In almost any American secondary school, club groups link students
with special interest. Most club activities are held after school hours, usually under the
supervision of a teacher. The clubs may be centered on art, dramatics, literature, science,
foreign languages, poetry almost any field of interest. They offer creative outlets and
broaden students' knowledge. Often, too, they help to crystallize student's choice of a
career. Most schools have orchestras and various kinds of singing groups. They provide the
musically inclined both training and expression.
4. School Magazine: Journalistic activities depend a great deal upon the size of school. The
larger school often has a school newspaper and some kind of literary magazine and a
yearbook made up of contributions by students.
PRIMARY EDUCATION IN UK
The history of education in England shows that education has progressed
continuously and continually. The Education Act of 1944 and certain subsequent
measures were a culmination. of the process of change that has been going on for years.
Formerly, primary education was known as Elementary Education. It was
Hadowe Committee which first gave out the view the Elementary Education should
be called Primary Education. The Act of 1944 gave a practical shape to this suggestion.
Definition of Primary Education
According to the Education Act of 1944, Primary Education has been defined
thus: "Primary education, that is to say, full time education suitable to the requirements of
junior pupils who have not attained the age of 10 years and 6 months, and full-time
education suitable to the requirements of junior pupils who have attained that age and
whom it is expedient to educate together with junior pupils who have not attained that
age."
Aims and Objectives
According to law primary education is that education which is imparted to the
young boys and girls below 12 years of age.
1. Building of character.
2. Physical development.
3. Mental and psychological development.
4. Awakening of readiness and desire for further studies.
5. Spiritual education or education for self-realization.
 A great deal of stress is laid on character building at every stage of education.
Education aims at self-discipline; the whole of the educational programme is organized
with this objective.
Stages
1. Nursery Schools: Nursery education which is meant for boys and girls up to the 5 years
of age. Here attendance is optional.
2. Infant Schools: Infant education or infant schools are meant for children of 5 o 7 years
of age. In these schools’ attendance is compulsory.
3. Junior Schools: These are for children between the age group of 7 to 11 years. The
attendance is compulsory.

Primary School

Infant School Junior School

1. Infant School: Infant Schools have been established after a good deal of research in
education. The educationists came to realize that for children between 5 and 7 years new
infant schools should be established. In these schools’ children
should be trained in proper use of their sense organs. Learning by Doing should be
practiced. "The curriculum should be thought of in terms of activity and experience
rather than of knowledge to be required and facts to be Stores,"
In Infant Schools less stress is laid on the teaching of 3 R's. Greater stress is laid on
activities. The size of the class, the dimensions of the rooms and other things have been
laid down. In every school there are about 1l to 12 rooms with an area of about 600 to
1000 sq. ft. There is a hall in every school building which is used for assembly of all the
students.
 In Infant Schools the teacher works only as a guide. He does not interfere with the
work of the students. He trains them to talk properly, to sit properly, to cat properly and
to do other things in a proper manner. The students are taught the lesson of co-operation.
They are made to sit and cat together. The ideas of world citizenship and universal
brotherhoods are infected.
2. Junior Schools: The Junior Schools are agencies for post primary education. These
schools provide education to the children between the age group of 7-11 years. The
education is imparted keeping in view the interest and the aptitudes of
the students and the children. "The Junior School receives pupils from the infant school at
the age of 7 and sends them to some form of secondary at 11."
More than 40students cannot be admitted in one class. There is provision for
playground, gymnasium, assembly hall and such other minimum requirements as laid down
by the Ministry of Education. The Junior Schools has to obtain a certificate to the effect
that they possess these minimum requirements.
Intended to bring about the all-round development of the child Junior Schools.
They do not confine their activities to physical or mental development alone. They
concentrate on both these types of development. A good deal of stress is laid on Nature
Study in order to bring about the development of the instincts of curiosity and activity of
the child. Children are provided with the opportunity to develop their power of
observation and invention. Students arc also taught the use of their mother tongue.
The Ministry of Education controls the grant-in-aid to these schools but not the
curricula and the syllabi. "The most striking characteristic of junior as of all other schools
in England is that the Ministry of Education.
SECONDARY EDUCATIONIN UK
The Endowed School or Grammar School
Endowed schools are also called Grammar schools. They existed during the Roman
period also. Classical languages were taught in these schools.
In the beginning these schools were established by bishops. The city livery company
or Guild had also actively co-operated in the establishment of these schools. During the
Tudor period of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the business community also took
interest in these schools. In fact, private enterprises
played the main role in the development of these schools. For example, the Lady Manners
School in Bake well was established by a lady. The Winchester Public School was started by
William of Wykeham in 1382.
The Teachers
Only teaching license holders could be teachers of a Grammar school. Up to the
eighteenth century this teaching license was considered as compulsory. The bishop of the
school area was competent to issue a teaching license. He would examine the ability,
morality and the religious attitude of the teacher before granting a teaching license. This
system was followed in other European countries also.
The Curriculum
In the beginning the term 'Grammar school' stood for those places where classical
languages were taught. Classical languages were given special places in these schools. The
teaching and study of Latin was the special feature of the curriculum. There was no
difference between the curriculum of the endowed schools and that of the public schools.
Latin and Greek were taught in both the types of schools. But Hebrew was also taught in
the Merchant Taylors School along with Greek and Latin.
In 1805, in the public school at Leeds arrangement was made to teach modern
languages, writing and mathematics. But no changes were introduced in the. curriculum of
public schools. The Grammar School Act of 1840 empowered the headmaster to include
other subjects in the curriculum, but the teachers were
not to be compelled to teach these subjects. Locke and Sidney Smith drew the attention of
the public to the shortcomings of public schools.
Discipline
Discipline was not good in the Grammar schools. The school management was also
not satisfactory. No suitable arrangement for meals was made in the students' hostels.
Discipline was maintained through fear. Severe corporal punishment was very common.
Some headmasters were famous for giving severe no suitable Corporal punishments to
students. There was arrangement for sports and games. No attempt was made to advise
the students about utilizing their leisure hours in a worthwhile manner. Some students in
some hostels were sometimes victims of drinking and gambling. However, there were
many Grammar schools free from this defect...
Private Schools
In addition to the Grammar schools, the necessity of opening private schools was felt
because of the following reasons:
1. Poor people were not able to send their children to Grammar Schools, as education
there was quite expensive.
2. Some people were against the Grammar schools because of the evils existing in them.
So they did not like to send their children for education there.
3. Certain parents wanted to keep their children away from the contact with children of
businessmen in the Grammar schools.
4. Private schools were better managed. More subjects- history, geography, modern
languages, art and mathematics were taught there. English and French occupied special
place in the curriculum. Students were encouraged to do voluntary labour in order to
develop their special interests and abilities. Music, painting, modeling, printing and
surveying were included. Thus, the 'students were given opportunities for natural
development in private schools.
5. Modern methods of teaching were employed in private schools. They were also centers
of experimental work in education.

Girls Private Schools.

Private schools were run for girls also mostly from the middle- and upper-class
families. The purpose of education for girls was to make them good housewives.
Accordingly, the curriculum for them included various types of domestic arts along with
other common subjects. French and Italian languages,
instrumental and vocal music, painting and embroidery were also taught to them.
Opportunities were also provided to them for acquiring general knowledge.
Up to 1840, it could not be possible to introduce any remarkable reform in the
condition of endowed and public schools. In the beginning of the nineteenth century
Bentham Jeremy and Mills advocated the philosophy of utilitarianism. Under the influence
of this philosophy, the curriculum of the classical languages was criticized. The missionaries
also criticized the curriculum. This criticism influenced those people who used to send
their children to public schools. Simultaneously, due to the industrial revolution, a new
class of producers and mill owners was coming up which favored education through
private enterprises. Thus, the public schools came under bitter criticism.
Recognition of Secondary Education
The Royal Commission gave recommendations with regard to recognition of
secondary schools. An administrative board was recommended in the form of a central
authority. It should be organized in two forms. Firstly, the Charity Commission should It
should be entrusted with the given more power. responsibility for organizing education.
Secondly, some new administrative board should be established. The administrative board
was to be related with educational endowments. It was further recommended that at the
provincial level also this
provision should made. An administrative board was empowered to appoint inspectors for
inspecting endowed secondary schools. Its work-area was restricted to registrar general's
division. There would be an officer of the registrar general division who would inspect the
endowed secondary schools at least once every three years and would report on their
conditions and functioning. This officer would be known as the district officer. A town
with a population of one lakh or over would be outside the control of the provincial board
and such a town would itself form a province for the purpose.
Special recommendations were made for private schools. A private school was
empowered have its own governor who would appoint the headmaster, arrange for the
financial The secondary schools were required to be under the L.E.A. resources and finally
determine the nature of the curriculum but their teachers would enjoy full autonomy in
their internal affairs. The trustees were advised not to interfere unduly in their internal
affairs. Each provincial authority should decide the standard the schools of within its
jurisdiction. The private schools should be inspected according to their own standards.
Their examinations should be organized accordingly. The Parliament should enact laws for
ensuring proper utilization of endowments. Necessary facilities should be made available
for education of girls through the endowments. The governor should fix up minimum fees
for schools. Only those boys and girls should be given free education who could benefit
themselves from the same most. Education imparted through minimum fees should not
mean useless and meaningless education. The importance of education should be
continually maintained.
The Teachers of Secondary Schools
Suitable teachers should be attracted towards the secondary schools. Good scales of
pay should be given to teachers. There should be a criterion for determining the suitability
of a teacher. A teaching certificate should be given to a teacher on the basis of
examinations passed by him. Teachers' names should be entered in a relevant register. The
Commission recommended that there should be medical register for teachers wherein the
names of teachers obtaining medical aid should be entered. The age of retirement for the
teacher should be fixed either at 60 or 65.
Examinations
The Commission recommended that examinations should be properly organized for
finding out the ability and educational achievements of students. The examination and
inspection should be conducted by separate authorities which should be appointed by the
Central Administrative Board. The formation of an examination council was also
recommended. All these recommendations were immediately implemented.
THE ENDOWMENT SCHOOLS ACT,1869
The Gladstone Government enacted this Act in 1869 for prescribing certain
endowment rules. This Act totally ignored the recommendations of the School Enquiry
Commission of 1869. Three special endowment schools commissioners were appointed
for ensuring proper utilization of school endowments. In this Act
it was laid down that maximum benefits should be obtained from endowments for
education of girls. These commissioners were empowered to supervise the use of only
those endowments which were not older than 50 years. The Commissioners could exercise
their power only on the permission of school administrators. They had absolutely no
jurisdiction over elementary and public schools. The Parliament did not cooperate with
these commissioners in their functioning. There was no arrangement for the registration of
teachers and no local committee was appointed for co-operating with schools Regarding
improvement of their conditions.
Thus, the Public school Act of 1868 and the Endowment School Act of 1869
could not be successful as ho work was done on the basis of the recommendation of the
Royal Commission and the Enquiry Commission. However, these Act generated an
awakening for improvement of secondary education.
Curriculum
Under the Education Reform Act, 1988, the introduction of a National
Curriculum in primary and secondary schools in England and Wales began in 1989, (a)
There are four key stages key stage I-up to age 7 (Infants). Key stage Il-7 to 11 years
(juniors). Key stage II-11to 14 (Pre- GCSE) and key stage IV. 14 to 16 (Preparation for
GCSE). The National Curriculum, (b) For the first 3 key stages for children between the
ages of 5 and 14, which the Government believes should occupy not less than 70 per
cent of teaching time, consists of the 3 core subjects of English, mathematics and science,
as well as 6 other foundation subjects of history, geography, technology, music, art,
physical education, (c) Besides these, at the key levels III and IV for secondary level
children, aged 11 to 16, a modern foreign language is also compulsory. At key level IV
music and art are not compulsory and children can take either history or geography or
short courses in both. Economic and industrial awareness are important cross curricular
themes in the National Curriculum.
School Tests
The Statement of the Secretary of State John for Education, Mr. Patten to the
House of Commons on 11 May 1993, illustrates fully the importance of tests. The
Government's commitment to tests this summer for seven and 14-year-olds had, he said,
already been confirmed, there is abundant evidence of the importance of testing the
progress of our children. Our main competitor countries do so as a matter of course. So
should we. It would be a betrayal of a future generation of pupils to postpone
acknowledged on what are all sides to be much needed educational reforms.
“Tests for seven-year-olds are in their third year. We know that they work. Tests in
199land 1992 have improved standards of teaching and learning. Last year's pilot tests
for 14-year olds were well received.” “Children have been working towards the tests for
several years. Abandoning the tests would leave conscientious teachers, concerned parents
and the wider community in the dark about our schools, depriving them of vital
information about the attainments of individual pupils. The Government have therefore
decided on the following for 1994. First, mandatory tests in 1994 for seven and 14-year-
olds should concentrate on the core subjects of English, mathematics and science, and on
Welsh as a first language in Wales. We shall decide later whether to add technology at the
age of 14, in the light of this summer's tests.
Examinations
The principal examinations taken by secondary school pupils in England, Wales and
Northern Ireland around the age of 16 are those leading to the General Certificate of
Secondary Education (GCSE). This replaced the General Certificate of Education (GCE)
Ordinary (O) level and the Certificate of Secondary Education (CSE) in 1988. GCSE
courses were introduced in 1986 with a view to raising standards of performance. GCSE
examinations are usually taken after five years of secondary education and have a seven-
point scale of grades denoted by the letters A to G. The Government intends the GCSE to
be the principal means for assessing attainment at stage 4 of the National Curriculum.
The GCE Advanced (A) level is normally taken after a further two years of study.
New examinations, Advanced supplementary (AS) levels, were introduced for the first
time in 1989 and provide an opportunity for sixth-form pupils to study a Wider range of
subjects than before. Students specializing in the arts and humanities, for example, are able
to continue to study mathematics and technological subjects at the new level.
The Certificate of Pre-Vocational Education, awarded for the first time in 1986., is
intended for those at school or college who Wish to continue in full-time education for a
year after the age of 16 to prepare either for work or for vocational and other courses In
common with other Business and Technician Education Council (BTEC) qualifications, it
can serve as a stepping stone into higher education. The Certificate is devised by BTEC
and the City and Guilds of London Institute.
All GCSE and other qualifications offered to pupils of compulsory school age in
maintained schools in England and Wales must be approved by the Government.
Associated syllabuses and assessment procedures must comply with national guidelines and
be approved by the School Examinations and Assessment Council.
The Council keeps under review all aspects of examinations and assessment in
England and Wales and carries out research and development. It co-operates with the
National Curriculum Council (for England) and the Curriculum Council for Wales on work
connected with the National Curriculum in schools. The Northern Ireland School
Examinations was and Assessment Council established in April 1990.
Progress Reports
A system of school reporting of individual pupils achievement was introduced in
April 1990, under which parents in England and Wales will receive a yearly progress
report On their child's National Curriculum achievements and results in public
examinations. In Scotland the report card system has been reformed to give parents a
clearer view of their children's progress. In Northern Ireland there is a commitment for all
pupils to be issued with a record of their performance on leaving
Educational Standards
Her Majesty's Inspectors report to the Government on the quality of education
provided in all schools and in further and higher education establishments outside the
universities, and advise education authorities and schools as well as the Government. They
also report on the youth service and
education provision in hospitals, prisons and youth custody centers, and the armed
services. Their reports on individual establishments are published. Local education
authorities employ inspectors or advisers to guide them on maintained schools.
The Evaluation and Monitoring Unit, which is a part of the School Examinations
and Assessment Council, is mainly concerned with the evaluation of the assessment
arrangements for the National Curriculum. In England, Wales and Northern Ireland
programmes of monitoring have been carried out in English language and mathematics at
the ages of 11 and 15, in science at the ages of 11, 13 and 15, and in the first foreign
language at the age of 13. A survey of performance at the age of 15in design and
technology was undertaken in 1988. In Scotland the Assessment of Achievement research
programme has surveyed attainments of pupils in English and mathematics at ages 8, 12
and 14.
Information Technology
Britain has developed a world lead in several aspects of the use of information
technology (IT) in education. In 1987, the Government announced a major five-year
strategy to integrate the use of IT throughout the school curriculum and extend its benefits
as widely as possible to children of all ages. The main objectives of the programme, which
began in 1988, are to Increase the number of microcomputers in schools; provide support
for the appointment of advisory teachers trained in the applications of IT; and offer in-
service training for teachers in the effective use of IT in their specialist subject areas.
The application of IT is featuring in programmes of study and attainment targets for
core and foundation subjects of the National Curriculum. The new computer software to
help teach the National Curriculum is being financed by the Government at a cost of
£750,000 from 1989-90 to 1992-93. The development
programme, which is managed by the National Council for Educational Technology
provides software and related materials for the National Curriculum for such areas as
handling data in mathematics lessons; supporting practical work in science; and creating
design projects in design and technology.
Secondary schools reported that they had almost three times as many
microcomputers in 1990 as in 1985, and there were on average 18 pupils for every
microcomputer. About 84 per cent pupils had had 'hands on experience of
microcomputers.
In 1990, all age groups most frequently used software for word processing, but
about a fifth of the younger age groups (9 to 13years of age) also used software for
practice exercises and puzzles. For secondary pupils overall, microcomputers were used for
15 per cent of total teaching hours on average. three-quarters Around of mathematics and
two-thirds of craft, design and technology, English, geography and physics departments
made some use of IT. More than three-fifths of secondary schools offered examinable
courses in computer computing or information technology.
Educational Aids
Teachers and pupils use a range of aids to assist the processes of teaching and
learning. The government-funded National Educational Resources Information Service
enables schools to find out about a large range of teaching aids. Most schools have audio-
visual equipment such as slide projectors and overhead projectors, and educational
broadcasting is of major importance. Each year almost 500 hours of school radio 900
hours of television are transmitted nationally and over of the BBC and the independent
broadcasting companies. Teachers' notes, pupils' pamphlets and computer software
accompany many broadcast series. Virtually all primary and secondary schools now have
microcomputers which. are used for computer assisted learning.
Careers Education and Guidance
Increasing importance is being attached by schools and colleges to careers
education to increase young people's awareness of further and higher education
opportunities, and generally help them to prepare for adult and Careers working life. As a
result, links between schools and the careers service are being strengthened. The work of
the careers service at local level is supported by careers information material produced by
the Government's Careers and Occupational Information Centre. The Government is
sponsoring the development of a computer assisted careers guidance system for students in
universities, polytechnics and colleges, known as PROSPECT (HE).
Health and Welfare of School Children
Physical education, including organized games, is part of the curriculum of all
maintained schools, and playing fields must be available for pupils over the age of eight.
Most secondary schools have a gymnasium.
The government health departments are responsible for the medical inspection of
school children and for advice on, and treatment of, specific medical and dental problems
associated with children of school age. The Government believes that the education service
has a role to play in preventing and dealing with juvenile drug misuse and in helping to
prevent the spread of AIDS.
Local education authorities are free to decide what milk, meals or other
refreshment to offer at their schools, and what charges to make. (In Northern Ireland
school meals must provide for primary school pupils.) Provision has to be free of charge,
however, for pupils from families receiving certain social security benefits. Under certain
conditions the authorities must supply free school transport, and they have discretionary
powers to help with the cost of travel to school.
Corporal Punishment
In 1968, the conference of the National Association of School Masters in England
demanded the freedom for teachers to use any method thought necessary to correct anti-
social behaviors in schools. But generally, the public opinion is not in favor of corporal
punishment. The Plowden Committee (1967) came out against its use. It said, "We
believe that the kind of relationship which ought to exist between teacher and child cannot
be built up in an atmosphere in which the infliction of physical pain is regarded as a
normal sanction."
Following are the major recommendations of Plowden Committee on punishment:
1. Decisions on punishment should generally be left to the professional judgment of the
individual teacher acting within the policy of the school.
2. The infliction of physical pain as a method primary of punishment in schools should be
forbidden. Schools Regulations, which apply only to maintained schools, should be
amended accordingly.
3. The Secretary of State should be given power to deny registration to any independent
school in which the infliction of physical pain is a recognized method of punishment. Until
such time as change in the law can be made, no independent school in which this practice
obtains should be recognized as efficient, and the professional associations of the
independent schools should endeavor to ensure its
discontinuance in non-recognized schools.
Today, Corporal punishment is prohibited by maintained schools in Britain.
Sports
The Sports Minister outlined the Government's policies and priorities for sport and
recreation in a policy statement Sport and Recreation, published on December 19, 1991.
The policy includes the following measures concerning sport in schools.
1. Making physical education a compulsory subject in the National Curriculum until the
age of 16.
2. Requiring all school children to be taught to swim by the time they leave primary
school.
3. Instituting a Champion Coaching pilot scheme for the extra-curricular coaching of
school children.
4. Supporting legislation which will allow school governors to enter into dual-use
agreements for the joint management of school premises out of school hours.
Religious Education and Collective Worship in Schools
In England and Wales county and voluntary schools are required to provide
religious education and a daily act of collective worship for all pupils except those
withdrawn by their parents. Under the Education Reform Act, 1988 due recognition
must be given to the place of Christianity within religious education and collective worship
in county schools. The Act allows daily collective worship to be organized at times other
than the beginning of the day, and permits separate acts of worship for different groups of
pupils. In county schools, and sometimes in voluntary schools, non-denominational
religious education is given in accordance with a locally agreed syllabus which may include
the comparative study of religious. Syllabuses have been revised in many areas to take
account of the faiths of the local population. In all kinds of voluntary schools there is the
opportunity for denominational religious education.
In Scotland education authorities are required to see that schools practice religious
observance and give pupils religious instruction; parents may withdraw their children if
they wish Certain schools provide religious education for Roman Catholic children but in
all schools, there are safeguards for the individual conscience.
In Northern Ireland, too, schools are obliged to offer religious education and
collective worship, although parents have the right to withdraw their children from both.
In controlled schools clergy have a right of access which may be used for denominational
instruction and in voluntary schools collective worship and religious education are
controlled by the management authorities. Provision has been made for religious education
to have an agreed core syllabus which schools can expand according to their own needs
and wishes.
PRIMARY EDUCATION IN JAPAN
The seven priority strategies are:
❖ Improving the students' basic scholastic to understand proficiency in '"easy classes":
❖ Fostering open and warm-hearted Japanese participation in community and other
programs.
❖ Improving the learning environment to enjoyable and free of worries;
❖ Promoting the creation of schools that can be trusted by parents and communities;
❖ Training teachers as "'education professionals
❖ Promoting the establishment international standard; and
❖ Establishing a new educational vision for the new century and improving the
foundations of education.
Policies and measures in Elementary and Secondary Education include:
❖ The improvement of the content and methods of teaching and learning
❖ Redressing the complement of teachers (improving the standards of class sizes and
teacher deployment)
❖ The enrichment of moral education, to make children learn through personal
experiences in cooperation with the home and community
❖ The enrichment of student guidance, emotional education and counseling
❖ The enrichment of career education aimed at instilling in students a desirable
outlook on professions and labour
Reforming upper secondary education, facilitating the creation of new
❖ "Integrated" courses and organizing curricula where students are allowed to choose
their own subjects to a greater extent.
❖ The promotion of kindergarten education as a foundation for life and learning at
total school education, and as places of Nurturing for parents and children.
❖ The promotion of special support education for the disabled that is needs based
and sensitive to the learning environment.
❖ The promotion of education on human rights.
❖ The improvement of the textbook system, to ensure that suitable content of
teaching be provided for all children The development of vocational education in
order to foster specialists who have advanced knowledge and skills.
SECONDARY EDUCATION IN JAPAN
The courses at special training schools may be classified into three categories: upper
secondary courses admitting lower secondary school graduates; advanced courses
admitting upper Secondary school graduates; and other courses. Special training schools
offering upper secondary courses may be called "upper
secondary special training schools", while those offering advanced courses are called
"special training colleges".
Miscellaneous schools are intended to give adults and young people a wide range of
educational opportunities similar to the formal education offered in secondary schools or
institution of higher education. They provide students of varied ages with knowledge and
skills required for their vocational and daily life.
At present a relatively large number of students are enrolled in such courses as
preparatory courses for university entrance examinations, driver education, home
economics (including dressmaking and cooking), foreign languages, nursing, etc.
Admission
Admission to Elementary and Lower Secondary School: All parents are required to have
their children attend an elementary school for six years from the beginning of the school
year after the children have attained the age of six until the end of the school year in
which they reach the age of 12. Further, it is also obligatory for all parents to have their
children attend a lower secondary school for three years from the school year beginning of
the after the children have completed the elementary school course until the end of the
school year in which they reach the age of 15.
Admission to Upper Secondary Schools: All pupils who have completed lower secondary
schooling are entitled to apply for upper secondary schools.
Most of local public upper secondary sch0ols are run by prefectural governments.
These select students on the basis of both the scholastic achievement test given by the
prefectural board of education and the records on each applicant presented in the
credentials or other documents submitted by the lower secondary schools. To secure equal
opportunity for access to upper secondary education, the prefectural board of education
designates a number of upper secondary school attendance districts. Pupils who wish to
enter a public upper secondary school should apply only for upper secondary schools
located in the attendance district where they live.
About 95.4 percent of lower secondary school graduates of March 1993 went on
to cither upper secondary schools or colleges of technology in April 1993.
School Curricula
Elementary and Lower Secondary School Curricula: An
ordinance of the Ministry of Education entitled "Enforcement Regulation for the School
Education Law" lays down the names of the subjects to be offered and the standard
number of school hours per year for each subject in elementary and lower secondary
schools. The basic aim to each subject and the objectives and standard contents of
instruction given in each grade for each subject are outlined in the "Course of Study"
issued by the Ministry of Education.
 Each school organizes its own curriculum in accordance with the "Course of Study"
giving due consideration to local needs and to the stage of pupils' development and
experience. However, in recent years the amount of time available for purely local studies
has been increasingly curtailed and these have now virtually disappeared in most cases.
An overall revision of the Course of Study for elementary and lower secondary
schools was completed in 1977, to be effective in 1980 and 1981, respectively. The
following tables show the standard school hours per year prescribed by the revised
"Course of Study".
❖ "Special activities" means extra curricula activities such as pupil assemblies, club
activities, pupil guidance, school ceremonies, school excursions, etc.
❖ As for the school hours of Elective Subjects, the standard number of school hours
allotted to Music, Fine Arts, Health Primary Education and Secondary Education &
Physical Education and Industrial Arts or Homemaking in 9th grade is 35 hours
respectively, and in each grade 10s hours to Foreign Language and 35 to other
necessary subjects may be allotted as the standard number of school hours.
Upper Secondary School Curricula: Ministry of Education Ordinance specifies the names
of the subjects to be offered in upper secondary schools. The objectives and standard
contents of each subject, as well as the standard number of "credits" to be acquired are
laid down in the "Course of Study for Upper Secondary Schools" issued by the Ministry of
Education, starting from 1978, and in its new form applied from 1982. It specifies that,
to complete any upper secondary school course, the student must acquire 80 or more
credits. Irrespective the type of course
in which they are enrolled, all students are required to learn the subjects listed in the Table
below and obtain the number of credits indicated. In addition to these required subjects,
schools may offer a variety of elective subjects including English and other foreign
languages and technical and vocational subjects.
Besides the regular courses of study, schools must offer homeroom activities for not
less than one school hours or more per week for all students of all grades. Schools are also
required to allocate at least one school hour per week to club activities for all students.
Text-books for Use in Schools
 Almost all text-books to be used in the elementary and secondary schools of Japan
are published publishers. by commercial All of them must be authorized by the Ministry of
Education, which also approves the price of each text-book. Text-books to be used in
public schools are adopted by local boards of education every three years.
All pupils in elementary and lower secondary schools, both public and private, are
provided with free text-books by the national government. Upper secondary school
students buy their own text-books.
School Teachers
Training: School teachers are trained at institutions of higher education. Elementary school
teachers are trained primarily at 4 year courses but also sometimes at 2-year junior college
courses. Secondary school teachers specialize different undergraduate and post-graduate
courses at public and private universities. Certificates for secondary school teachers are
available for any university student who has acquired a minimum number of credits in
teaching subjects, professional subjects and general education.
Certificates: Teacher certificates are granted by prefectural boards of education. They are
valid in all prefectures and for life. The certificates are of two classes: the first and the
second. The first-class certificates are available for those holding a bachelor's degree. The
second-class certificate for elementary and lower secondary school teachers may be
obtained with two years of study at universities or junior colleges. In order to become a
school principal, the teacher must hold a first class certificate.
The second-class certificates for upper secondary school teachers are available for
those holding a bachelor's degree, while the first-class certificates are granted to those who
have studied for at least one-year in a graduate school course.
Economic Status of Public School Teachers:
Salaries: Salaries of individual teachers serving public schools are determined primarily on
the basis of education and length of service. There are separate salary scales for elementary
and lower secondary school teachers and for upper secondary school teachers. Although
the sum of the annual or biennial increment and the maximum salaries differs between
elementary or lower secondary school teachers and upper secondary school teachers, the
starting salaries for teachers with the same level of academic attainment are the same.
Allowances: In addition to the basic salary, teachers arc paid bonuses, family allowances,
und other allowances. Bonus paid to all teachers three times a year, and amount in total to
nearly five times the monthly salary.
Welfare benefits: All public school teachers are provided with welfare benefits by the
Public School Mutual Aid Association in which all public school teachers participate.
Benefits given by the Association are of two categories: one is "short-term benefits," and
the other "long-term benefits".
(a) Short-term benefits: These include medical expense, childbirth expense, disaster
allowance, etc.
(b) Long-term benefits: These include retirement annuity, disability annuity, survivor's
annuity, etc.
Educational Administration
The Ministry of Education: It is the central education authority which administers a
number of national establishments including universities, museums, youth centers, and
research institutes. It also provides guidance, advice and financial assistance to local (i.e.,
prefectural and municipal) education authorities who are responsible for all levels of
education in their own areas.
Boards of Education: In each of the forty-seven prefectures, and each of the more than
3,000 municipalities, there is a of education board which h serves as the local education
authority.
The Prefectural Board of Education: It consists of five members appointed by the governor
with the consent of the prefectural assembly. The members hold office for four years.
The Municipal Board of Education: It consists of five or three members appointed by the
mayor with the consent of the municipal assembly. The members hold office for four years
as in the case of the prefectural board.
Financial Support
Japan spends about 6 per cent of its national income on education. Approximately
half of the public expenditure on education is shared by the national (Central)
government. Between 16 and 20 per cent of national and local expenditure is spent on
education every year. The responsibility for financial support of public education is shared
by the national, prefectural, and municipal governments. Each level of government
provides for its own educational activities with funds derived from its own taxes and other
receipts of income. In addition to general non specific grants to local authorities, the
national government grants subsidies car marked for education, including half the amount
of the salaries of compulsory school teachers.
PRIMARY EDUCATION IN INDIA
Apart from being a constitutional obligation in India the provision of universal
primary education is crucial for spreading mass literacy, and an indispensable first step
towards the provisions of equality of opportunities to all the citizens.
Objectives of Primary Education
The following are the major objectives of primary education:
1. To give an adequate mastery over the tools of learning.
2. To bring about a harmonious development of the child's personality by providing for
his physical, intellectual, social, emotional, aesthetic, moral and spiritual needs.
3. To prepare the children for good citizenship, to develop in them a love for their
country, its tradition and its culture and to inspire in them a sense of service and
loyalty.
4. To develop in the children the spirit of international understanding and universal
brotherhood.
5. To inculcate scientific attitude.
6. To inculcate a sense of dignity of labour.
7. To prepare children for life through the provision of worthwhile practical activities
including work experience.
Problems of Primary Education
Natural Problems: The geographical enrolment has a great impact on man life. His ways of
living, food habits, profession and means of transport and communication are very much
influenced by geographical environment. As the facilities enjoyed by the people in the
plains are not available for those in hilly areas and deserts, the geographical conditions of
hilly areas and deserts demand new steps in life. Hills, plateaus, deserts, rivers, lakes,
forests isolate people of one area with those of another. Means of transport are scattered
in deserts and hills. In
these areas there is no dense population. Hence, it is not economically feasible to open a
primary school for a few people. Primary schools with very few children will be
impracticable due to the meager funds at the disposal of the authority responsible for
providing education. Children from one area cannot go to school founded in another area
because of difficult and inadequate means for transport.
Political Problems: The British Government was indifferent to primary education in India.
It did not try to remove illiteracy prevailing in the land. After independence Government
the Indian became keen to spread primary education throughout the whole country. It was
provided in the Constitution to make primary education free and compulsory.
Hence, primary education was encouraged throughout the whole country. But due
to political difficulties the efforts in this direction have been faulty. The policy followed by
the Government for the expansion of primary education had been impractical. The
concerned authorities do not take much interest in its expansion. There is no co-ordination
in the various Government departments. The work of primary education has been
entrusted to local bodies such as municipal boards, district boards and town areas. These
local bodies do not cooperate with
the government officers appointed for looking after primary education. Many of the
schemes pertaining to primary education remain incomplete due to want of money. It has
not yet been surveyed as to how many primary schools are necessary. The literacy
expansion schemes are closely related to free and compulsory education. If the two are
linked together primary education will expand. Indian public opposes any move for
taxation for education. Hence, the village Panchayats are not fulfilling their objectives.
Social Problems: One finds many social evils in India such as untouchability, caste
differences, narrow religious beliefs, conservatism, illiteracy, communalism, nepotism and
jealousy. People of different castes, religions and communities seek to open schools only to
educate their own children. At some places children of Harijans and the down-trodden are
not admitted to schools as children of higher caste do not like to mix up with the children
of Harijans studying in the same schools. Language problem also obstructs some children
from going to schools.
Economic Problems: The national income is the index of the income of the common man.
Indian national income is satisfactory. The common man is spending difficult days. The
distribution of wealth is very uneven. While some people have So much wealth that they
do not know-how to spend it, many others do not know-how to manage the two square
meals a day. Such poor people do not send their children to school, because they cannot
meet the involved expenses. They persuade their grown-up children for earning to
supplement the family income. The Government, also has not been able to spend as much
money on primary education as needful. Thus, economic problems have come in the way
of expansion of primary education in India.
Problem of Wastage and Stagnation: In India there is too much of wastage and stagnation
at the primary stage of education. Many children leave school or fail due to the above
difficulties. Money, labour and time are wasted. Stagnation is there when children repeat
classes due to failure.
Problem of Dearth of Teachers: In India suitable teachers for primary schools are not
available in adequate number. Most of the teachers are intolerant. They behave very
harshly with children. Children are very much afraid of them and do not like to go to
school. Even after obtaining training, there is no change in the behaviour of some teachers.
It appears that training has not produced any impact on them. Their ability to teach young
children is doubtful. Many primary schools are single-teacher schools. A single teacher
cannot teach five classes of the primary school. Thus, lack of teachers vitiates the
atmosphere of the school.
Reform of Primary Education
Indian Constitution provides for free and compulsory education for all children
between 6 and 11 years of age. This may be extended up to 14 years of age. Some States
have implemented it for the children up to 14 years of age. It was planned that this
scheme of free and compulsory education should be implemented up to the junior high
school stage by 1960-61. Later on it was decided that free and compulsory education
should be made available for children between 6 and 11 years of age. But when even this
objective could not be achieved by the end of the Second Five Year Plan, its programme
was extended in the Third Five Year Plan. For the Fourth Five Year Plan the scheme was
revised for children between 6to 14 years of age. But even by the end of the Seventh Five
Year Plan this could not be achieved due to following difficulties:
Shortage of New Schools: For expansion of primary education new schools should be
opened within the easy approach of children so that they may not have to face the
problem of transport. India have more than seven lakh villages. In order to cater to the
educational needs of children of these villages' lakh of schools will have to be opened
within the easy reach of most of the children. Each of these schools will have a number of
teachers, one teacher for each class. Thus, there should be five teachers for five classes of
each primary school. These teachers should be well qualified and willing to serve in the
area concerned. The school building should also be suitable. A new school may be
established in the locality inhabited by at least 500 people. As in India 65 per cent of the
villages have less than 500 inhabitants a school may be established at a central place which
may serve a number of villages.
Catering to Local Needs: Keeping in view its religious, cultural and social traditions, the
schools should be organised for a particular area. Then alone the public will feel a
belongingness to the schools. If the public so desires, separate schools should be run for
girls. But it will be better if co-education is encouraged up to the primary stage. The
primary school should be established for educating the children of scheduled castes, tribes
and backward classes according to their particular social and cultural traditions. Private
enterprises forthcoming in this direction, should be fully encouraged.
Insufficient School Buildings: Suitable buildings are very necessary for primary schools. In
India very few primary schools have buildings worth the name. The buildings should be in
open, healthy and clean places. There should be big playground adjoining it to facilitate
adequate physical activities of the school children. There should be separate space for
agricultural workshops and practices in cottage industries. Till suitable school buildings are
provided, free and compulsory primary education may be imparted at such public places
which may
accommodate the teachers and students for the purpose such as Village Panchayat
building, Dharmshalas and Parks, etc.
Lack of Sufficient and Suitable Teachers: For free and compulsory education, it is
necessary that suitable teachers from the adjoining areas or local persons are appointed
who are willing to work in rural areas. They should be conversant with the local cultural,
religious and social traditions. They should be fully familiar with language of the area. They
should have the capacity to make the school environment healthy, attractive and useful.
They should be master of subjects so that the teaching of various subjects may be done
satisfactorily. It is estimated that there are only 8 lakhs of teachers for primary schools
today, while India actually needs more than 35 lakhs of them. This need cannot be met by
local teachers. Hence teachers have to be recruited from distant places. students are very
few and number of teachers is inadequate.
Inappropriate Curriculum: The purpose of primary education is to equip children in
fundamental processes so that they may be able to receive further education. The social
needs have changed with changes in society. Hence, the curriculum of the primary
education should also be modified accordingly. The Basic education curriculum should be
implemented at the primary stage. Local needs should be the basis of organizing the
curriculum on the Basic pattern so that students acquire some vocational bent of mind
while receiving training in the principles of citizenship and healthy living along with the
acquisition of command over the 3 R's i.e., reading, writing and arithmetic. primary the
schools of the rural area should have a curriculum different from that in the urban,
because the needs of the two differ.
Lack of National and Local Co-operation: The c0operation of the government and of the
public is very necessary for the development of primary education. In India both the
Central and State Governments are trying for the expansion of primary education, but
success has not yet been achieved due to the defective policy and the lack of necessary
cooperation from the government officials responsible for running the primary education
scheme. The public also does not extend efficient co operation. Even some voluntary
organizations extend helping
hands, the government is not able to utilize it. Now the government departments should
stop such policies which obstruct the growth of primary education. The cooperation of the
public should be enlisted and the government officials should
invite it. The inspectors of schools should contact the primary school teachers and the
public. They should guide the teachers and create an awakening in the public for primary
education. They should study the local needs and arrange for primary education
accordingly.
 The co-operation of the public is very necessary in the expansion of primary
education. Only the public understands its needs. It should co-operate with the
government by giving financial aids, land and building for expansion of primary education.
In the context of the needs of the locality concerned the school should also be made a
centre of community work.
Inadequate Research in Primary Education: The expansion and development of primary
education depends upon the satisfactory solution of the above problems which should be
based on research in primary education organised in universities, teachers training colleges
and in government research institutes. The State Governments should encourage research
in primary education. The research scholars in this area should be given handsome stipends
for successfully carrying out their research projects.
SECONDARY EDUCATION IN INDIA
Form of Secondary Education
Before independence the form of secondary education in India was prescribed by
foreign educationists. Primary classes were designed up to fifth class though they generally
stopped at the fourth class. Middle classes were run from fifth to seventh, High school and
intermediate classes were run from eighth to twelfth. The form of secondary education
changed after Independence. Now the seven year secondary education is generally
current. With some modification secondary education has been divided into three groups-
from sixth to eighth, Junior high school, from ninth to tenth, high school and eleventh and
twelfth have been regarded as higher secondary or intermediate classes. The Mudaliar
Commission (1952-53) termed secondary education as higher secondary education while
ninth to eleventh classes were included in it the twelfth class was pre-university class.
Features of Secondary Education
The following important features of education at the secondary stage have been
pointed out in the booklet entitled "10+2+3 A major change in school education",
published by the Ministry of Education, Government of India (1975).
1. The goals of national, integration training for democratic living, c0-cooperativeness,
cultural and religious tolerance have been duly emphasized in the courses of Languages and
Social Sciences and find ample scope in community service.
2. For intellectual development of students, provision has been made by way of teaching
subjects like Languages, Mathematics, Sciences and Social Sciences. For fuller development
of the physical, emotional and other aspects of the students' personality, provision has
been made for work experience, community service, health and physical education and
other activities.
3. The contents which have been given in the syllabi of these subjects are forward looking.
Important developments in the respective areas have been incorporated. Stress has been
laid on recent scientific, technological, social and economic developments in sciences and
social sciences. To broaden the outlook, developments in other parts of the world, too
have been put in proper limelight, while changes of the national scene receive importance.
4. A significant feature of the plus-two education is the provision of opportunities to
students to be productive and self-reliant. With the introduction of work-experience a step
in the direction of inculcating right attitude towards work has
been taken. The important areas to which work experiences relate are: Engineering,
Agriculture, Domestic Science, Commerce, Fine Arts and other trades which have great
utility in domestic and other areas of work.
5. The schools may undertake suitable activities of community service in addition to work-
experience. Such activities may include projects of village uplift, slum clearance, adoption
of a locality for its improvement, work in hospitals to help and
nurse the sick and poor, attending to the famailies of a group of workers of a factory,
removal of illiteracy, etc.
Organisation
On the Basic education pattern secondary education has been divided into basic
and non-basic groups. Basic education, too, was divided into pre-basic and post-basic.
Within the basic scheme it was planned to teach the curriculum of the seven or eight
year's secondary school in six years. In this system the three years Higher Basic course was
considered equivalent to the three years higher secondary school course. To implement
this scheme it was planned to establish Model Higher Secondary schools in rural and urban
areas. The introduction of the three years degree course was also planned in this
educational organisation.
Problems of Secondary Education
1. Organisation and form of secondary schools.
2. Determination of aims of secondary education.
3. Construction of the curriculum.
4. Examination and evaluation.
5. Management and administration.
6. Finance.
7. Number of teachers.
8. Inadequate supervision.
1. Organisation and Form of Secondary Schools: There is no similarity in the forms of
various secondary schools in India, if the forms of secondary schools in the various States
of the country. were the same, the students will not feel much difficulty in going for
education from one State to another.
2. Determination of Aims of Secondary Education: The Indian Constitution provided for
free and compulsory primary education. This feature has an impact on secondary
education. Hence, the number of students at the secondary stage has
increased. The government has tried to make secondary provision for education for
students coming after passing primary schools. Many new secondary schools have been
opened during the various Five Year Plans the number of students at the secondary stage
has increased. But education imparted to them has been merely theoretical To-day, after
having received secondary education the student has only following two options:
1) To enter some university for further education.
2) To roam about here and there in search of job.
In many Western countries secondary education has been so organised that after
obtaining it the student is able to stand on his own legs in some vocational area. But in
India the current secondary education is aggravating the unemployment problem.
Therefore, we have to make our secondary education so useful that the students
having passed this stage do not run only for admission to universities or remain
unemployed and they become economically independent by having acquired some
Vocational skill of productive nature. India needs able citizens for making democracy a
success. Hence, the ultimate aim of secondary education should be to prepare self-
dependent and dutiful citizens imbued with the spirit of intelligent patriotism contributing
to the prosperity of the country.
In secondary education special attention should be paid to the programmes
contributing to the formation of character. The purpose is not only to offer opportunities
for acquiring certificate but to produce youths of character. Education has not only to
impart bookish knowledge but to give a knowledge which may contribute to personal,
social and national prosperity. There should be an all-round development of children.
They should be made physically, mentally, economically, morally and spiritually strong.
They should be made citizens who may think for themselves and who may acquire such
experiences which they
may fruitfully utilize.
Construction of Curriculum:
(i) Aim and Objectives: In order to achieve the above objectives of secondary education,
its curriculum should be more practical and useful. Though due to geographical variations,
the needs of one State differ from those of another, however, we may prepare a
curriculum for the whole country which is helpful in meeting the national goals. The
Government of India is conscious of this objective. The All India Board of Secondary
Education has suggested that some subject should be compulsorily taught in all the
secondary schools in the country. It is trying to forge out such a curriculum which may
achieve the national goals and also meet the regional needs of all classes and groups.
(i) Language Teaching: The problem of language-teaching is a difficult issue in the
curriculum construction. In India Hindi has been accepted as the national language of the
country. But some non-Hindi speaking States are opposing Hindi on the plea that it is
being imposed on minorities. Many groups in South India
favour English in place of Hindi. India is a religious country. Its basic scriptures are in
Sanskrit. Hence, there are many who still love Sanskrit. Hence, it has been
proposed that at least three languages should be taught at the secondary level. This is
known as the Three Language Formula which is given below:
(a) National language or regional language speaking people.
(b) If Hindi has not been taken as a national language, then Hindi or any other Indian
language or Sanskrit.
(c) Sanskrit or any Indian language, if not taken a Western language (English, French, or
German). In three language formula the student will study the national
language along with a regional language and as a third language Sanskrit or any foreign
language.
(iii) Integrated Curriculum: It has been considered necessary to understand the problem
relating to the aptitude and interests of students, regional needs, and mother tongue as the
medium of instruction, arrangement for counseling and guidance and the appropriate
method for implementing the curriculum so that
some uniformity may be forged in the curriculum at the secondary stage. General science
and social studies were included as the compulsory subjects keeping in view the
understanding capacity of the students at the secondary level. For the other subjects
students should be left free to choose their optional according to their needs, interests, age
and capacity. Industrial, vocational and technical subjects should be also included in the
curriculum, keeping in view the present needs of
the nation.
(iv) Curriculum at the Junior Secondary Level: General science, social studies,
mathematics, agriculture or any fine art or some commercial subject or music or physical
exercises for physical development have been accepted as the main subjects of the
curriculum at junior secondary level.
(v) Higher Secondary Level Curriculum: According to recommendations of the Secondary
Education Commission (1952-53) various groups have been favoured. An attempt has
been made to make the curriculum multipurpose by emphasizing
the inclusion of industrial and vocational subjects and crafts.
4. Examination and Evaluation: The prevailing essay type of examination has so many
defects. It is not a good measure of academic achievements and development of the
students. Though it cannot be abolished altogether, yet some changes and
reforms may be introduced into it.
External examination alone is not a good tool for measuring the success of the
students. Internal examinations should also be used for examining the students. The
success or failure of a student should be determined on the basis of both these. The
sectional work of the whole year should be scrutinized. Monthly and third monthly records
of the students should be prepared. Their abilities should be measured in grades. Along
with of essay type questions at least 40 per cent of the marks should be assigned to
objective tests.
5. Management and Administration: Three types of secondary schools are current in
India:
i) Government Schools.
ii) Private or non-government schools.
iii) Schools run by local bodies.
While the Government schools are fully controlled by the governmental machinery,
private schools are managed by private managing committees under the supervision of
district inspector of schools or some other government officer. The government gives
financial aids to all the schools. The school teachers in most of the States in the country
are now paid through government treasuries as the local bodies have not been successful in
running secondary schools. The government itself controls the education of girls and
technical education at the Secondary level in many States. Many voluntary organizations
are also running girls schools and technical schools. But most of them are in bad shape.
Their financial, educational building and teacher problems are acute. While at some places
there are too many of such institutions at other places there are none. Some schools do
not full the conditions of recognition laid by the Education Board. Now the government
has started interfering with the management of these weak institutions. It has also started
appointing teachers for these schools and paying their salaries through the government
treasuries.
6. Finance: So far there have been more private and voluntary efforts for the expansion of
education. The government has tried to establish only one or two model higher secondary
schools in each district. The schools run by voluntary organisation face the problem of
inadequate funds. Their financial resources are
insufficient and they look for the government grants. They do not have good school
buildings, good teachers and suitable teaching materials. They are not in a position to
teach industrial and vocational subjects, as these entail heavier expenditure.
7. Number of Teachers: Teachers are the spinal cord of the school. If the teachers are
inadequate in number the school cannot function well. Today most schools have few able
teachers. Caste and group considerations play the major role at the time of appointment
and the question of suitability is thrown to winds. Hence, unsuitable teachers are
appointed. Many of the Managing Committees are vindictive against teachers. Strikes and
Dharna by teachers have become a common feature in some of the schools. India needs
vocationally trained teachers for multipurpose schools. Indian universities and Teachers'
Training Colleges are not producing such teachers. In the absence of suitable teachers the
multipurpose schools and vocationalist of education are not succeeding. Specially trained
teachers are required for the full implementation of Basic Education. The government
should take some positive steps to solve this problem.
8. Supervision: Supervision arrangement of the secondary schools is not adequate. The
inspectors are busy with their files in their offices. They get little time for supervision and
Inspection of schools under their charge. The behaviour of Inspectors with the teachers is
below the norm. They do not Consider themselves as c0-partners of the teachers in the
interest Or the all-round development of the students. Their approach Should be
constructive and helpful in the sacred task of teaching children. Their attitude should be
democratic. They should try to solve the difficulties of the teachers in class-room situations
and elsewhere. Some refresher course should also be organised for acquainting the
inspectors with the latest developments in the field of education.
Importance of Secondary Education
Adolescence Period: Secondary stage of education coincides with adolescence period. It is
the moral crucial period which requires utmost care of the healthy development of the
child. It plays a significant role in the development of a well-balanced personality.
Socio-Economic Reconstruction: Secondary education plays an important role in training
the youth of the country to take an effective part in the social reconstruction and
economic development of their country. The social, economic, technical and cultural
efficiency of the nation depends on the secondary education. In the post-independent
period vocationalisation of secondary education is emphasized. As secondary stage makes
the final stage of education for a majority of students, it has to prepare them for various
vocations.
Quality Improvement of Education: Secondary education determines the quality of
education both at the primary and higher stages of education. It provides teachers for
primary schools, who can make or mar the standard of primary education.
SALIENT FEATURES OF EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
Salient Features of Education System in USA
1. No Centralized Control: Education has always been a function of the individual States
and their local institutions.
2. Local Support: A great portion of expenditure on education is borne by the local
population. The Federal and State Governments supplement only a part of it.
3. Democratic Ideals: The spirit of democracy dominates every sphere of education in
USA. The responsibility of education has been placed on State Governments who on their
part have delegated this responsibility to local boards. There is also an equality of
opportunity of education to the people in all parts of the USA. People in every State
enjoy freedom to establish schools of their liking. There are State boards of education for
determining the broad educational policies.
4. Separation of Church and State: The public schools are secular. No elementary or
secondary school funds are allocated for constructing church schools or paying church
school teachers' salaries. Religious instruction has no place in the American public school.
5. Extra Scholastic Influences: Edmund J. King says, "There are extra-scholastic influences
which we can see at work in any country of the modern world; but there is no country in
which their cumulative importance is greater than in the United States because of any
shortcomings in the teachings profession but because of the inevitable evolution of
technology and urbanization." Radio and television sets, comics, books, magazines,
advertising, etc., all add their influence. They may
reinforce the school's message or they may be competitive.
6. Freedom of Choice: Educational programmes diversified. The high school student is
offered a choice among courses which prepare for industrial jobs, for agriculture, for
general college education or for a technical course. The college
offers dozens of alternative fields of concentration and each Curriculum is a gateway to
many diverse positions.
7. Philanthropic Foundations: Philanthropic foundations have played an important role in
American education. There are about 10,000 foundations in the United States of which
about half give some attention to education in one form or another. In a recent study of
the grants in 110 of the largest foundations, it was found that education received 47 per
cent of the total grants Funds are freely and immediately available for creative work
innovation and experimentation, through these foundations.
8. Curriculum Revision: Curricula are being revised in the light of recent technological,
cultural and political developments. Changes are notable in the fields of mathematics,
science and foreign languages.
9. Guidance Services: The total student guidance services are being extended and
increased. An effort is being made to educate more effectively the gifted and the
academically talented students.
10. Schools closer to the Community: Schools have been closed the people in the United
States. Their problems are of concern to all citizens. Their progress is a source of
community pride.
11. Research: Supported and expanded through the efforts of governmental agencies and
private foundations, universities. State departments of education and local school systems,
American education is undertaking more and more research.
12. Free Education: The first 12 years of education (elementary and secondary schooling)
are provided free to all American children by the States. Parents, however, may send their
sons and daughters to fee-charging private or church connected schools.
Although even the public universities charge some fees, it is estimated that
American colleges and per universities derive only 25 cent of their income from students.
The other three quarters is the contribution of governments (State, Local and Federal):
industries, foundations and individuals towards the education o1 the nation's youth.
Compulsory Education: The usual age school for beginning is 6, though in some schools it
is 7. Education is compulsory in most States up to the age of 16, and in some to 18.
Twelve years of free schooling are divided into different patterns in different communities.
More common are six years of elementary school, followed by two of junior high and four
of senior high, or three years of junior and three of senior high.
Education Profile of USA
1. Years of Free full time compulsory education 11 to 12 years.
2. Primary School Enrolment.ratio-100%
3. Upper Secondary Gross Enrolment ratio-90%
4. Upper Secondary graduates as % of population of normal completion age-74%
5. Tertiary full-time equivalent Gross Enrolment ratio-70%
6. Tertiary engineering and related science Enrolment as % of total tertiary-14%
7. Public expenditure on tertiary education as % of all level-24%
8. Total educational expenditure as % of G.N.P.-5.7%
9. Students per 1000 of population-255
a) Primary 90
b) Secondary 90
c) Higher 50
d) Pre-primary 25
10. Adult Literacy Rate
a) Male 99%
b) Female-99%
Salient Features of Education in UK
I. Compulsory: Education is compulsory between the ages of four or five and sixteen and
all children must by law attend school or be otherwise educated in a way approved by the
local education authority.
2. Free: School education is provided for 11 years in State maintained schools and longer
for those who decide to remain at school after the minimum school leaving age. Free
education includes not only free tuition but also the provision of textbooks. All necessary
equipment and apparatus and in several cases subsidized school meals.
3. According to Wishes of the Parents: At the primary stage a parent has usually the
opportunity of sending his child to either a "county school (that is, a school that is wholly
the concern of a local authority) or a "voluntary" school (that is., "a denominational
school supported by public funds). Of Course, a parent cannot insist on a transfer from
one local authority school to another. At the secondary stage although the wishes of the
parents may be taken into account at the point of transfer from primary to secondary
education, the school attended depends on the ability and aptitude of the child.
4. Co-Curricular Activities: The activities of the school extend far beyond its own walls. It
is a focus for the social services and it provides for games, hobbies and out-of school
activities.
5. Teachers' Professional Preparation and Academic Freedom: The teachers are drawn
almost from the more intelligent and successful students in the grammar school. They are
professionally adequately trained and form a highly selected and professionally minded
group. In recent years academic the attainments of entrants to the teaching profession
have risen considerably. They are not, in general bound by official instructions about
syllabuses, textbooks or methods.
6. National System of Education with Substantial Local Differences: Although the school
system is national in its main outlines, it is very much a matter of local choice. The
administration of publicly provided education in schools and colleges of further education
is shared by the Central averment Departments, Local Education Authority various
voluntary organisations. The English system of administration is a 'partnership' between
central and local authorities, which while avoiding the defects of undue regimentation in
curricula, text-books, and control of the teachers from the centre, gives the Department of
Education adequate authority for planning the re-organisation of the school system on a
national basis.
7. Publicly Supported Schools: Some 9 million children attend Britain's 30,500 State
schools (including 25,000 primary and nursery schools) and about 6,00,000 go to
2,500 private schools, often referred to as the 'independent' sector.
8. Public Schools: There are nearly 100 public schools which provide education to the
most influential social groups. These schools usually provide boarding facilities and charge
heavy fees. A public school is controlled by its own board of governors.
9. Universities: The universities are self-governing institutions, academically independent,
although about 80 percent of their income is drawn from public funds.
10. Reforms in Education: Far reaching reforms have taken place in the education system
of Britain.
Salient Features of the Japanese Education System
Regarding the Level of Education
 The level of Japanese education is high even by world standards. In OECD's
Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)aimed at fifteen-year-olds,
Japanese students recorded high levels of achievement, particularly in science related
areas. Educational activities outside of school also flourish, and programs leading to
advanced education are implemented.
Enrollment in high schools, the second-half of secondary education, reaches Over
90%, and the enrollments in college are also high reaching over 50%. Admission to high
schools and colleges is mainly through entrance exams, held from January to March.
Foreign Language Education
English is a compulsory subject in junior high and high Schools. There are also
elementary schools that introduce English education from intermediate grade classes. In
some high schools, apart from English, students are also allowed to take
Courses in Chinese, Korean, French, German, etc.
Student Clubs
Student clubs are a characteristic part in Japan's school education. Under teachers'
guidance, students with the same interests in sports, cultural activities, or fields of study
voluntarily gather together after classes and on days off. There are also numerous student
clubs revolving around Japanese traditional sports and culture, such as judo,
kendo(Japanese swordsmanship), sad (Japanese tea ceremony), kado (Japanese flower
arrangement), shodo (Japanese calligraphy), etc. Club activities also provide students with
the chance to participate in school exchange and friendly matches.
1. Almost every school requires uniforms
Japanese school uniforms are common in many private public and schools across
the country. By wearing the same clothier as their classmates, Japanese students feel less
social barriers among students than students in countries without uniforms. And the
European-style navy-influenced uniforms also help students get in the working spirit.
2. Japan's school attendance rate is about 99.99 percent
Although skipping classes is almost a sport at some schools in Western countries-
especially for seniors who have already been accepted to college simply don't skip classes
or arrive late.
3. The academic year starts in April
 While schools in most countries being their academic year in September, in Japan,
classes start in April. This means the first day of school comes during the most beautiful
time of the year when the cherry blossoms are in full bloom!
4. Japanese students study subjects that give them respect for their traditional culture
Japanese students learn respect for their culture in the form of traditional art like
calligraphy and poetry. Japanese calligraphy, or shodo, is practiced with a brush and ink
and students must learn kanji, or Chinese characters, to master it.
Haiku, on the other hand, helps student connect with the spirit of their national character.
5. After-school classes are very popular
In order to get into the best middle schools, high schools, and universities, Japanese
students often take after-school classes in both core subjects and extracurricular ones.
Students attend classes at night, on the weekends, and even on holidays. This ensures that
Japanese students rarely repeat a grade.
6. One test decides the future of university-bound students
In order to be accepted at a university, Japanese must take a national standardized
test. Each university has a minimum score that students must meet, and competition is
very high, as about 16percent of students continue their education past high school.
7. The university years are the best time in a person's life work force.
After completing all those years of school, after-school Classes, and finally going
through examination hell" to land a Pot at one of Japan's finest universities, many students
take the next four years to have a little "vacation" before entering the work force.
2.10.4 Features of Ancient Indian Education
❖ The system focuses on the all-round development of students.
❖ Primary Education and Secondary Education
❖ More emphasis was given to practical knowledge rather than theoretical knowledge.
❖ The students were not just involved in bringing the ranks, but their main focus was
on knowledge.
❖ Classrooms were built-in forests which provide a pleasant study environment to the
students.
❖ There was no pressure laid on students related to studies so that they can learn
effectively.
 ❖ The government did not interfere with the formation of curriculum, kings at that
time helped in the development of education
❖ Each stage of life was marked and sanctified by an appropriate religious ceremony
which in course of time became a part and parcel of the social life of the people.
❖ Education at that time was-free and accessible to all (universal) except the Sudras.
But the rule of begging was prevalent. The society had an obligation to provide
alms.
❖ The system of education was intimately connected with the social structure.
❖ Kings and rulers of the country had nothing to do with education directly. It was a
private affair of the people managed entirely by Brahmana teachers.
❖ The teachers depended for their support on the goodwill charity and of the
people. It was the duty of the people to give alms.
❖ Teachers were a highly honored class. They were more honored than kings who
were honored only in their own countries whereas the learned men were respected
everywhere.
❖ Teachers be haved as parents to their pupils and the pupils also in their turn
behaved as members (sons) of the teacher'sfamily. The house of the teacher was
the school. Teachers and pupils lived together and their relation was very cordial.
Knowledge imparted in those days was of two types:
❖ Para Vidya and
❖ (b) Apara Vidya.
❖ Para Vidya mneans Supreme or highest knowledge for self realization or knowledge
of the Supreme self.
❖ Apara Vidya means the lowest knowledge of the four Vedas and six Vedangas etc.
❖ The ultimate aim of education was the complete realization of the self. It was
neither a preparation for this worldly life nor for life beyond. Education aimed at
freedom from bondage and knowledge or illumination makes one free from this
bondage and helps to unite with the Supreme self.
❖ The immediate or proximate aim of education was to prepare the different castes
of people for their actual needs of life.
 ❖ The subjects of instruction varied according to the needs of the different castes.
These included the Vedas and Vedangas in the case of the Brahmanas, the art of
warfare in the case of the Kshatriyas, the art of agriculture, arts and crafts in the
case of the Vaisyas. Ancient Indian Education was thus caste dominated.
❖ Pupils were taught individually. No class instruction was provided. Sometimes
senior students acted as teachers of Junior ones. This was known as the monitorial
system. Ancient Indian Education was individualized and not institutionalized.
❖ The method of teaching was mainly oral through debates and discussions which
received due attention.
The method of study consisted in:
❖ Sravana-listening to the teacher, Manana-reflection on what was listened to,
❖ Nidhidhyasana -constant repetition of the subject of study
❖ Travelling was regarded as necessary to complete the education.
❖ In ancient India, education was for education’s sake, and no for examination or for
getting a job. Education was all round, i.e., complete or total development of
personality intellectual, physical, moral and social.
❖ The place of education was generally the forest which was far from the madding
crowd and ignoble strife. The ancient Rishis established the earliest schools in
hermitages Ashramas in the forest. The system of Guru-Kula was then in vogue.
The home of the teacher was also regarded as a school.
❖ There was generally no provision for corporal punishment. Discipline was free. Self-
reverence, self-knowledge and self control - these three alone can lead life to
sovereign power. Self-discipline was the best discipline. Ancient Indian Education
was dominated by strict moral codes of conduct.
❖ Girls were educated privately in their homes by parents, elders or husbands and not
publicly as boys. Education that girls received was highly intellectual and it reached
a very high level as in the well-known cases of Gargi, Maitreyi and others.
❖ There was no formal system of examination of the present day. The teacher was the
sole judge of the standard achievements of the pupils.
 ❖ The period of studentship was longer, i.e. twelve year because there was no printed
book in those days. Everything had to be memorized. Hence memory played a very
prominent role in Ancient Indian Education.
❖ Teaching was practically honorary. Taking anything from the students was regarded
as sin. There was no pecuniary relation between the teacher and the taught. At the
end of studentship some honorarium (Gurudakshina), of course, could be paid to
the teacher either in cash or in kind.
❖ Strict celibacy had to be observed during the period of studentship.
❖ The teacher was regarded as the only source of knowledge and as such he was
highly respected.
❖ There was no formal system of admission. The teacher was the only deciding factor
in matters of admission.
❖ Education (teaching) in ancient India was regarded as a religious duty and
intimately connected with the performance of some ceremonies or rituals
(Vidyarambha, Upanayana, Utsarjana, Samavartana etc.).
❖ The aim of Ancient Indian Education was to develop both the body and the mind.
It intended to develop sound mind in sound body.
❖ Ancient Indian Education was both spiritualistic and materialistic.
❖ The Vedic education was caste-ridden.
❖ Moral upliftment of the pupil was the cherished goal of the Ancient Indian
Education.
❖ It had both catholicity and elasticity in outlook and as such it had the power of
adaptability. It was not rigid but flexible. So it continued for centuries.

UNIT-3

CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS FOR COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF EDUCATION IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

 No two countries have identical set up of education. Educational systems of
different countries vary from one another. The basic requirements of particular cultures
are responsible for these variations. Educational systems of almost all the countries are
influenced by several factors. These are, in fact, the basic requirements. They include
philosophical background, national character, socio-economic conditions, geographical
factors, etc. Educational system, in fact, is the result of a sum total of all these things. It
has to be studied in this perspective. Then only it shall be possible for us to have proper
idea of the educational system of different countries. Then alone it shall be possible for it
to fulfil the dream contained in the following lines of A.H Moehlmn:
Education has become a major instrument in cultural change. The evidence
becomes increasingly clear that human nature can be changed and that education is a
prime factor in this process. Education, both formal and informal, has accelerated the shift
from rural to highly industrialized nations or culture in the time span of a few
generations."
"Human kind is unique in that it can construct its own dimensions of life. It lives in
a world of symbols, which it has created itself, language, number, and formulae. Education
is the great instrument for training human-beings in the use of symbols basic to their
survival and progress."
The following factors are basically responsible for educational patterns of different
countries: -
Sense of National Unity or Nationalism:
An educational system can develop successfully only when the people of the
country are bound together by a sense of national unity or nationalism. It is necessary for
education to develop this feeling. In America William T. Harris, John Louis and other have
tried their best to develop a sense of unity amongst the American people, as America is
inhabited by the people who belong to different races and speak different languages. The
same has been true about Great Britain. In Germany and Japan people could make so
much of development because of the sense of nationalism or national unity. After World
War II, the countries of Africa and South East Asia, were very much influenced by the
sense of nationalism or national unity. The need is to evolve such a system of education
that would inculcate the sense of nationalism among different countries.
Cultural Heritage: The educational system must inculcate in citizens a love for their culture
and pride for their cultural heritage. Universal and basic elements of the culture of
particular country are based on the values of life, religion and cultural values. They remain
unchanged by the social, political and other changes. They inculcate in the citizens a
sense of pride for cultural heritage. Without these values, nationalism cannot grow.
The Minorities and Majority Issue: In most countries, there are several groups of minorities
which do not follow the religion of the language followed and spoken by the majority. In
spite of this, they belong to a particular nation or a country and have a sense of
nationalism. To make them confident about their existence and inculcate in them a sense
of security as well as pride for cultural heritage, requires re organisation and change in the
educational set up and curricula. In India it is necessary to evolve a system of education,
which would make the minorities realize that they are the partners in the cultural heritage
of India.
Economic Capability: Educational system of a particular country is very much guided by
general economic situation. An economically prosperous country can afford any system of
education. On the other hand, a poor country cannot afford the luxury of an expensive
educational system. The education must suit the economic conditions of a particular
country. The educational system should also meet and fulfil the economic requirements of
a particular country. The education system of India must meet the requirements of a
developing economy.
Preservation of National Interests: The educational system of a country should provide
avenues of employment to its people. It should be capable of maintaining and preserving
the national interests. The economic base of the education of a country should preserve
the national interests.
Bridging the Gulf between the Rich and the Poor: Educational system of a country
believing in Democracy and Communism, has to be capable of bridging the gulf between
the rich and the poor. Unless it is done, the society shall have warring classes and the class
conflict shall destroy the basic cultural values.

National Character: National character and economic conditions are very much linked the
economic conditions do influence the national character. National character also influences
the educational set up. The educational set up should try to keep and maintain a national
character.
Political Background and the Educational System: Political ideology influences, the
development of a particular system of education. Education is used as an instrument of the
propagation of political ideology. Political systems also influence the systems of education.
What is needed is a strong and balanced relationship between the educational set up and
the political organization of the country. The following factors should be kept in view:
(1) People and political system
(ii) Administrative set up and education.
iii) Democracy and education
(iv) Educational philosophy or educational ideology
People and political system: Administrative set up or machinery has to fulfil the
requirements and the aspirations of people. Education conveys the aspirations and
requirements of the people. People also express their desires through administrative
machinery. Unless the administrative set up is able to meet these requirements and
aspirations of the people of the country, it cannot be said to be useful for the people.
Administrative set up and education: It not necessary for the educational system of a
country to be subservient to the political set up. Sometimes, it changes the political set up
and also causes a lot of dissatisfaction against an incompetent political machinery. In a
monolithic system of Communist countries educational system is used as an agency for
inculcating the ideals of the political set up. Education has to sub serve the ends of the
political machinery. In an authoritarian society, education becomes subservient to political
set up.
Democracy and education: In opposition to the Communist system of the Government in
a democratic set up, opportunity is provided for independent thinking. Prof. Nicholas
Hans has laid great stress on education in a democratic set up. Education makes
democracy successful and people alive to the requirements of democracy.
Educational ideology: In every national system of education, the progressive elements of
the educational policy are of great value and importance. The success of educational
system depends, on its capability to meet the contemporary requirements of the society.
Socio-economic conditions influence the educational ideology and educational set up. The
countries having conservative social system do not accept the new trends of education.
This has an adverse effect on the progress of the society. The educational ideology is very
much influenced by different factors. Decentralized educational system has more
possibilities of progressive trends as compared to centralized educational system. Most of
the democratic countries are anxious to bring about decentralization in the field of
education.
National Language: The national language occupies an important place in the educational
system of every country. Most of the countries impart education through the medium of
their national language. Where there are regional languages, along with the national
language, national language is taught almost at all levels of education. National language is
a link language and should get encouragement and respect.
The Problem of Language: In the countries where more than one language are spoken,
there is a problem of the language. It is sometimes responsible for certain drawbacks in
the development of the educational system of a country. Students develop themselves
properly only when they get education through their mother tongue or the national
language. Education should be imparted through the medium of the mother-tongue. This
has been emphasized by the educationists of the world and realized through
experimentation. This problem has to be solved in a v amicable and nice manner. In such
countries, national language has to be given due regard and due place.
Problem of Script: Linked with the problem of language is the problem of script. Almost
all the right thinking educationists and politicians have laid stress on a common script. In
our own country, there is a national language, but all sorts of things are done against it. A
good deal of stress is laid on the development of the regional languages. These regional
languages have different scripts. National script should be given due place not only in
education but in national life as well. Only national scrip can provide a backbone to the
healthy system of education.
International Co-operation: After the end of World War II, cooperation between different
nations has become imperative for educational and cultural development of the world.
International agencies come to realize that unless there is cooperation between different
nations of the world in the field of education and cultural development, war cannot be
completely done away with Every national system of education has to keep remember the
aspect of the international cooperation. UNESCO and such other agencies are trying to
bring about every possible co-operation is the field of education and other cultural
activities.
National Character and National System of Education: Almost all the educationists are
convinced of the importance of the national character and national characteristics, in
educational system and educational set up. In countries where people have high national
character, the educational set up is developed and useful. National character is a complex
result and inter-mixture of several qualities. This multiplicity of factors influences the
educational system. Past plays an important role in national character. Even in countries
where educational system has been introduced by revolution, the influence of the past is
quite visible in the national character. National character and education are interlinked.
Education is used as a means of building up and changing the national character.

CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS FOR COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

Constitutional Provisions in USA
The Constitution of the United States makes no reference to education but Article
X confers upon the States powers in those areas which are not specifically denied to the
States or reserved to the Federal Government. Power over education and legal
responsibility for the maintenance of educational systems, therefore, rests in each of the
fifty States. The provisions of the fundamental document of American Government thus
indirectly affirm the philosophy of decentralized control and regulation of education.

Since the specific legislation authorizing the maintenance and support of public
education and regulating the licensing of private education is different for each of the fifty
States and five other jurisdictions of the United States, no standard pattern exists. As a
consequence of these legal constitutional circumstances, it is proper to say that there are
many systems of education in the United States.

For nearly three quarters of a century after the establishment of the Federal
Republic, Article X served to nullify legislative efforts to provide for any sort of Federal
and specifically for education in that part of the nation already organized into States. After
the War Between the States, national requirements gradually focused attention on "Central
Welfare" clause of the Constitution as an avenue permitting some kind of Federal
involvement in the education systems of the Nation. First the Morrill Acts (1862 and
1890) and then later the vocational educational legislation passed during the First World
War expressed a gradually awakening national interest in the support of education.
Federal Acts on Education
Several Acts have been passed by the Federal Government which have a great
bearing on education. Mention may be made of the following important Acts:
1. Higher Education Facilities Act (1962)
2. The Vocational Education Act (1963
3. Economic Opportunity Act (1964)
4. The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965)
5. The International Education Act (1966)
6. The Education Professions Development Act (1967)
7. Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1970).
Relationship of Federal, State and Local Governments
The relationship between Federal, State and local government pertaining to
education may be described as a partnership in which each of the three levels of
government, at one time or another has participated in varying ways and degrees in the
establishment and support of education. It is now generally recognized that both the
quantity and quality of education are proper concerns of the Federal Government
although it is clearly understood that the administration and control of public education
institutions are the responsibility of the State and local governments. The present character
of the association of three levels of government for the maintenance of education is the
outcome of more than three centuries of social political and institutional development.
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS IN UK
Education Act of 1944 -Main Provisions

Role of the education minister: (Section 1) The duty of the minister is "to promote
the education of the people of England and Wales and the progressive development of
institutions devoted to that purpose and to secure the effective execution by local
education authorities, under his control and direction of the national policy for providing a
varied and comprehensive educational service in every area." Now the Secretary of State
for Education and State performs the functions of the minister of education.
Role of the Local Education Authorities: (Section 6) "Subject to the provisions of
Part I of the First Schedule of this Act, the local education authority for each country shall
be the council of the county, and the local education authority for each county borough
shall be the council of the county borough."
System of Education: (Section 7) "The statutory system of public education shall
be organized in three progressive stages to be known as primary education, secondary
education, and further education, and that "it shall be duty of the local authority for area,
so far as their powers extend, to contribute towards the spiritual, moral, mental and
physical development of the community by securing that efficient education throughout
those stages be available to meet the needs of the population of their area."
(Section 8): The local authority must see that in its area there are sufficient schools
for providing (a) primary education which is defined as 'full-time education suitable to the
requirements of junior pupils' (ie. pupils under 12 years of age) and (b) secondary
education, that is 'full-time education suitable to the needs of senior pupils' (i.e. over 12
years but under 19). These definitions were modified in the Education Act, 1948 which
defines primary education as 'full-time education suitable to the requirements of junior
pupils who have not attained the age of ten years and six months, and full-time education
suitable to the requirements of junior pupils who have attained that age and whom it is
expedient to educate together with senior pupils who have not attained that age'.
Secondary education is full-time education suitable to the needs of senior pupils and full-
time education suitable to the requirements of junior pupils who have attained the age of
ten years and six months and whom it is expedient to educate together with senior pupils'.
Administration of the School: (Section 17)
(1) Every institution, whether voluntary or otherwise shall be maintained by a Body
of Managers or a Body of Governors. These bodies shall be appointed by an instrument.
(ii) For the primary schools there shall be an Instrument of Management and for
secondary schools, there shall be an Instrument of Government. Every primary institution
shall be run according to the Rules of Management and every secondary institution shall be
run according to the Articles of Government These rules and articles shall be laid down by
Local Education Authorities. Rules in regard to administration shall have to be approved
by the Minister for Education.
(iii) Aided and Special Agreement Schools shall have, on their Body of Managers,
at least one-third representatives of Local Education Authorities. Two-thirds of the
Members of the Body of Managers shall be from amongst founders of the institution The
Body of Managers shall not be less than that of six members."
Religious Education: (Section 25) (i) "The school day in every county school and
in every voluntary school shall begin with collective worship on the part of all pupils in
attendance", and that "religious instruction shall be given in every county school and in
every voluntary school." "It shall not be required, as a condition of any pupil attending
any county or voluntary school that he shall attend or abstain from attending any
Secondary School or, any place of religious worship."
(ii) (Section 26): The collective worship in a county school "shall not... be
distinctive of any particular religious denomination", and the religious instruction shall be
"in accordance with any agreed syllabus adopted for the school and shall not include any
catechism or formulary which is distinctive of any particular religious denomination."
(iii) (Section 27): The religious instruction is a controlled school shall be "in
accordance with an agreed syllabus adopted for the school", and such an instruction may
be given "during not more than two periods in each week."
(iv) (Section 28): Religious instruction in aided and special agreement schools
"shall be under the control of the managers or governors of the school, and shall be in
accordance with any provisions of the trust deed relating to the school, or, where
provision for that purpose is not made by such a deed, in accordance with the practice
observed in the school before it became a voluntary school."
Compulsory Schooling: (Section 35) Compulsory school age is defined as 'any age
between 5 and 15 years'. But it adds "provided that as soon as the Minister is satisfied
that it has become practicable to raise to 16 the upper limit of the compulsory school age,
he shall lay before Parliament the draft of an Order in Council directing that the foregoing
provisions of this section shall have effect as if for references therein to the age of 16
years." The school leaving age was raised to 16 with effect from 1972-73.
 Parents' Duty Regarding Compulsory Schooling: (Section 36) "It shall be the duty
of the parents of every child of compulsory school age to cause him to receive efficient full
time education suitable to his age, ability, and aptitude, either by regular attendance at
school or otherwise." School Health Service: (Section 48) It is the duty of local education
authority "to provide for the medical inspection, at appropriate intervals, of pupils in
attendance at any school or county college maintained by them" and "to make such
arrangements for securing that provision of free medical treatment for pupils in attendance
at any school or county college maintained by them as are necessary for securing that
comprehensive facilities for free medical treatment as are available to them either under
this Act or otherwise."
Recreation, Social and Physical Training: (Section 53) " It shall be duty of every
local education authority to secure that the facilities for primary, secondary and further
education provided for their area include adequate facilities for recreation and physical
training." For that purpose, a local education authority, with the approval of the Minister,
may establish, maintain, and manage, or may assist that establishment, maintenance, and
management of camps, playing-fields, play centres, and other places (including
playgrounds, gymnasium and swimming-baths not appropriated to any school or college)
at which facilities for such recreation and for such training are available. The authority may
organize games, expeditions, and other activities and may defray or contribute towards the
expenses thereof.
Fees: (Section 61) "No fees shall be charged in respect of admission to any school
maintained by local education authority or to any county college, or in respect of the
education provided in any school or college."
Special Education: According to the Act, "Special educational treatment has to be
given to such children as are mentally or physically deficient."
Boarding Facilities: The Act lays down that, "Boarding accommodation has to be
provided for those whom it considered desirable by the Local Education Authorities."
Training of Teachers: (Section 62) "He (Minister of Education) shall make such
arrangements as he considers expedient for securing that there shall be available sufficient
facilities for the training of teachers and may give to any Local Education Authority such
directions as he thinks necessary requiring them to establish, maintain or assist in training
colleges or other institutions or to provide or assist the provision of any other facilities
specified in the direction."

Significance of the 1944 Act

The three Hadow Reports, the Education of the Adolescent (1926), Primary
School (1931), and Infant and Nursery Schools (1933), the Spens Reports (1938), the
Norwood Report (1941) had their culmination in the Education Act of 1944.
Amending Acts
The 1944 Act has been followed by a number of amending Acts: Education
(Miscellaneous Provisions) Act, 1948: It authorized the promotion of able children from
junior to secondary school six months earlier than the accepted age of 11.
Education (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act, 1953: It revised the conditions
governing the payment of grants for the building of new aided schools on new building
estates and gave assistance to voluntary schools in their building programmes in such areas.
Education Act, 1959: It was intended mainly to encourage the voluntary schools
to expand their programmes. They were given a 75 per cent grant instead of the previous
50 per cent to provide secondary schools for pupils from their own primary schools. The
grant to the voluntary teacher training colleges was increased from 25 per cent to 75 per
cent to ensure the necessary number of teachers.
Education Act, 1962: It revised arrangements for grants to students and also
changed the law relating to school leaving age. Education Act, 1964: It authorized Local
Education Authorities the power to vary the age of transfer from primary to secondary
schools and also to pay maintenance grants in respect of 15 years old pupils in special
schools.
Education Act, 1967: It provided for the increase of grants to certain educational
institutions (e.g., aided and special arrangement schools), extended the power to require
Local Education Authorities to defray the expenses of establishing controlled schools and
made provision for loans in respect of capital expenditure for colleges of education.
Education Acts of 1986 and 1988: Measures to improve the quality and breadth
of education and to extend parental choice and delegated decision-making in State-
maintained schools in England and Wales are embodied in two Acts. The Education (No.
2) Act, 1986 contains provisions to reform the composition of school governing bodies
and reallocate functions between school governors, local education authorities and head
teachers; appraise the performance of teachers; and introduce more effective in-service
training of teachers. The Education Reform Act, 1988, covering both school and post-
school education provides for the establishment of a National Curriculum for children
aged 5 to 16 in all State schools and for regular assessments of performance. From
September 1990 secondary schools were required to admit pupils up to the limit of their
available physical capacity if there was sufficient demand on behalf of children eligible for
admission. This policy, known as 'more open enrolment', will further increase parental
choice of schools. The 1988 Act gives all secondary as well as large primary schools
responsibility for managing the major part of their budgets, including staffing costs, as well
as the opportunity to withdraw from local authority control. It also makes provision for
the development of city technology colleges in disadvantaged urban areas. Similar Acts
were passed relating to Scotland and Northern Ireland
Education (Schools) Act, 1992: The new regulations require all maintained schools
to send parents a written report on their children's progress.
Further and Higher Education Act, 1992: This Act abolishes the distinction
between universities and polytechnics in England and Wales and creates new higher
education funding councils.
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS IN JAPAN
Duty and Right to Education: The educational system underwent extensive reforms
after World War II. The Constitution, enacted in 1946, defines the basic right and duty of
the people to receive education, as follows:
"All people shall have the right to receive an equal education correspondent to their
ability, as provided by law. The people shall be obligated to have all boys and girls under
their protection receive general education as provided for bylaw. Such compulsory
education shall be free" (Article 26).
The Fundamental Principles of Education: Enacted in 1947, it sets forth in more detail
the aims and principles of education in accordance with the spirit of the Constitution. (1)
The central aim of education: It is defined as bringing up self-reliant citizens of a peaceful
and democratic state and community with a respect for human values. The Preamble of
the Fundamental Law of Education states: "We shall esteem individual dignity and
endeavor to up people who love truth and peace, while education which aims at the
creation of universal yet highly individualistic bring culture shall be spread far and wide."

(ii) Equality in educational opportunity for all in keeping with their abilities: The Law
prohibits discrimination based on race, creed, sex, social status, economic position, or
family background. Co-education is authorized.
(iii) Adult Education: Emphasis is laid in the public school curricula on social studies. The
Fundamental Law of Education encourages social education and calls on state and local
authorities to establish such institutions as libraries, museum and citizens' halls.
Educational Statutes
The series of educational statutes which followed the Fundamental Law of
Education brought about the decentralization of public education; establishment of the 6-3
34 school system; reorientation of curricula, courses of study, textbooks and teaching
methods; and a total reorganization of educational administration in the country.
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS IN INDIA
The Constitution of India came into force on January 26 1950. As it embodies
our hopes and aspirations, it is but natural that education should find its place in this great
document. A number of important provisions which have a direct or indirect bearing on
education have been included in the Constitution. The outline of the philosophy which
should govern all our institutions, educational as well as others, are indicated in the
Preamble to the Constitution.
Preamble
We, the people of India, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a Sovereign
Socialist Secular Democratic Republic and to secure to all its citizens:
❖ Justice, social, economic and political;
❖ Liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship:
❖ Equality of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all;
❖ Fraternity assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity of the Nation.
In Our Constituent Assembly this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do hereby adopt,
enact and give to ourselves this Constitution.
Article 14, Equality before Law: The State shall not deny to any person equality before
the law or the equal protection of the law within the territory of India.
Article 15, Prohibition of Discrimination on Grounds of Region, Race, Caste, Sex or Place
of Birth

1. The State shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race,
caste, sex, and place of birth or any of them.
2. No citizen shall, on grounds only of religion, race, caste,sex, place of birth or any of
them, be subject to any disability, liability, restriction or condition with regard to (a)
Access to shops, public restaurants, hotels and places of public entertainment; or
(b) The use of wells, tanks, bathing ghats, roads and places of public resort maintained
wholly or partly out of State funds or dedicated to the use of the general public.
3. Nothing in this Article shall prevent the State from making any special provision for
women and children.
4. Nothing in this Article or clause (2) of Article 29 shall prevent the State from making
any special provision for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward
classes of citizens or for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes.
Article 16, Equality of Opportunity in Matters of Public Employment
1. There shall be equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to employment
or appointment to any office under the State.
2. No citizens shall, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth,
residence or any of them, be ineligible for, or discriminated against in respect of, any
employment or office under the State.
3. Nothing in this Article shall prevent Parliament from making any law prescribing, in
regard to a class or classes of employment or appointment to an office (under the
Government of, any local or other authority within, a State or Union Territory, any
requirement as to residence within that State or Union Territory) prior to such
employment or appointment.
4. Nothing in this Article shall prevent the State from making any provision for the
reservation of appointments or posts in favor of any backward class of citizens which, in
the opinion of the State, is not adequately represented in the services under the State.
5. Nothing in his Article shall affect the operation of any lav which provides that the
incumbent of an office in connection with the affairs of any religious or denominational
institution or any member of the governing body shall be a person professing a particular
religion or belonging to a particular denomination.

Article 17, Abolition of Untouchability. 'Untouchability" is abolished and its practice in

any form is forbidden. The enforcement of any disability arising out of 'Untouchability"
shall be an offence punishable in accordance with law.
Article 24, Prohibition of Employment of Children in Factories, etc. No child
below the age of 14 years shall be employed to work in any factory or mine or engaged in
any other hazardous employment. Article 25, Freedom to Manage Religious Affairs.
Subject to public order, morality and health, every religious denomination or any section
thereof shall have the right
(a) to establish and maintain institution for religious and charitable purposes;
(b) to manage its own affairs in matters of religion;
(c) to own and acquire movable and immovable property;
(d) to administer such property in accordance with law.
Article 28, Freedom as to Attendance at Religious Instruction or Religious Worship in
Certain Educational Institutions.
1. No Religious instruction shall be provided in any educational institution wholly
maintained out of the stated funds.
2. Nothing in clause (1) shall apply to an educational institution which is administered by
the State but has been established under any endowment or trust which requires that
religious instruction shall be imparted in such institution.
3. No person attending any educational institution recognized by the State or receiving
any aid out of State funds shall be required to take part in any religious instruction that
may be imparted in such institution or to attend any religious worship that may be
conducted in such institution or in any premises attached thereto unless such person or, if
such person is a minor, his guardian has given his consent thereto.
Article 29, Protection of Interest of Minorities.
1. Any section of the citizens residing in the territory of India or any part thereof
having a distinct language, script or culture of its own shall have the right to
conserve the same, 2. No citizen shall be denied admission into any educational
institution maintained by the State or receiving aid out of State funds on grounds
only of religion, race, caste, language or any of them.

Article 30, Right of Minorities to Establish and Administer Educational Institutions.

1. All minorities, whether based on religion or language, shall have the right to establish
and administer educational institutions of their choice.
2. The State shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions, discriminate against any
educational institution on the ground that it is under the management of a minority,
whether based on religion or language.
Article 41, Right to Work, to Education and to Public Assistance in Certain Cases.
The State shall, within the limits of its economic capacity and development, make
effective provision for securing the right to work, to education and to public assistance in
cases of unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement, and in other cases of
undeserved want.
Article 45, Provision for Free and Compulsory Education for Children. The State
shall endeavor to provide, within a period of ten years from the commencement of this
Constitution, for free and compulsory education for all children until they complete the
age of 14 years.
Article 46, Promotion of Educational and Economic Interests of Scheduled Castes,
Scheduled Tribes and other Weaker Sections. The State shall promote with special care
the educational and economic interests of the weaker section of the people, and, in
particular, of the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes, and shall protect them from
social injustice and all forms of exploitation.
Article 246, Subject Matter of Laws Made by Parliament and by the Legislature of States.
1. Notwithstanding anything in clauses (2) and (3) Parliament has exclusive power to
make laws with respect to any of the matters enumerated in List I in the Seventh Schedule
(in this Constitution Referred to as the "Union List').
2. Notwithstanding anything in clause (3), Parliament, and, subject to clause (1), the
Legislature of any State also, have power to make laws with respect to any of the matters
enumerated in the List III in the Seventh Schedule (in this Constitution referred to as the
'Concurrent List').
3. Subject to clauses (1) and (2), the Legislature of any State has exclusive power to make
laws for such State or any part thereof with respect to any of the matters enumerated in
List II in the Seventh Schedule (in this Constitution referred to as the 'State List').

Article 337, Provision with Respect to Educational Grants for the Benefit of Anglo-Indian
Community. During the first three financial years after the commencement of this
Constitution, the same grants, if any, shall be made by the Union and by each State for
the benefit of the Anglo-Indian community in respect of education as were made in the
financial year ending on the thirty-first day of March, 1949.
During every succeeding period of three years the grants may be less by ten per
cent than those for the immediately preceding period of three years:
Provided that at the end of ten years from the commencement of this Constitution
such grants, to the extent to which they are a special concession, to the Anglo-Indian
Community, shall cease:
Provided further that no educational institution shall be entitled to receive any grant
under this article unless at least 40 per cent of the annual admissions therein are made
available to members of communities other than the Anglo-Indian Community
Article 343, Official Language of the Union.
1. The official language of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numbers.
Notwithstanding anything in clause (1), for a period of 15 years from the
commencement of this Constitution, the English language shall continue to be used for all
the official purpose of the Union for which it was being used immediately before such
commencement
 Provided that the President may, during the said period, by order authorize the use
of the Hindi language in addition to the English language and of the Devanagari form of
numerals in addition to the international form of Indian numerals for any of the official
purposes of the Union. 3. Notwithstanding anything in this article, Parliament may by law
provide for the use, after the said period of 15 years, of
(a) The English language, or
(b) The Devanagari form of numerals, for such purposes as may be specified in the law.
Article 345, Official Language or Languages of the State. Subject to the provision of
Articles 346 and 347, the Legislature of a State may by law adopt anyone or more of the
languages in use in the State or Hindi as the language or languages to be used for all or any
of the official purposes of the State:

Provided that, until the Legislature of the State otherwise provides by law, the
English language shall continue to be used for these official purpose within the State for
which it was being used immediately before the commencement of this Constitution.

Article 346, Official Language for Communication between One State and Another or
Between a State and the Union. On a demand being made of the behalf the President
may, if he is satisfied that the substantial proportion of the population of a State desire the
use of any language spoken by them to be recognized by the State, direct that such
language shall also be officially recognized throughout the State or any part thereof for
such purpose as he may specify.
Article 350-A, Facilities for Instruction in Mother-Tongue at Primary Stage. It shall be the
endeavor of every State and of every local authority within the State to provide adequate
facilities for instruction in the mother-tongue at the primary stage of education to children
belonging to linguistic minority groups, and the President may issue such directions any
State as he considers necessary or proper for securing the provision of such facilities
Article 351, Directive for Development of the Hindi Language, It shall be the duty of the
Union to promote the spread of the Hindi Language, to develop it so that it may serve as
a medium of expression for all the elements of the composite culture of India and to
secure its enrichment by assimilating without interfering with its genius, the forms, styles
and expressions used in Hindustani and in the other language of India specified in the
English Schedule, and by drawing, wherever necessary or desirable, for its vocabulary,
primarily on Sanskrit and secondarily on other languages.
Seventh Schedule
(Article 246)
List I-Union List:
62. The institutions known at the commencement of this Constitution as the
National library, the Indian Museum, the Imperial War Museum, the Victoria Memorial
and the Indian War Memorial, and any other like institution financed by the Government
of India wholly or in part and declared by the Parliament by law to be an institution of
national importance.
63. The institutions known at the commencement of this Constitution as the
Banaras Hindu University, the Aligarh Muslim University and the Delhi University, and
any other institution declared by Parliament by law to be an institution of national
importance.

64. Institutions for scientific or technical education financed by the Government of

India wholly or in part and declared by Parliament by law to be institutions of national
importance. 65. Union agencies and institutions for:
(a) Professional, vocational or technical training including the training of police officers; or

(b) the promotion of special studies of research; or

(c) Scientific or technical assistance in the investigation or detection of crime.
66. Coordination and determination of standards in institutions for higher
education or research and scientific and technical institutions.
67. Ancient and historical monuments and records, and archaeological sites and
remains, declared by or under a law made by Parliament to be of national importance.
List II-State List: 32. Incorporation, regulation and winding up of corporations, other than
those specified in List I, and universities; unincorporated trading, literary, scientific,
religious and other societies and associations: cooperative societies.
List III-Concurrent List: 20. Economic and Social Planning. 25. Education, including
technical education, medical education and universities, subject to the provision of entries
63, 64, 65 and 66 of List I: Vocational and technical training of labour.
Eighth Schedule (Articles 344 (1) and 351)
Languages
1. Assamese
2. Bengali
3. Gujarati
5. Kannada
4. Hindi
6. Kashmiri
7. Malayalam
8. Marathi
9. Oriya
10. Sanskrit
11. Punjabi
12. Sindhi
13. Tamil
14. Telugu
15. Urdu
THE INTERNATIONAL PROJECT FOR EVALUATION OF EDUCATIONAL
ACHIEVEMENT (IEA)
LAST AND LATEST STAGE
Quantitative Data
This is the last and the latest stage of comparative education dealing with
empirically-based quantitative surveys and studies taken up at an international level. After
World War I, and, in particular, after 1950 empirical work in social sciences have grown
enormously. The application of quantitative empirical methods has increased in social
sciences, and also in some branches of education like psychology and psychometrics. The
historical and philosophical emphasis of social sciences were gradually giving way giving
way to empirical and quantitative considerations. The greater availability of numerical
data, improved technique of storing them and widespread use of new techniques in social
science research have begun to re shape comparative education.
Problem of Methodology
This brings in the problem of handling the tools-the problem of methodology.
Discovering that educators of comparative education have no common agreement about
the methods they use. George Z.F. Bereday pointed out. "The discussion of methods of
comparative education is perhaps the most urgent task with those who research and teach
comparative education must face." His Comparative Method in Education (1964) is the
first book written in English on the problem of method and technique. In this book he lays
down four steps of comparative study-description, interpretation, juxtaposition, and
comparison. "First description, the systematic collection of pedagogical information in one
country, the interpretation, the analysis in terms of social sciences, then juxtaposition, a
simultaneous review of several systems to determine the framework in which to compare
them, and finally comparison, first of select problems and then of the total relevance of
education in several countries."
Hypotheses

Bereday states that hypotheses will be formulated after juxtaposition. These

hypotheses will be tested and compared. Unless we begin with a hypothesis, it is difficult
to know what data are relevant and how much is necessary. Without a hypothesis any
inquiry will be waste of time and energy. Bereday's pattern of comparison would need a
special preparation for students who should know how to collect data, how to sort it out,
how to fit it social and historical framework, how to juxtapose in formulating hypotheses.
Only after going the whole hog, one would be ready for the task of comparison. It is
debatable whether such a complicated exercise is practical for studying comparative
education.
Relationship of Society and Education
At the present day, among the many problems of relationship between society and
education requiring investigation, two are outstanding. The first is the relationship between
education and production of wealth and second is the relationship between education and
various aspects of social and political change. The first is the concern of economists, the
second is the concern of sociologists and political scientists. In Europe, the Organisation
for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) is an international source for
providing technique and information to planners in the field of economic and educational
development. It helps to make a quantitative assessment of the relationships between
education and economy. The work of Frederick Harbison and Charles A. Myers is an
example of investigating interconnections between education and economy. Their findings
showed that levels of educational expenditure and development are closely connected.
Role of Education in Development
Mary Jean Bowman and C. Arnold Anderson have investigated the role of
education in development. They have studied several problems in specific terms. They
have also correlated gross national product and enrolment ratios in primary and post
primary education.
Large-Scale Research: IEA
A large-scale research based on the collection of original data has been undertaken
by the International Project for the evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA). It is the
first attempt at an international level to measure differences in school achievement, subject
by subject, according to objective tests. (prepared on an international agreement) and to
seek explanations for the observed differences. The first publication of the IEA is a
comparative study of the achievements in mathematics of pupils of secondary school age
in 12 countries. This is an impressive work of empirical comparative research.
These works, except that of IEA, represent the efforts of social scientists
contributing to the development of comparative education. The work of IEA, represents
the efforts of educators and psychometricians who have used the empirical skills of social
scientists. The importance of hypothesis formulation and testing of controlled
investigations and of quantitative expressed explanations has been recognized.

UNIVERSAL COMPULSORY EDUCATION

RIGHT TO EDUCATION ACT (2009). The Right to Education Act, 2009
fulfilled the national aspiration long nurtured since the British period. Almost 100 years
ago, Maharaja of Baroda introduced free education for children in the age group 6-12 in
his province. Inspired with Baroda experiment, G K Gokhale tried to force the British
government to accept the principle of free and compulsory primary education. Gandhi
and others tried with the Wardha Scheme of Basic Education. They failed but the RTE Act
2009 fulfilled their long cherished dreams.
The Right to Education Act, 2009
When the 'Free and compulsory education' was made a 'fundamental right' under
article 21A of the constitution in December 2002 through the 86th Amendment it was a
very important step and conclusion of a long journey that started from the Charter Act
1813, to the Macaulay's Minute (1835), to Wood Despatch (1854), to Elementary
Education Act (1870), to Maharaja Baroda's compulsory Education (1906), to Gopal
Krishna Gokhale's Bill (1911), to Hartog Committee(1929), to Mahatma Gandhi's Basic
Education (1937) and after independence through the Article 45, NPE 1968 and 1986,
DPEP (1991), and SSA (2001). The passage of the RTE Act, 2009 was fulfilment of a
long cherished dream of so many freedom fighters and the Constitution makers.
When the colonial British left in 1947, India inherited an educational system that
had not only limited reach but was also characterized by striking gender and regional
disparities. Only one out of three children was going to the primary school. Clearly,
providing elementary education to all children was a big challenge at that time and this
sentiment was reflected in the Constitution. The Article 45 of the newly framed
Constitution stated that "the State shall endeavor to provide within a period of 10 years
from the commencement of the Constitution, free and compulsory education to all
children until they complete the age of 14 years".
However, it took the parliament another seven years to pass the 'The Right of
Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act 2009' in August 2009, and it came into
force in April 2010. Based on this Act, a subordinate legislation, the Model Rules, was
framed by the centre to provide guidelines to states for implementing the Act. The RTE
Act, 2009 means that the directive principle got turned into a fundamental right. Thus,
every child in this age group, 6-14, has a right to full time elementary education in a
formal school which satisfies certain essential norms and standards. However, the RTE Act
offered only partial fulfilment because children up to 6 years of age are left out. But note
the phrase 'free and compulsory' in the title of the RTE Act.
 Here 'free' means that no child shall be burdened with any kind of fee or charges
or expenses which may prevent him or her from pursuing and completing elementary
education. And, 'compulsory education' means obligation to provide free elementary
education by ensuring admission, attendance and completion rests with the government.

The following salient features provide the basis of implementation of the RTE Act, 2009.

• Every child in the age group of 6-14 has the right to free and compulsory
education in a neighborhood school, till the completion of elementary education.
• The act prohibits donation, capitation fee, screening test interview of child or
parents, physical punishment or mental harassment, private tuition by teachers, and
running schools without recognition.
• The Section 12(1)(c) of the RTE Act mandates unaided and non-minority schools
to keep aside 25% seats for underprivileged children of society through a random
selection process. Government will fund education of these children. No seats in
this quota can be left vacant. These children will be treated on par with all the
other children in the school and subsidized by the State at the rate of average per
learner costs in the government schools (unless the per learner costs in the private
school are lower). All private schools will have to apply for recognition, failing
which they will be penalized as per the laid down norms. If implemented
enthusiastically, this can have a far reaching impact in improving the education
system of the country by inclusiveness. It allows parents to send their kids to
schools of better quality. The only constraint is the distance between the school and
home, rather than financial capacity. It puts students from the economically weaker
sections and disadvantaged groups among the relatively privileged children of rather
sound financial background. This mix up goes a long way towards inclusive
education making all children more pro-social and accommodative, without
affecting their academic outcomes. Finally, it enables children from poor families'
access quality education.
• No child can be held back, expelled and required to pass the board examination till
the completion of elementary education. [This is now set to change through The
Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (Second Amendment) Bill,
2017.] The first time enrolled child is to be admitted to an age appropriate class.

o The Act lays down the norms and standards of Pupil Teacher Ratios (PTRs),
buildings and infrastructure, school working days, teacher working hours.
Schools that do not fulfill these standards will not be allowed to function.
Specification of the PTR ensures that there is no averaging at the State or
District or Block level, preventing urban-rural imbalance in teacher postings.

o The Act provides appointment of appropriately trained teachers. Norms and

standards of teacher qualification and training are clearly laid down in the
Act.

o The Act prohibits deployment of teachers for non- educational work, other
than decennial census, elections to local authority, state legislatures and
parliament, and disaster relief.

o There is provision for establishment of commissions to supervise the

implementation of the act. All schools except private unaided schools are to
be managed by School management Committees with 75% of parents and
guardians as members.

o The Act specifies the duties and responsibilities of appropriate Governments,

local authority in providing free and compulsory education, and sharing of
financial and other responsibilities between the Central and State
Governments.

o The Act provides for development of curriculum in consonance with the

values enshrined in the Constitution, for the all-round development of the
child, building on the child's knowledge, potentiality and talent and making
 the child free of fear, trauma and anxiety through a system of child friendly
and child centered learning.

Monitoring the RTE Act, 2009 is the Task of NCPCR

The National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR) has been
mandated to monitor the implementation of this historic Right. A special Division within
NCPCR will undertake this huge and important task in the coming months and years. The
NCPCR shall have the power of a civil court. A special toll free helpline to register
complaints will be set up by NCPCR for this purpose.

NCPCR invites all civil society groups, students, teachers, administrators, artists,
writers, government personnel, legislators, members of the judiciary and all other
stakeholders to join hands and work together to build a movement to ensure that every
child of this country is in school and enabled to get at least 8 years of quality education.

RTE Act should help end Child Labour and Child Marriages

Approximately 22 crore children fall under the age group 6- 14. Out of which
4.1% i.e. 90 lakhs children either dropped out from school or never attend any
educational institution. These children can be easily counted among child labours. Now
ensured by the RTE Act, these poor children will have the chance of getting elementary
education.

As per the Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986, amended in
2016 ("CLPR Act"), a "Child" is defined as any person below the age of 14. The CLPR
Act prohibits employment of a Child in any employment including as a domestic help. It is
a cognizable criminal offence to employ a Child for any work.
 UNICEF estimates that due to its high population India has the highest number
(though small in percentage terms) of labours in the world under the 14 years of age. The
ILO estimates that agriculture employs the largest employer of child labour in the
world, around 60%. The United Nation's Food and Agriculture Organisation estimates
this to be still higher, at 70%. However, child labour is observed in almost all segments of
the informal sectors of the Indian economy.

Another important issue is that of child marriages because there is strong evidence
of the positive effect of education on delaying girls' marriages. India has the highest
number of child brides in the world. As per the NFHS 2015-16 survey, around 27% girls
in India are married before attaining the age of 18 ie, almost every one out of four
marriages involves a girl child. The situation is worst in the rural areas where 31.5% girls
below 18 get married as compared with urban areas where the number is 17.5%.
Further, nearly 8% girls between 15-19 were already mothers or pregnant at the time of
survey. The WHO reports indicate that a child bride is more than doubly prone to health
issues than a grown up woman.

Although the newer finding of NFHS shows an improvement over what it

discovered in 2005-06, 47% girls marrying before 18, the rate of 27% is still alarming.
As the Education Act's provisions get implemented more properly, lesser number of girls
would get dumped into premature martial relations. Thus, the RTE Act, 2009 has enough
important features that, if implemented in the right spirit, have the potential to transform
India by educating its younger generation.

HIGHER EDUCATION IN UK

In 1990, Department of Education and Science (UK) concluded following higher

education in the United Kingdom in comparison with the position in certain developed
countries; Australia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the
Netherlands, Spain, Sweden and the USA.
Definition of Higher Education
Higher education is defined in the International Standard Classification of Education
(ISCED) handbook as-more Manoj Publication specialized study normally undertaken after
successful completion of a good basic education lasting for at least eleven years.
Sub-Divisions
Within the higher education three sub-divisions ar recognized, numbered 5, 6, and
7 (sometimes referred to as 'levels' or Stages):
❖ Levels 5 courses are below degree standard and are often more geared to specific
occupations. In the UK these include the Dip HE, BTEC Higher National
(HND/HNC), nursing and other professional qualifications.
❖ Level 6 covers first degree courses or other equivalent consists of programmes
which are usually level 7 post- graduate in content.

Universities
Higher education can take place in a variety of institutions of which only some are
called universities, the designation of institutions being according to each country's
traditions and conventions. Universities provide for a wide range of subjects with
opportunities for post-graduate work. The range and level of work other institutions
concentrates directly on vocational courses. The proportions of students in each type of
institution differ from one country to another under half of United Kingdom higher
education students are in institutions called universities. This is markedly fewer than in
most other countries.
Part-Time Study
Part-time study is not recognized formally as 2 distinguishable mode in some
countries, although students often work whilst studying, thus, lengthening their course. In
the UK some two fifths of higher education students are classified as part-time. The levels
in Australia and the USA are similar. In Canada a third of students at all levels are part-
time, Belgium, Japan and the Netherlands also have a significant proportion of part time
students at levels 5 and 6. In Italy some two in three students combine study with work.
In France some one in three students have a job.
Private Higher Education
 It forms a significant part of the whole in many countries. In the United Kingdom a
study in the 1970's referred to an estimate of at least 3,00,000 students aiming at a
professional qualification outside the state supported system. In Japan three- quarters and
the USA one-fifth students are provided higher education in private institutions.
Correspondence Courses
Correspondence courses are associated with private higher education and continue
to attract large number of students. Routine statistics of students for this are not usually
available
Student Numbers
Enrolment rates do not provide a proper basis for comparison because course
lengths vary from country to country. The typical three year period of study in the UK
(four in Scotland) is shorter than elsewhere many other countries begin higher education
with a general year, continuing the wider range of study covered in the qualifying
examination

Students from abroad according to each country's definition range from about 1
per cent of enrolments in Japan and Spain to some 10 per cent in France. The figure for
the United Kingdom is 6 per cent of full-time and part-time enrolments
Entry and Selection
Entry higher education in most developed countries is generally straight from
school. Each country has a specific national education qualification which forms the main
basic requirement for entry to higher education. In some countries vocational
qualifications may also be acceptable. The qualification generally covers at least four
subjects
Differences in the qualification rate are reflect differences in the standard of at least
the first year of higher education. The qualification rate ranges from some 30 per cent in
some European countries including Germany to about 80 per cent in Canada, Japan and
USA where entry qualification is achieved by accumulation of credits rather than
examination Both France and the UK achieve 32 per cent The UK rate excludes other
qualifications such as 5 or more O levels or professional FE acceptable for sub-degree HE
 Entry to higher education depends mainly on gaining the appropriate entry
qualification Limits on places may mean that a further selection process takes place, either
for certain types of course, or for certain institutions which experience strong demand
from students.
Most students in all countries enter higher education aged between 18 and 21
However, older students are admitted everywhere in Germany a quota of places is
reserved for them Reasons for starting study in higher education later in life are many.
Summary of findings
Using mainly 1986 data the main findings from the comparisons of 13 countries are as
follows:
1. Leavers: The proportion of Leavers from secondary education obtaining a
qualification required for entry to higher education ranged from around 30 per
cent in some European countries to cover 70 per cent in Canada, Japan and the
USA. The UK rate was 32 per cent. Not all qualifies enter higher education.
2. The Participation Index for Higher Education: It varied from 25 per cent of the
relevant age group in Italy to 51 per cent in Japan and some 60 per cent in
Canada and the USA. The equivalent UK figure was 34 per cent, similar to that in
France and the Netherlands.

3. Females: In UK higher education the proportion of women was 46 per cent. This was
about average for the 13 countries considered. In Canada, France, Sweden and the USA,
women accounted for more than 50 per cent of students
4. Subjects: Nearly half of qualifications in the UK were awarded in science or related
subjects, a similar proportion to that in Germany and Italy but lower than the proportion
in Sweden.
5. Success Rate: In the UK some 90 per cent of new entrants to higher education
subsequently gained qualifications. This was amongst the highest "success rates" of the 13
countries compared.
6. Public Expenditure: On most measures public expenditure by the UK on higher
education fell into the middle of the range of the 13 countries compared. The UK had the
highest rate of expenditure on student support and welfare when student support and
welfare are excluded, the UK and France had the lowest expenditure per qualifier among
the 13 countries.
HIGHER EDUCATION IN USA
Higher education continued to move on its own way till 1860, which marks the
rapid growth and development of higher education in the United States of America It was
by this year that new centers had been opened. Several Municipalities had started colleges
and in every aspect of life there was further demand for higher education.
By the end of Civil War, 21 State Universities had been established. Many of these
Universities, as already stated, were started by Land Grant Scheme. By the end of Civil
War, there were about 225 private Universities and Colleges for higher education Most of
these institutions had rich endowments.
Most of the Colleges and Universities confined their educational programmes to
undergraduate teaching after which they awarded bachelor degrees. It was in 1825 that
Harward University started instruction in post-graduate work. But this Venture could take
a scientific shape only in 1863. In 1872, separate department for post-graduate studies
was established this was called Graduate Department. In fact, it is this year that marks the
beginning of post-graduate education in the real sense of the drama.
Certain institutions of higher education in America confine their work to post-
graduate teaching and research work. In this regard John Hopkine and Clarke are the
names worth mentioning. Since 1872, there has been a progressive in the research that
are exclusively interested in post-graduate teaching and research work. These Universities
do not discriminate between men and women and both men and women pursue post-
graduate studies and research work. On an average about 7,000 students receive the
degree of Doctorate in the United States of America. There are about 2,000 institutions
that impart higher education. Out of these 2,000 institutions about 161 have
arrangements of post-graduate teaching and research work. Out of these institutions of
higher education, 19 are intended for military education and there are 27 that offer
irregular courses.
Control and Management
During this period there has been growing control of the State over higher education.
There are institutions of higher education that are run by private bodies, especially by
churches and other denominational institutions. The institutions that are run by private
bodies have rich endowments attached to them.
Teacher's Education
Since 1860, normal schools were started by State for the training of the teachers
towards the end of the 19th century it was Pestalozzi and Herbert who inspired the
administrators of teachers training education. In the 20th century several colleges for the
teachers training have been established and started In fact, during this century need was
felt to have more trained teachers in order to fulfil this task. The State as well as private
agencies started institutions for training teachers for the primary as well as secondary
education. The number of these institutions has been going up day-by-day. In the year
1952, there were 452 institutions of teacher's education. Out of these institutions, 315
were run by the State and the rest by local bodies and other agencies. There were 661
other institutions also devoted to teacher's training. In fact, in all there were 1,093
institutions devoted to this task. Out of these 492 are denominational in character. Today
women are taking to teaching jobs more than men and so there are more women pupil's
teachers than men
Technical Education
In 1884, an international exhibition was organized. This exhibition gave real
impetus and turn to technical education in America. As a result of this impetus we find
that in 1890, there were several institutions of technical education various institutions of
technical education, later on grew into Universities. Since then several institutions have
been started with this task in view. There are several institutions that impart technical as
well as vocational education. There is a Board of Vocational Education. This Board looks
after and manages the education of trade, household economy, agriculture, industrial
education and vocational training.
Experiences of World War I gave further impetus to technical education in America
As a result of this, in 1921 there were 3,849 institutions of technical education in
America as compared to 1,741 such institutions in 1918. The World War II gave further
rise to technical education in America Technical education is now given not only at the
level of University education, but at lower as well there are Technical Junior Colleges as
well. In these institutions of technical education, the students are also given practical
training. There are four important institutions of technical education to technology in
Massachusetts, California, Illinois and southern states.
HIGHER EDUCATION IN JAPAN
Institutions of higher education in Japan include universities, junior colleges and
colleges of technology. In addition, special training schools and miscellaneous schools
offering advanced courses may be counted as institutions of higher education.
1. Universities (Daigaku): Universities are institutions of higher education which conduct
teaching and research in depth in specialized academic disciplines and provide students
with broad knowledge. Universities require for admission the completion of upper
secondary schooling or its equivalent. A university has one or more undergraduate
faculties or other basic units for educational activities, which offer courses usually lasting
four years while six years are prescribed for medical, dental and veterinary courses.
2. Graduate Schools: A university may set up a graduate school to give graduate students
opportunities to pursue profound learning and research concerning academic theories and
their application. Graduate schools require the completion of an undergraduate course or
its equivalent for admission.
A graduate school offers master's degree courses (the standard length of course is
two years) and doctor's degree courses (the standard length of course is five years, except
for medical, dental or veterinary courses which last four years) Those students who have
successfully completed these post graduate courses may be awarded a master's or doctor's
degree.
3. Junior Colleges (Tanki-daigaku): Junior colleges conduct teaching and research in depth
in specialized subjects and develop in students' abilities required for vocational or practical
life. Junior colleges require the completion of upper secondary schooling or its equivalent
for admission. They offer courses lasting two or three years. A junior college has one or
more specialised departments as its units of educational activities.
4. Colleges of Technology (Koto-senmon-gakko): Colleges of technology require the
completion of lower secondary schooling for admission. They conduct in depth teaching in
specialized subjects and develop in students such abilities as are required for vocational life.
A college of technology usually offers several courses in engineering and mercantile marine
studies. The duration of the course is five years (five-and-a half- years for mercantile
marine courses). There are a variety of main courses including those in mechanical
engineering, electric engineering, electronic control, information technology chemical
engineering, civil engineering, mercantile marine, and management information.
5. Other Institutions: In addition to the above-mentioned elementary and secondary
schools and institutions of higher there are a great number of educational establishments
called "special training schools (Senshu-gakko)" and "miscellaneous schools" (Kakushu-
gakko)
HIGHER EDUCATION IN INDIA
World's first Universities were founded in India. Taxila, Nalanda, Varanasi and
Kancheepuram were entres of higher learning which attracted many diligent students from
abroad. During Muslim rule, Madarsas imparted higher learning. Universities in the
modern sense were established by the British Wood's Despatch (1854) recommended the
establishment of Universities. In 1857, Calcutta, Bombay and Madras Universities came
into existence with the faculties of arts, law, medicine and Engineering
Autonomous Colleges
In India, Universities enjoy autonomous status, Governmental interference in their
administration and academic activities is not usually allowed. On the basis of the
recommendations of the Education Commission (1964-66), reputed colleges with
necessary pre-requisites were given autonomy to frame their own curriculum, evaluation
methods and admission policies with the co-operation of the concerned Universities.
However, the autonomous colleges are accused of neglecting social justice and catering
only to the elitist classes. Teachers complain of victimization and students grumble about
favoritism. Periodical assessment of the scheme is necessary to make the experiment a
success. A democratization should be the precondition for giving the special status. There
are 10 autonomous colleges in the country including the engineering colleges and one
college of education. Excepting one engineering and two Arts and Science colleges, all the
others are in Tamil Nadu.
University Grants Commission (UGC)
The University Education Commission of 1948 recommended the constitution of
the UGC for providing funds for the Universities of India and for co-ordination of
standards in the Universities Even though there was an Advisory Committee functioning in
1945, it had no funds of its own. So the Radhakrishnan Commission recommended an
expert body to be constituted In pursuance of their recommendations, a non- statutory
University Grants Commission was constituted in 1952 to consider the financial needs of
the Universities for discharging their responsibilities. With more pressure on the
Government of India by Vice-Chancellors and State Education Ministers for forming a
statutory authority, the University Grants Commission Bill was introduced in the
Parliament by the Government of India in the year 1954. With the passing of the
University Grants Commission Act in 1956, the University Grants Commission became a
statutory authority.
Universities Finances
Kothari Commission made the following recommendations in this connection:
1. The State Governments should place adequate financial resources at the disposal of
Universities and simplify rules and procedures for operating them.
2. The UGC should be enabled to give both development and maintenance grants to State
Universities.
3. There should be some reasonable sharing of developments expenditure on Universities
between the UGC and State Government.
4. The UGC should take steps to resolve problems faced by some Universities on account
of the non-payment of grants on committed expenditure by State Governments.
5. The system of grant-in-aid from the State Governments should be reorganized on the
basis of a suitable system of block grants.
6. The finance of Universities should be placed on a sound footing on the basis of advice
given by the UGC to the State Governments and the Universities after periodical review.
7. Universities should be immune from direct Governmental intervention and also from
direct public accountability.

Types of Universities
Education comes under the concurrent list. It is the joint responsibility of both the
Central and State Governments:
1. Centrally Administered Universities: These include the Banaras Hindu University,
Aligarh Muslim University, Delhi University, Vishwa Bharathi University and Jawaharlal
Nehru University, Hyderabad University and North Eastern Hill University. All the other
universities are administered by their respective States. State Governors act as Chancellors
of these Universities.
2. Affiliating Type: Here teaching particularly at the undergraduate level is carried on in
the affiliating colleges University prescribes the syllabus, conducts examinations and awards
degrees.
3. Unitary Universities: These are encouraged by the UGC teaching is carried on by the
university departments every unitary university serves only a limited area.
4. Residential Universities: There are a few residential universities where residential
facilities are provided to all the full time students.
5. Federal Universities: These are a group of constituent colleges or higher departments of
study each of which may have autonomous status or not.
6. Deemed Universities: These enjoy the status of universities. They are unitary in
character Indian Institute of Science Bangalore was accorded this status in 1958. There
are now 22 deemed universities and institutions of national importance with an enrolment
of over 3 lakhs.
Defects of the Prevalent System of Higher Education
1. Quality versus Quantity: There are about four million students in our Universities and
Colleges. The demand for higher education is due to the socio-economic transformation
that is taking place in the country. The Indian economy has neither the resources to
expand higher education at the present rate nor the capacity to absorb the large number
of graduates in gainful employment. A kind of Iron Law of Educational Growth whose
logic is very simple, 'universalization of elementary education leading to generalization of
secondary and the latter to a corresponding growth of higher education' is evident. There
is a lot of criticism about the deplorable fall in the intellectual standards of the Universities.
So, the developmental strategy must cover man's hopes, aspirations and welfare.
2. Faculty in Competence: The volume of knowledge doubles every ten years. New skills
and knowledge are required to be an up-to-date unlike in the West, the contribution of
our Universities to Science, Arts or Literature is very meagre Research facilities do not
exist in many colleges University teachers do very little research work; college teachers do
even less. Many teachers are content with their present qualifications and record. Only a
few voice their views on academic or national problems.
3. Wastage: Failure rate in Indian Universities is as high as 50 per cent Time, money and
effort are needlessly wasted because of the open door policy' In UK the wastage rate is
only 14 per cent. Educational guidance is not provided to the candidates
4. Student Activism: Youth is a restless period in life Owing to social, psychological,
emotional and economic reasons the student unrest is on the increase in India. Very often,
it takes violent and ugly turns Students rarely involve themselves in ideological disputes.
Most of their agitations stem from petty, personal grievances-real or imaginary
5. Imbalances: 70 per cent of Indian study humanities and social sciences, only 30 per
cent study physical science and related faculties Colleges within the same University area
have unequal standards.
6. Intellectual Slavery: In India the colonial heritage has stifled the spirit of independent
inquiry Scholars readily subscribe to official views and hesitate to voice their dissents.
Indian academicians are overeager to imitate foreign systems and models. Most professors
are reconciled to the position of well paid employees. A college teacher is rarely absorbed
in a University department Distance is carefully maintained and aloofness is encouraged
between the University and a affiliated to it College
7. Medium of Instruction: Gandhiji and Tagore championed the introduction of Indian
languages as the medium of instruction at all levels English medium is supposed to have
denationalizing effect Lectures are delivered in faulty English. Students have more difficulty
with English than with the subject matter. In this futile struggle Indian Universities waste
their talents the elite favour and the continuance of English warn that regional loyalties will
undermine fellow feeling and may lead to balkanization of India. Until Hindi becomes
familiar in all of India, the teaching of English cannot be given up parts
8. Irrelevance: Higher education is not linked to manpower needs of the country. The
courses offered are obsolete Vested interests block progressive reforms Indian universities
are pale limitations of those which existed in nineteenth century England Imaginative and
socially rewarding courses are not planned and introduced Practical and applied courses to
regenerate Rural India and emancipate the underprivileged are seriously lacking. If there is
more co-operation from the industrialists and agriculturists, the University can successfully
complete its social obligations.
9. Uneconomical: Cost benefit considerations are ignored. Educational policy makers are
more optimistic than the most optimistic forecasters. Expansion targets are never fulfilled
Every college and University should examine (1) whether it is utilizing the available
resources to the maximum extent possible, and (11) whether the quality of its output can
withstand the rigorous of the competitive world.
10. Faculty Examinations: The present system of examinations is inconsistent and
arbitrary. It only tests the memory of the student and it ignores the slow but thoughtful
learner. Marks in examination are not true indicators of a student's mastery of his subject.
In the words of University Education Commission (1948-49), "If we are to suggest one
single reform in the University education, it should be that of examinations. The crippling
effect of examinations on the quality of work in higher education is so great that
examinations reform has become crucial to all progress and has to go hand-in-hand with
the improvement in teaching."
EDUCATIONAL FINANCE
The World Bank and Education
The World Bank's assistance for education "focuses on helping countries maximize
the impact of education on economic growth and poverty reduction". It is the "world's
largest single provider of external funding for education", and also provides policy advice,
analysis and technical assistance. Bank lending for education began in 1963 and now
constitutes nine per cent of its total lending, the fifth largest sector. Total World Bank
lending for education last year was just under $2 billion across all projects and sectors up
from $728 million in 2000. Primary education receives the largest percentage of lending,
constituting 29 per cent of the total in 2005.

There are currently 182 staff in the Bank's education team. It is directed by Ruth
Kagia. In response to Bretton Woods Project requests the Bank was unable to give an
estimate of its administrative budget for education across the World Bank Group The Bank
supports two broad themes:
THE WORLD'S LARGEST SINGLE PROVIDER OF EXTERNAL FUNDING FOR
EDUCATION
❖ Education for All (EFA): focusing on the 1990 global commitment to give "every
citizen in every society" the opportunity for a basic education, and
❖ Education for the knowledge economy (EKE): based on the need to develop a well
trained workforce "capable of generating knowledge-driven economic growth".
Key priorities cut across both themes: Economics of education and school health and
HIV/AIDS, which underscore the critical need to integrate education into a country's
overall development context.
Regional priorities
Last year, the largest amount of education lending was to the Latin America and
Caribbean region, totaling $680 million and constituting 34 per cent of the total. The
second largest amount of $369 million was to the Africa region, a total of 19 per cent.
The largest number of new education projects in 2005 was in the Europe and Central
Asia region which held 24 per cent of all new education projects.
Detailed aggregate data on Bank lending trends and operations in the education
sector can be found on its website and through the EdStats World Bank financing modules
and World Bank's project database.
Education for All
This is an "international effort to provide every boy and girl in the developing
world with a good-quality, free and compulsory primary school education". The World
Bank supports EFA efforts primarily through:
o Increasing access, equity, quality and learning outcomes;
o Focusing on girls' education to improve retention rates;
o Helping education systems cope with hiv/aids;
o Promoting early childhood development; and
o Protecting efa prospects in post-conflict countries.

The Education for All Fast Track Initiative (FTI) is supported by the Bank and more
than 30 bilateral, regional and international agencies and development banks. It was
launched as a global partnership between donor and developing countries accelerated
progress towards the Millennium Development Goal of universal primary education by
2015. All to ensure low-income countries demonstrating "serious commitment to achieve
universal primary completion" by developing sound national education plans can receive
FTI support. As of January 2006, 20 developing countries are FTI partners. Donors
provide financial and technical support. The Bank hosts the FTI but it is unclear if it
provides financial support to it.
The Bank also recognizes the need to increase the impact of adult basic education
programmes as a part of EFA planning. It has established a unit to strengthen support for
non-formal education efforts for children and youth and to help improve their transition to
the labour market.
Education for the knowledge economy
This aims to help developing countries equip themselves with the "skilled and
flexible human capital needed to compete effectively in today's dynamic global markets",
adapt to changing market demands and new technologies. Its efforts focus on: secondary
and tertiary education; lifelong learning: science, technology and innovation; information
and communications technology (ICT); and cross-cutting efforts to rethink the role of the
state.

Bank efforts focus on:

❖ Formation of a strong human capital base to provide relevant education to a larger

share of each new generation of young people through expanded secondary and
tertiary education; and training and retraining the existing labour force by providing
opportunities to those who were unable to complete secondary or enter tertiary
education.
❖ Construction of an effective national innovation system (nis): a well-articulated
network of firms, research centres and universities that work together to take
advantage of the growing stock of global knowledge, assimilate and adapt it to local
needs, and create new technology. Tertiary education systems figure prominently in
niss.
Collaborating across the World Bank Group
 The World Bank's principle institutions the International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development (IBRD) and the International Development Association (IDA)-work in
ever closer coordination with the International Finance Corporation (IFC) and the
Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) to leverage the collective strength of
the World Bank Group for the benefit of its partner countries. The comparative advantage
of the World Bank Group is its ability to work with different stakeholders. This ability
comes from the powerful combination of country depth and global breadth, public and
private sector instruments and relationships, multisector knowledge, and the ability to
mobilize and leverage financing.
Before developing a new partnership strategy with a country client, the Bank Group
completes a Systematic Country Diagnostic, which identifies the barriers to eliminating
extreme poverty and boosting shared prosperity in the country. World Bank experts are
organized across teams of Global Practices-14 key technical areas of development
expertise and Cross- Cutting Solution Areas-global challenge areas including gender, jobs,
and fragility. They work in concert with country. based staff, IFC, MIGA, and country
partners to prioritize the Bank Group's program of financial, analytical, advisory, and
convening support. These priority areas are based on the Bank Group's comparative
advantage and the client's priorities. This support comes together in the Country
Partnership Framework which outlines the strategic interventions on which the Bank Group
and partner country will engage.
This process has been in place since July 2014, and as of the end of this fiscal
year, the Bank Group has completed Systematic Country Diagnostics in 62 countries and
new Country Partnership Frameworks in 46 countries. The early lessons from the
preparation of the first group of strategies indicate that this new model has improved
coordination and collaboration among World Bank Group institutions. The Systematic
Country Diagnostic has added considerable value to the Bank Group's engagement with
countries through a robust empirical and analytical basis for prioritizing interventions.
Collaboration across IBRD, IDA, IFC, and MIGA has grown over time, and spans a
range of activities at the regional, country, sector, and thematic levels. This collaboration
includes the preparation of joint Country Partnership Frameworks, joint investment
projects notably for infrastructure and the financial sector and joint advisory services and
investment climate activities. For example, to help increase clean and affordable energy in
Ghana, the Bank Group is providing a $200 million IBRD loan and a $500 million IDA
guarantee for the Sankofa Gas Project. IFC is providing $300 million in financing for the
project sponsor, and MIGA is providing $217 million in guarantees against risk to support
the sponsor's commercial borrowing needs. The project will fuel up to 40 percent of
Ghana's current generation capacity and replace polluting fuels with cleaner, more
affordable, domestic natural gas.
The World Bank is accountable to its shareholders and the public through a set of
feedback and accountability mechanisms. These include the World Bank Group Corporate
Scorecard, the IDA Results Measurement System, and regular opportunities to discuss
progress on operations with the Bank's Board of Executive Directors.
IBRD financial commitments
IBRD is a global development cooperative owned by its 189 member countries. As
the largest multilateral development bank in the world, it supports the World Bank
Group's mission by providing loans, guarantees, risk management products, and advisory
services to middle-income and creditworthy low. income countries, as well as by
coordinating responses to regional and global challenges. In fiscal 2017, new IBRD lending
commitments amounted to $22.6 billion for 133 operations, of which 11 were IBRD and
IDA blended operations
IBRD resources and financial model
To fund development projects in member countries, IBRD finances its loans from its
own equity and from money borrowed in the capital markets through the issuance of
World Bank bonds. IBRD is rated Aaa by Moody's and AAA by Standard & Poor's, and
investors view its bonds as high-quality securities Its funding strategy is aimed at achieving
the best long-term value on a sustainable basis for borrowing members. IBRD ability to
intermediate the funds it raises in international capital markets to developing member
countries is important in helping to achieve its goals.

All IBRD bonds support sustainable development. IBRD issues its securities through
both global offerings and bent issues tailored to the needs of specific markets or investor
types Its bonds connect the private and public sectors to the World Bank's development
goals through such investors as asse managers, insurance companies, pension funds, central
banks, corporations, and bank treasuries from around the world. IBRD issues bonds to
investors in various currencies, maturities, and markets, and at fixed and variable terms. It
often opens ne markets for international investors by issuing new products of bonds in
emerging market currencies. IBRD's annual funding volumes vary from year to year.
IBRD's strategy has enabled it to borrow at favorable market terms and pass the
savings on to its borrowing members. Funds not immediately deployed for lending are held
in IBRD's investment portfolio to provide liquidity for its operations.
IDA Financial Commitments
IDA is the world's largest multilateral source of concessional financing for the
poorest countries. It provides concessional development credits, grants, and guarantees to
support these countries' efforts to increase economic growth, reduce poverty, and
improve the living conditions of the poor. In fiscal 2017, 78 countries were eligible for
IDA assistance. In addition, India, which graduated from IDA in fiscal 2014, received
transitional support on an exceptional basis through the IDA17 period, covering fiscal
years 2015-17. In fiscal 2017, new IDA lending commitments amounted to $19.5
billion for 261 operations, of which 11 were IBRD and IDA blended operations. These
commitments included $16.2 billion in credits, $3.2 billion in grants, and $50 million in
guarantees.
IDA resources and financial model
Traditionally IDA has been funded largely by contributions from developed and
middle-income partner countries. Additional financing comes from transfers from IBRD's
net income, grants from IFC, and borrowers' repayments of earlier IDA credits. The
groundbreaking IDA18 package will transform this approach by introducing a hybrid
financing model that blends contributions with market debt starting IDA18. IDA received
its first-ever public credit rating-triple-A-in 2016. Development partners meet every three
years to replenish IDA's funds and review its policies. Administrative expenses have been
recovered primarily through service charges paid by recipient countries.
 IDA's commitment authority is denominated in Special Drawing Rights (SDRs). The
U.S. dollar equivalents presented here are based on the reference exchange rate for
IDA17 and provided for illustrative purposes. Under the IDA17 Replenishment, total
resources amounted to SDR 38.7 billion (equivalent to $57.9 billion). This total reflects
updates made after the replenishment discussions.

IBRD and IDA Risk Management Transactions

IBRD offers financial products that allow clients to efficiently fund their
development programs and manage risks related to currencies, interest rates, commodity
prices, and disasters. In fiscal 2017, the Bank's Treasury executed USDeq
1.7 billion in hedging transactions, including USDeq 633 million in currency conversions
and USDeq 1.1 billion in interest rate conversions, in order to assist borrowers in
managing currency and interest rate risks over the life of their IBRD loans. Disaster risk
management transactions totaled $425 million in pandemic bonds and derivatives to
provide financial support to the Pandemic Emergency Financing Facility. The Bank's
Treasury executed swap transactions totaling USDeq 109 billion to manage the risks of
IBRD's balance sheet.

IDA manages the risks on its balance sheet related to currencies and interest rates
and helps member countries manage risks related to disasters by executing transactions
with financial markets. In fiscal 2017, the Bank's Treasury executed swap transactions
totaling USDeq 15.7 billion to manage the risks of IDA's balance sheet and a $34 million
transaction to renew coverage of the Pacific Disaster Insurance Program, which provides
protection against earthquakes and tropical cyclones in the Cook Islands, the Marshall
Islands, Samoa, Tonga, and Vanuatu.

Budgeting effectively for complex development issues

 The World Bank Group aligns its resources using the "W" process for strategic
planning, budgeting, and performance review. The five points of the "W" represent
specific decision points in the process:

W1: Senior management sets strategic planning priorities for the World Bank Group. W2:
Management at the vice presidential unit (VPU) levelreviews and responds to corporate
priorities.

W3: Senior management refines the guidance on priorities for each institution within the
World Bank Group.

W4: VPU-level management develops work programs and staffing plans in response to
determined priorities and planned budget envelopes
WS: Senior management reviews the aggregation of the VPU. Level budgets The Board
reviews and approves the VPU budget envelope for the subsequent fiscal year.

The "W" process is anchored in the demands and expectations of clients to define
and set institutional priorities, reinforce selectivity and efficient delivery, and support
stronger World Bank Group collaboration. Over the past several budget-planning cycles,
the World Bank Group has made significant progress in aligning revenues and expenses,
and tilting budgets in favor of institutional priorities.

At a time of economic uncertainty and global challenges, the World Bank Group is
being asked to address a growing number of complex development issues. During the
planning period for fiscal 2018-20, the Bank Group will focus on trends and priorities
arising from the organization's goals of ending extreme poverty and boosting shared
prosperity, the Forward Look exercise, the scaling up of operations in IDA countries
(especially fragile and conflict-affected areas), and the IDAI8 policy commitments. To
scale up support for better leveraging of resources through private sector engagement, the
new IDA Private Sector Window has been established to increase private sector investment
in low-capacity and fragile environments, along with ongoing work to build a more agile,
efficient, and innovative Bank Group.

Dealing with global political and economic policy uncertainties

The World Bank Group's Chief Risk Officer monitors the global political and
economic environments that could affect the institution's finances, and has an overview of
both financial and operational risk. In fiscal 2017, the global economy entered a period
characterized by some recovery but high uncertainty. Economic growth in advanced
economies remains weak, lower commodity prices have hurt developing economies, and
high corporate leverage and related external borrowing in the larger emerging markets
constitute a further fundamental vulnerability for the World Bank's borrowing countries.

Policy uncertainty presents a key overarching risk, and there is a significant chance
that economic activity could diverge from the baseline that foresees a gradual
strengthening of global activity. Potential protectionist pressures are a significant risk.
There remains considerable uncertainty, however, as to what extent and when such
pressures might translate into concrete measures and the forms these might take. Countries
with open economies and that are dependent on trade, including many low- income
countries, would be among the most vulnerable. Increased protectionism could also affect
foreign direct investment flows to developing countries. The policy stance of major central
banks as they move at varying paces to normalize monetary policy is another source of
uncertainty. Market interest rate expectations could adjust abruptly in response to higher
inflation or fiscal policy developments, which would affect both interest rates and risk
appetite. The most vulnerable countries are those dependent on portfolio investment to
finance current account imbalances. Divergence from monetary policy expectations could
also lead to further exchange rate movements. Corporate sectors that need to service
large, unhedged foreign currency borrowing could face stress in the face of sharp exchange
rate moves. In some countries, large contingent liabilities could be a source of risk and
disruption.
World Bank assisted projects

The Government of India received a loan from the World Bank towards
programme management and financial support for the National e-Governance Plan
(NeGP), for an amount of USS 150 million (about Rs 700 crore)The loan is referred to
as "India: e-Delivery of Public Services Development Policy Loan" and is envisaged to
support NeGP's countrywide plans of increasing online services for citizens in their locality,
to improve the quality of basic governance in areas of concern to the common man.

Department of Electronics & Information Technology (Deity) has issued detailed

guidelines to support Other Ministries/Departments as well as States/UTS in formulation,
development and funding of suitable project proposals. These guidelines provide a
comprehensive framework including detailed Project Report Template for submission of
proposals a based on indicative policy areas which are as below:

Policy Reform Areas

1. Policy for Institutional Strengthening of State Governments

2. Policy for Public Private Partnerships to improve service delivery.
3. Policy on use of Open Standards to ensure interoperability and avoid vendor lock in.
4. Policy for Inter-agency Coordination and Monitoring & Evaluation.
5. Policies for access to citizen services through Mobile platform and increasing the pace of
broadband penetration.
6. Policy for mandating increased participation of users.
7. Policy on service orientation for Government Processes and Officials
8. Electronic Service Delivery Act.
9. Policy on uniform and predictable verification of e service users.

Indicative Targets:
1. Strengthening States Institutions
2. Development of technical standards for e-Governance
3. Improved inter-agency coordination and monitoring of e- governance

4. Improving access to services by using the mobile platform while increasing the pace of
internet penetration.
5. Facilitating increased participation of users in design and evaluation of e-governance
projects
6.Improving service orientation of government processes and officials
7. E-Services Delivery Act (ESD Act). Uniform and predictable verification of e-service
users.

Preferred areas of possible intervention:

Following are the areas for the State/UTs and Central Ministry/Department to prefer
proposals to Diet.
The programme has gained considerable momentum. Deity has received several
project proposals relating to varied areas/sectors ranging from Health, Education, GIS,
Mobile Enablement, Cloud etc.
Proposals received by Deity pass through a comprehensive process of appraisal both
technical as well as financial. For 1 reviewing, examining and evaluating proposals, Deity
has constituted a Working Group under the Chairmanship of Additional composition:
A. Additional Secretary (e-Governance), Deity-Chairperson.

B. CEO and President, National e-Governance Division.

C. Joint Secretary (e-Governance), Deity.
D. Joint Secretary of the concerned line Ministry/ Department, Gol.
E. Secretary of the line Department of state/UT dealing with the subject
F. Representative of Director General, NIC
G. Director, National e-Governance Division
H. Director (e-Governance), Deity-Member Secretary
Project Development Fund (PDF):
To provide assistance formulation for project and development to
Ministries/Departments of Government of India and to States/UTS, a corpus fund titled
'Project Development Fund (PDF) with an initial contribution of Rs. 20 crore has also
been set up by Deity to cover under noted initiatives:

✓ Initiatives associated with New Mission Mode Projects (MMPs).

✓ Initiatives associated with areas other than the existing MMPS.
✓ Pilot or prototype projects for e-governance.
✓ Other innovative projects
✓ PDF will be available for carrying out following activities:
✓ Consultation Fees for technical and financial feasibility studies.
✓ Preparation of DPR for new projects.
✓ Out of Pocket Expenses for requirement gathering such as undertaking workshops,
field visits, etc
✓ Any other assistance needed for the purpose of developing projects.
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)is
a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) based in Paris. Its declared purpose is to
contribute to peace and security by promoting international collaboration through
educational, scientific, and cultural reforms in order to increase universal respect for
justice, the rule of law, and human rights along with fundamental freedom proclaimed in
the United Nations Charter. It is the successor of the League of Nations' International
Committee on Intellectual Cooperation.
History of UNESCO
UNESCO and its mandate for international cooperation be traced back to a League
of Nations resolution on 21 September 1921, to elect a Commission to study feasibility.
O 18 December 1925, the International Bureau of Education (IBE) began work as a non-
governmental organization in the service of international educational development.
However, the onset of World War II largely interrupted the work of these predecessor
organizations.

After the signing of the Atlantic Charter and the Declaration of the United
Nations, the Conference of Allied Ministers of Education (CAME) began meetings in
London which continued between 16 November 1942 to 5 December 1945. On 30
October 1943, the necessity for an international organization was expressed in the
Moscow Declaration, agreed upon by China, the United Kingdom, the United States and
the USSR. This was followed by the Dumbarton Oaks Conference proposals of 9 October
1944. Upon the proposal of CAME and in accordance with the recommendations of the
United Nations Conference on International Organization (UNCIO), held in San Francisco
in April-June 1945, a United Nations Conference for the establishment of an educational
and cultural organization (ECO/CONF) was convened in London 1-16 November 1945
with 44 governments represented. A prominent figure in the initiative for UNESCO was
Rab Butler, the Minister of Education for the United Kingdom. At the ECO/CONF, the
Constitution of UNESCO was introduced and signed by 37 countries, and a Preparatory
Commission was established. The Preparatory Commission operated between 16
November 1945, and 4 November 1946-the date when UNESCO's Constitution came
into force with the deposit of the twentieth ratification by a member state.

The first General Conference took place between 19 November to 10 December

1946, and elected Dr. Julian Huxley to Director-General. The Constitution was amended
in November 1954 when the General Conference resolved that members of the Executive
Board would be representatives of the governments of the States of which they are
nationals and would not, as before, act in their personal capacity. This change in
governance distinguished UNESCO from its predecessor, the CICI, in how member states
would work together in the organization's fields of competence. As member states worked
together over time to realize UNESCO's mandate, political and historical factors have
shaped the organization's operations in particular during the Cold War, the decolonization
process, and the dissolution of the USSR.
UNESCO has 195 member states and ten associate members. Most of its field
offices are "cluster" offices covering three or more countries; national and regional offices
also exist.
Objectives of UNESCO
 UNESCO pursues its objectives through five major programs: education, natural
sciences, social/human sciences, culture and communication/information. Projects
sponsored by UNESCO include literacy, technical, and teacher-training programs,
international science programs, the promotion of independent media and freedom of the
press, regional and cultural history projects, the promotion of cultural diversity,
translations of world literature, international cooperation agreements to secure the world's
cultural and natural beritage (World Heritage Sites) and to preserve human rights, and
attempts to bridge the worldwide digital divide. It is also a member of the United Nations
Development Group.

Aim of UNESCO

UNESCO's aim is "to contribute to the building of peace, the eradication of

poverty, sustainable For intercultural dialogue through education, the sciences, culture
communication and information". Other priorities of the organization include attaining
quality Education All and lifelong learning, addressing emerging social and ethical
challenges, fostering cultural diversity, a culture of peace and building inclusive knowledge
societies through information and communication.

UNESCO's Concept of Education

At no time in human history was the welfare of nations so closely linked to the
quality and outreach of their higher education systems and institutions. As the only United
Nations agency with a mandate in higher education, UNESCO facilitates the development
of evidence based policies in response to new trends and developments in this field
emphasizing its role in achieving the Millennium Development Goals and particularly
poverty eradication. The Organization fosters innovation to meet education and workforce
needs and examines ways of increasing higher education opportunities for young people
from vulnerable and disadvantaged groups. It deals with cross-border higher education and
quality assurance, with a special focus on mobility and recognition of qualifications, and
provides tools to protect students and other stakeholders from low-quality provision of
higher education. UNESCO promotes policy dialogue and contributes to enhancing quality
education, strengthening research capacities in higher education institutions, and
knowledge sharing across borders.
Teacher Education:
i. Global leadership on teachers,
ii. Their status,
iii. Their professional training.
iv. Their management and administration and key policy issues.
v. The UNESCO/ILO Recommendations concerning the Status of Teachers and provide
the framework for the same.
vi. The Teacher Training Initiative for Sub-Saharan Africa (TTISSA) is a core initiative
addressing key issues in the African context.

UNESCO's Role and Functions for Teacher Training

UNESCO promotes the development of a professionally trained corps of teachers

who provided the human contact, understanding and judgment necessary to prepare our
children for the world of tomorrow.

UNESCO and Teachers

Good teachers are the cornerstone of quality education. On a daily basis, teachers
contribute to sustainable development by building its human foundation nurturing each
child's capacity and desire to learn. Without teachers, Education for All (EFA) by 2015
would be an unobtainable dream.
Teachers: Creating hope for tomorrow
Teachers are at the very heart of UNESCO's work. Each day, over 60 million
teachers care for 1 billion children, cultivating their souls and minds. Any process that
attempts to improve the quality of education promote peace and harmony and eliminate
discrimination requires teachers. Teachers work with children who will be the leaders of
tomorrow.
 But for teachers to be effective, they must be well train motivated, have a decent
work environment, good pay and attractive career path. UNESCO enables the world's
teachers i building on the standards for the professional, social, ethical material concerns of
teachers set in the 1966 and 19 recommendations concerning the status of teachers and
educati personnel. M
There is currently a severe shortage of teachers worldwide with UNESCO helps
adjust national policies to reverse teacher fligh teacher drop-out and assists countries
professionalization of volunteer teachers recruited by hart pressed governments to fill crisis
level gaps.

UNESCO and Teacher Education

i) Emphasizing the essential role teacher training education policy play in national
development goals
ii. Producing and disseminating policy guidelines on op and distance learning, e-learning,
and use of ICTs teacher education.
iii. Advocacy to improve the training and status of teache worldwide.
iv. Integrating international standards regarding HIVIA and life skills into national teacher
education policies v. Promoting exchange of good national practices lessons learnt within
groups of countries with common teacher-related agendas through networking exchange.
vi. UNESCO promotes the development of a professionally trained corps of teachers who
provided the h contact, understanding and judgment necessary prepare our children for
the world of tomorrow.
UNESCO's Teacher Training Initiative in Sub-Saharu Africa
1. UNESCO's Teacher Training Initiative is a new 10- project to dramatically improve
teacher training capacities in 46 sub-Saharan countries.
2. The programme is designed to assist countries to synchronize their policies, teacher
education, and labour practices with national development priorities for Education for All
and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) through a series of four-year cycles.
Teacher Training for the Achievement of Education for all:
 The acute shortage of qualified teachers has been identified as one of the biggest
challenges to EFA. If EFA is to be achieved by 2015, then between 15 and 30 million
more teachers are needed worldwide. In sub-Saharan Africa, 4 million additional teachers
will be needed by 2015 to meet the goal of Universal Primary Education alone.
Additional teachers will be needed for non-formal education and literacy training, as well
as in-service training of teachers.
UNESCO recognizes that teacher education is integrally related to quality
education and closely linked to curriculum renewal, improved learning outcomes, and a
positive school environment. At the end of four years, each country participating in the
Teacher Training Initiative is expected to integrate a comprehensive teacher education
plan into the national education plan, improve the quality of training in teacher education,
address the issues of severe teacher shortage and the status of teachers, and implement an
internationally prescribed standard and national policy regarding HIV prevention
education.

UNICEF

The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) a United Nations (UN) program
headquartered in New York City that to children and mothers in developing countries. It is
a member of the United Nations Development Group.

The United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund was created by the
United Nations General Assembly on the 11th of December 1946, to provide emergency
food and healthcare to children in countries that had been devastated by World War II.
The Polish physician LudwikRajchman is widely regarded as the founder of UNICEF and
served as its first chairman from 1946. On Rajchman's suggestion, the American Maurice
Pate was appointed its first executive director, serving from 1947 until his death in 1965.
In 1950, UNICEF's mandate was extended to address the long-term needs of children
and women in developing countries everywhere. In 1953 it became a permanent part of
the United Nations System, and the words "international" and "emergency" were
dropped from the organization's name, making it simply the United Nations Children's
Fund, retaining the original acronym, "UNICEF"

UNICEF relies on contributions from governments and private donors; UNICEF's

total income for 2015 was US$5,009,557,471. Governments contribute two-thirds of
the organization's resources. Private groups and individuals contribute the rest through
national committees. It is estimated that 92 per cent of UNICEF revenue is distributed to
program services. UNICEF's programs emphasize developing community-level services to
promote the health and well-being of children. UNICEF was awarded the Nobel Peace
Prize in 1965 and the Prince of Asturias Award of Concord in 2006.

Most of UNICEF's work is in the field, with staff in over 190 countries and
territories. More than 200 country offices carry out UNICEF's mission through programs
developed with host governments. Seven regional offices provide technical assistance to
country offices as needed.
UNICEF's Supply Division is based in Copenhagen and serves as the primary point
of distribution for such essential items as vaccines, antiretroviral medicines for children and
mothers with HIV, nutritional supplements, emergency shelters, family reunification, and
educational supplies. A 36- member executive board establishes policies, approves
programs and oversees administrative and financial plans. The executive board is made up
of government representatives who are elected by the United Nations Economic and
Social Council, usually for three-year terms
Teacher Education: The key to quality teaching and quality education

Recent national policy guidelines such as the National Curriculum Framework 2005
(NCF 05), NCF for Teacher Education 2009, and Right to Education Act (RTE) 2009
paint a commendable vision to radically transform India's elementary education system.
However, no education system can rise above the quality of its teachers. While
considerable energy has gone into bringing about some of these changes through the
Indian government's landmark SarvaShiksha Abhiyan (SSA) programme, mission- mode
efforts will not be enough to bring substantial and lasting reform unless larger structural
changes are brought about in the Teacher Education (TE) system. To date, though, this
sector and its needs have not received enough public attention.
The alarming state of Teacher Education in the country is reflected in the fact that,
in recent years, the majority of graduates that have appeared for the Central Teacher
Eligibility Test (CTET) have failed to demonstrate even the most basic knowledge base
expected from a teacher.
This is not to mention the vision, skills and values necessary for the kind of
classroom envisioned by progressive policy documents, but which for the most part are
not adequately addressed by teacher training programmes. Although a range of
committees and policy documents in recent decades have decried the worrying state of
teacher education and have made many recommendations for its urgent reform, the
majority of these proposals have yet to be implemented.
While demand for more teachers has in recent years led to an explosion in the
number of Teacher Education Institutions (TEIS) and courses at various levels, this has not
been coupled with a push on infrastructure, faculty expertise, learning resources or quality.
A greater challenge is that more than 85 per cent of these TEIS are in the private sector
where the state has exerted little quality control.
RTE provides momentum for government and partners to radically improve Teacher
Education (TE)

Despite these challenges, a source of hope is the current renewed national

momentum to bring significant changes in Teacher Education in coming years. The RTE
Act provides a strong policy framework for mandating time-bound changes in teachers and
subsequently in teacher education systems, while the NCFTE as well as the Justice Verma
Committee Report submitted to the Supreme Court in August 2012 provide a clear
roadmap with concrete recommendations for the substantial reforms needed in the TE
sector.

On top of this, the national government Twelfth Five-Year Plan places significant
importance on overhauling TE systems in the country. In light of this, the Ministry of
Human Resource Development (MHRD) in 2012 launched a revised Centrally- Sponsored
Scheme for Teacher Education with an approved outlay of approximately INR 63 billion
for the next five years focusing on strengthening the capacity of TEIs, training of untrained
teachers, in-service teacher training, decentralized teacher support by BRCs and CRCs,
linkages between elementary teacher education and higher education, and system for
monitoring the performance of teachers and TEls.
The MHRD is also in the process of initiating a National Mission on Teachers and
Teaching in order to address a gamut of issues relating to teachers, teacher education and
quality of teaching, through a range of policy measures, programmatic and scheme-based
interventions, and project-based activities.

The mission will look at teacher education in a holistic manner as one continuum
from school to university, and suggest ways to strengthen the institutional mechanisms at
all levels. All these initiatives offer avenues for hope and the platform for a variety of
partners to come together to work toward significant reforms in the Teacher Education
system in India.
UNICEF in Action

Over the past few years, UNICEF has been offering support to TE primarily at the
state level, through the education teams at its 13 field offices. These experts have offered
technical inputs to state governments on a range of interventions, such as in developing
annual plans for TE; strengthening TE institutions, curricula, syllabi and materials; building
the capacity of academic support systems; facilitating partnerships with technical experts;
advocating on key priority areas; piloting and rolling out innovative programmes and
materials; and documenting good practice.

In 2012, in light of the demand created by RTE and other national education
schemes and the crucial role of teacher education in enabling larger systemic reform,
UNICEF took the decision to streamline and re-conceive a more targeted involvement in
teacher education for the coming years, to work out ways it could support national and
state governments to overhaul teacher education.
 This document outlines certain key focus areas and strategies for UNICEF's
involvement in the next five years. It was developed through a process of reviewing
national plans and documents, discussing them with key government stakeholders and
educationists and visiting states to get a better idea of their ground realities and individual
needs. In deciding key priorities for action, UNICEF attempted to strike a balance between
immediate needs in order to meet RTE goals and the longer-term structural reforms that
are needed to strengthen TE systems.

It also attempted to keep in mind the organization's position as an institution with

considerable experience in partnering with state governments at field level, specifically in
nurturing, identifying and documenting innovative practices, and supporting their
implementation within the government system.

UNICEF's strong relationships and access to diverse stakeholders from government,

civil society, private and international sectors, also make it uniquely positioned to facilitate
opportunities for greater collaboration between these diverse sectors and to bring together
efforts to promote innovation in TE.

Vision for Teacher Education

UNICEF's overarching goal for Teacher Education (TE) is to strengthen

government systems that enhance the capacity of teachers to deliver quality education with
equity. Specifically, the following changes are planned:

1. Professionalization of the teaching profession by establishing stronger linkages with the

higher education sector and promoting longer duration (four or five year) pre- service
courses for teachers, along with continuous in- service professional development
opportunities that nurture teachers through a process of personal transformation and
growth.
2. A strong cadre of teacher educators who have a clear vision and understanding of NCF
05 and RTE, practical experience in applying these in classrooms, and strong facilitation
and mentoring skills. 3. Training programmes that use constructivist methodologies that
enable teachers to reflect on their beliefs, attitudes and classroom experience, and to
discuss together to plan the innovations they want to bring into their own classrooms.

4. A culture of continuous collaboration with Teacher Resource Centres having a variety

of reading materials and resources regularly used by Trainers and Teachers, and Teacher
Mentors who offer regular on-site support to teachers.

5. Teachers that are empowered to become reflective practitioners, equipped with the
vision, attitudes, knowledge and skills required to design effective classroom strategies to
meet diverse learners' needs, along with the freedom and support needed to implement
these.

Five-year Goals

1. To offer hands-on support to help states develop and successfully implement

comprehensive roadmaps for Teacher Education reform under the new TE
Scheme/Mission.

2. To work towards strengthening of District Institute of Education and Training (DIETS)

and capacity-building of DIET Teacher Educators in selected states, through partnerships
with other Resource Organizations.
3. To generate resources to strengthen TE programmes and methodologies, to translate
the vision of NCF 2005/NCF TE 2009 into a reality in classrooms.
4. To explore quality options for Training Untrained Teachers, and help states implement
these solutions for meeting RTE goals without compromising quality.
5. To partner with states and selected universities to develop six Schools of Education to
become Centres of Excellence in Teacher Education, conducting innovative TE
programmes (B.El.Ed, M.Ed.) as well as interdisciplinary research on elementary
education.

The Education Programme supports and strengthens government efforts to provide

quality education by reducing gender and other social and economic disparities at the
national and state levels. The Ministry of Human Resource Development is the nodal
ministry for UNICEF's Education Programme.

While retaining a focus on elementary education for children aged 6 - 14 years

under the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act (RTE), the
programme is now covering a wider gamut starting from early childhood education
through elementary up to Grade 10. Child friendly schools and systems are being
promoted and capacities of teachers strengthened to ensure children's right to learn.
Convergence with other programmes to combat child labour and child marriage, and
universal access to improved water, sanitation and hygiene facilities, is also ensured. The
programme aims to:

i. Improve equitable access to quality carly childhood education.

ii. Accelerate implementation of the Right to Education Act and child friendly schools.

iii. Enhance capacities of teachers and pre-school functionaries to deliver quality education.

iv. Mobilize communities to demand equitable access to quality education.

v. Increase access to secondary education for adolescents with a focus on reducing gender
and social disparities.

Key Challenges:
i. An estimated 8.1 million children are out of school, majority of those belonging to the
disadvantaged groups.

ii. Dropout rates are high. Despite achieving close to universal enrolment at primary level,
27% children drop out between Class 1 and 5, 41% before reaching Class 8, and 49%
before reaching Class 10. The figures are higher for children from Scheduled Castes
(27%, 43%. and 56% respectively) and Scheduled Tribes (36%, 55%, and 71%).

iii. Wide gender disparities exist in education. For every 100 boys enrolled in secondary
education, there are 81 girls enrolled.

iv. Less than half (47%) of Class 5 students can read Class 2 text5. Children's attendance
rate in rural primary schools has shown a decline from 73% in 2007 to 71% in 2012.

v. As per RTE norms, there should be one teacher for every thirty students at primary
level and one teacher for every thirty five students at upper primary level. However, 41%
of primary schools have a Pupil Teacher Ratio (PTR) of more than 30 and 31% of upper
primary schools have a PTR more than 35. About 80% of regular teachers and 72% of
contractual teachers are professionally qualified.

vi. Of the 1.3 million schools across India, only 72% of elementary schools have a
separate girls' toilet, while only 85% of these toilets are functional.

vii. Significant challenges still remain to keep schools safe considering rising civil unrest and
the wide prevalence of corporal punishment across the country.

Key Opportunities:

i. The Parliament has passed the Right to Education Act (RTE), making eight years of
quality education a fundamental right for every girl and boy in India. Enacted on 1 April
2010, the RTE serves as a building block to ensure that every child from 6 to 14 years
has his or her right to receive quality elementary education, and that the State, with the
help of families and communities, fulfills this obligation.

ii. National Policy on Early Childhood Care and Education approved by Cabinet which
consists of the ECCE policy, curriculum framework and quality standards. There is now a
movement to expand RTE to include early childhood and secondary education.

Key Results Achieved:

i. Notification of RTE rules and implementation guidelines across all States and Union
Territories resulting in more than 11 million more children in schools, significant resource
allocations to the sector and major education reforms.

ii. Since 31 March 2013 RTE deadline, RTE stocktaking at the national level and in ten
states completed to accelerate implementation.

iii. Child friendly schools as mandated by RTE integrated into governments' plans and
budgets including Activity Based child-centered method of teaching and learning replicated
across 13 states.

iv. Improved water, sanitation and hygiene practices mainstreamed into RTE plans.

V. National Policy on Early Childhood Care and Education cleared by the Government.

vi. Early childhood education curriculum piloted in 16 states and finalized in three.
vii. Support to Government of India Teacher Education Mission to ensure academic
support structure strongly linked to learning outcomes.

viii. National Vision for Girls' Education and 2015 Roadmap incorporated into SSA
Annual Work Plans and Budgets as well as capacity development of state Gender
Coordinators through GOI-civil society partnerships
ix. Ministerial level support for RTE implementation in civil strife affected areas including
new programming in Jammu and Kashmir.

x.District Information Systems for Education (DISE). X. NUEPA, 2011-2012.

xi. 83 or the 640 districts are affected by civil unrest. Ministry of Home Affairs.

The United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) was set up
by the United Nations Organizations(UNO) in December, 1946 for providing financial
aid to the suffering children. Programmes funded by UNICEF had the benefit towards the
responsive to emergencies affecting children. Most of the programmes funded by UNICEF
are long- term operations closely related to the national development plans of many
countries of the world.

In order to meet the socio-economic needs of the bulk of the rural population, new
schemes have been launched. These included the Applied Nutrition Programme, assisted
by UNICEF, aimed at improving the nutritional status of the rural population in selected
blocks and ensuring provisions of health care, immunization, potable water and
environment sanitation.

So the UNICEF works to help protect children from diseases due to mal-nutrition.
It is an agency which is exclusively entrusted with the welfare of children of the countries
of the world. Committed as it is to the development and welfare to children, UNICEF is
working in partnership with the Government in programmes of childhood disability.

UNIT-4

COMPARATIVE EDUCATION AT PRIMARY AND SECONDARY

COMPARATIVE EDUCATION: PURPOSE OF STUDYING COMPARATIVE
EDUCATION

There are enough reasons why prospective teachers should study comparative education.
These include:

1) For Intellectual Reasons

It is an intellectual activity that scholars can pursue to the highest level possible. An
individual can do this in order to enhance his/her intellectual capacity concerning other
systems of education with the purpose of enlightenment. This knowledge would help the
individual to understand their education system better and that of others with the
intention of improving and solving problem in their own system. Knowledge for its own
sake is the sole ground upon which Comparative Education need t-o make a stand in order
to merit inclusion among other academic fields

2) Planning

Modern societies have come to appreciate the importance of planning. Various

problems that are associated with over- population, under production, diseases, economic
non-viability, industrialization and social ills can be tackled through planning requires
careful requires careful formulation of objectives, establishment of priorities and the
identification of the means to achieve those objectives. Since an educational policy affects
millions of people, rational decisions need to be made so that the policy can achieve the
desired results. This call for proper planning that Comparative Education can provide a
helping hand.

3) Practicability

Education operates in a practical age where it is now taken as any consumer good.
The patterns of education that have no practical utility sent are being reformed. For
instance, in United Kingdom the state supported primary schools whose objectives was to
teach the masses how to read and write, so as to enable them work better in the industrial
society. These systems have survived with modification and improvements. In the former
USSR and China work experience was emphasized and was very much reflected in the
curriculum. In United States of America, comprehensive schools on the principle of utility
and practicability have replaced grammar schools. In Kenya the education system was
reformed in 1985 with a view to make it more elitist and had no practical utility to the
pupils involved. The problem of reforming an education system to make it more practical
and of utility must be studied for solutions and this can be done better through the study
of Comparative Education.

4) Humanitarian viewpoint

The current world is characterized by increasing problems that are affecting the
human population in various ways. Most of the former stable regions of the world have
been affected by wars. The problems experienced in these countries do affect their
neighbors and other countries of the world in various ways. For instance, the gulf war of
1991 affected the world oil prices just as had happened in 1971 during the crisis in the
Middle East. Since the Declaration of Human Rights by UN in 1948, there has been
heightened aspiration for peace, freedom, equality, and a better life. As part of the human
rights access to education has been increased. Many countries including Kenya provides
Universal Primary Education. Therefore, the knowledge of each other education system is
necessary and can better be acquired through Comparative Education.

5) Seeing Education in World Perspective

Most countries of the world have identical problems in their educational

perspective. Therefore, it is possible for them to learn problems from each other on how
they resolved a particular problem. For example, when Kenya was implementing FPE in
2003, Nigeria could have provided some of the clues of the problems, which were to be
expected, and the solutions to them. Uganda a close neighbor to Kenya with practical
solutions on how she managed to obtain total literacy while India has problems in
achieving it. These countries can provide important lessons to Kenya during her
implementation of FPE. Also, one would want to know how nations have struggled to
establish media of instruction. The comparative approach would yield a deeper
understanding of educational problems. In this era, the purpose of Comparative Education
would be better understanding of the changed circumstances and to have better
equipment to fulfill the new responsibilities. This will help in understanding of why some
countries education systems are progressive while others are backward. The administrative
system of the land influences the state of the educational system. For instance, the
administrative machineries of Switzerland, Canada, USA, and Japan are combined with
local autonomy and decentralized control. Consequently, in the educational system of
these countries, we find a reflection of their political philosophy. Thus the political
philosophy and administrative systems of various countries determine the administration
and control of education.

6) Promotes Innovation in Education

There are many innovations, which are being introduced in education today. The
development of technology has facilitated new methods of organizing learning. For
instance, the use radio, Television and ICT to deliver knowledge, use of other aspects of
the media, open university, African Virtual University (AVU) and computer assisted
learning have been introduced to education. All these have facilitated education in a
comparative context. The USA system has facilitated the spread of innovations in
education in the world.

7) Economics of education.

In the recent years, research has generated the realization that the spread of
education is positively correlated with increasing productivity. For instance, the former
USSR improved her economy by eradicating illiteracy. Also, all the developed countries
have progressed by investing more in education. On the other hand most of the
developing countries have generated the problem of educated unemployment or brain
drain by improving their education systems.

8) Education for international understanding

This is a central purpose for studying comparative education. The two world wars
made man to seek even more seriously the various ways of promoting international
understanding. UNESCO has recognized that wars begin from the minds of men.
Therefore in order to stop another war from occurring, international understanding is
essential so that national pride can be curtailed in the people's minds. This was the spirit of
the League of Nations in 1921; International Bureau of education in 1925 and
Commission of Intellectual Cooperation in 1926. To deal with labor problems and
education, International Labor Organization (ILO) and UNESCO were established. The
declaration of human rights in 1948 by the United Nations Organization (UNO) as a way
of enhancing peace has contributed to international understanding. Unilateral and
multilateral co-operation programs have been developed to promote international
understanding. Education is seen as the possible way to enhance international
understanding. To understand other nations of the world, their philosophies of life,
education, culture and sociology and to understand the forces, be they geographical,
cultural, local and religious influencing their life, to know more about their customs,
traditions and culture is absolutely essential. An understanding of how these cultures are
affecting education systems is important for the development of clear concept of
internationalism. Exchanging of students teachers and other social workers is intended to
promote the international systems of education.

9) Relax national pride

This is necessary for those countries that feel to be more superior to other countries
in case of technology, military prowess and economic prosperity. They need to understand
that other countries are essential for their sustenance and therefore have to work for
mutual benefit of each other. Comparative thinking and international perspective taking
are essential for citizens to get along in diverse, global society. Comparison challenges
students to suspend judgment of these foreign systems that they might base on their
limited and localized perspectives. Through the development of comparative thinking skills,
students should be able to undertake analyses of their home cultures and systems with a
more nuanced understanding of various cultural factors at play.

IMPORTANT REASONS FOR STUDYING COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

❖ To assist in the understanding of one's educational institutions as well as educational

practices.
 ❖ To assist in the understanding of the factors those are responsible for various
educational changes.
❖ To educate the students and teachers on the procedure through which educational
changes occur.
❖ To contribute not only to the educational development of the society but also to
the general development of the society.
❖ To serve as an academic discipline.
❖ To assist solving one's educational problems
❖ To open one's eyes to the educational philosophies, theories and practices of other
countries.
❖ To assist both the students and teachers of discipline in gathering reliable
information concerning educational system.
❖ To assist in the Promotion of international relationship.
❖ To contribute to the formulation of a country's educational systems.

RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

There are various reasons that justify the study of comparative education especially for
students of education - teachers in the making (or to-be), practicing teachers, policy
makers, education planners and managers and all interested parties. Some of the reasons
include;

i) Enhance one's own understanding;

To enable us understand our own education systems in a better way by knowing its routes
and how it has been influenced by others to be what it is today.

ii) To generalized educational concept;

To enable us make general statements about how education develops and also test how
universally applicable existing theories in education are.

iii) To know other people;

Through comparative education one develops a reservoir of knowledge which satisfies one
intellectual curiosity besides enhancing ones intellectual enlightment. Thus it broadens our
thinking when dealing with educational issues and problems thus, think globally and act
locally.

iv) To improve education at home;

By studying other peoples systems of education we get to develop a better perspective of

our own education system. We study comparative education to discover which reforms are
desirable and possible and how best to implement them, and also what successes to
borrow and what failures to avoid.

v) To make people practical;

We study comparative education in order to get exposure to knowledge in other

disciplines in humanities and social sciences that also study human affairs so as to enable us
have a holistic picture of education. Education in this regard is considered to be a
consumer good. It therefore must have practical utility for example, ability to read and
write. The task of making education practical is the duty of the government and the
educationist Comparative Education is therefore considered very suitable for studying this
problem.

vi) To learn the true nature of a society;

By studying schools in other countries, comparative education opens the window through
which we can understand a society for often the school reflect what the society looks like
(schools are the mirrors of society). A school actually reflects or represents the national
character. Michael Sadler (1900) said "In studying foreign systems of education, we
should not forget that the things outside the school matter even more than the things
inside the school and govern and interpret the things inside"

vii) Contribute to International understanding and goodwill;

Comparative education fosters international understating. peace and co-operation among

nations of the world. By discovering and appreciating what exists elsewhere it replaces
national pride and prejudice with the objectivity of judgment that facilitates international
harmony. ;

viii) Humanitarian reasons

The contemporary world is characterized by a big quest for knowledge, peace, equality
and better life. The concern is how education can provide these qualities. In many
countries the question of peace and equality are key issues in education. The discipline
therefore satisfies our natural desire to learn more about the origins and development of
such contemporary and educational issues in various countries including ours.

ix) Problem solving;

All countries face educational problems that require solutions. Comparative education
helps us to understand differences and similarities between our own education system and
others. In this regard one is able to appreciate the fact that countries develop educational
systems to serve their own national objectives, interests, values and aspirations, based on
their unique contexts and hence solve problems facing them.

x) International standards;

In order to achieve international standards in education, comparative education makes us

aware of the international trends in education and guides countries on how to give their
people or citizens a universally conscious and relevant education that fits in the global
village today.

xi) To expose people to innovations;

Today people are using various media to conduct education activities by use of televisions,
teleconferencing, radio, e- learning and internet. By studying other system, one learns how
to use such media and their benefits and this helps to bring the necessary reforms in one's
own education system.

xii) To understand the economic implications of education;

There is an argument that there is a correlation between education and improvements in
the economy, that is, according to economic theory. Comparative education helps us to
examine whether and where this is true.

STUDY ABOUT COMPARATIVE EDUCATION AT PRIMARY AND SECONDARY

LEVEL IN U.K, U.S.A, JAPAN AND INDIA

According to L.L. Kandel, "The chief value of a comparative approach to

educational problems lies in an analysis of the cause which have produced them, in a
comparison of the differences between the various systems and the reasons underlying
them, and finally, in a study of the solutions attempted. In other words, the comparative
approach demands first an appreciation of the intangible, impalpable spiritual and cultural
forces which underlic an educational system; the factors and forces outside the school
matter even more than what goes inside it."

Educational systems of the various countries have developed in different economic,

geographical, historical, political and social conditions. This illustrates as well as explains
different national styles.

Different aspects of education in different countries bear comparison and reveal

both similarities and contrasts. This provides a better insight into the system of education
of one's own country.

Lessons Derived from Comparison

Following are the main lessons derived from the comparison of different countries in the
field of education.

1. The different state educational policies must aim to give every pupil a capability to
make him versatile and sufficiently adaptable for the technological challenges of
employment.
2. Programs of vocational education should be made flexible and vigorous.
3. Educational accountable institutions should be made more
4. Jobs should be delinked from degrees.
 5. All wasteful expenditure should be curtailed.
6. Percentage of national income on education should be gradually increased.

Following conclusions may be derived:

1. India has the highest population among the countries under discussion.
2. India is at the bottom in all indicators of progress.
3. USA has the highest GNP per capita.
4. USA is ahead as regards literacy and education.
5. Total public expenditure on education as per cent.

The Post-Second World War period in independent nations and post-independence

period in India has been marked by tremendous growth but inadequate progress.
Pragmatic thinking, bold action backed by political will and systematic planning in the field
of education are the needs of the hour.

Educational Reforms

1. USA. For many years the education service has been characterized by change. Much of
the Post-II War Period in independent nations and post-independence period in India has
been marked by tremendous growth: large increases in the number of pupils, the
expansion of higher education and increased expenditure. Recent years have seen
increasing reassessment, consolidation and curricular changes

2. U.K: In the UK the Government's policies for raising standards in schools were set out
in a White Paper entitled Better Schools published in March 1985.In 1991, the
Government published three White Papers to transform education.

3. JAPAN: Educational reform in occupied Japan (August 1945-April 1952)

encompasses changes in philosophy and goals of education; nature of the student-teacher
relationship; coeducation; the structure of compulsory education system; textbook content
and procurement system; personnel at the Education. The Japanese government's drive to
reform public education through controversial changes in the common university entrance
exam has hit two major potholes, calling into question the very premises of the reform. A
leading opponent of the plan criticizes the dogma-driven policy-making process, which
ignores the real crisis facing public education in Japan.

4. In India, The Challenge of Education: A Policy Perspective 1985 which pointed out the
inadequacies of the system of education was followed by the National Policy on Education
1986, and The Programme of Action, 1986.

Education for the Twenty-first Century

"Learning the Treasure Within" is the title of the report of the International
Commission on Education for the Twenty first Century. It seeks to answer How to plan for
education for the 21st century. The Commission appointed by UNESCO in 1993,
submitted its report in 1996. It is usually known as Delors Report after the name of
Jacques Delors the chairperson of the Commission. The Commission included 15 experts
from different countries. (Maharaja) Karan Singh from India served as a member of the
Commission. He also appended a special note.

Expected Scenario of the World in the 21st Century

Taking into consideration all the changes in view including the technological revolution,
the Commission visualized the scenario of the 21st century as under:

❖ From the local community to a world society.

❖ From social cohesion to democratic participation.
❖ From economic growth to human development.

Role of Education in the Coming Scenario

❖ Educational policy must be sufficiently diversified and must be so designed as not to

become another contributory cause of social exclusion.
❖ The socialization of individuals must not conflict with personal development. It is
therefore necessary to work towards a system that strives to combine the virtues of
integration with respect for individual rights.
❖ Education cannot, on its own, solve the problems raised by the severance (when
this happens) of social ties. It can, however, be expected to help to foster the
 desire to live together, which is a basic component of social cohesion and national
identity.
❖ Schools cannot succeed in this task unless they make their own contribution to the
advancement and integration of minority groups by mobilizing those concerned
while showing due regard for their personality.
❖ Democracy appears to be progressing, taking forms and passing through stages that
fit the situation in each country. Its vitality is nevertheless constantly threatened.
Education for conscious and active citizenship must begin at school.
❖ Democratic participation is, so to say, a matter of good citizenship, but it can be
encouraged or stimulated by instruction and practices adapted to a media and
information society. What is needed is to provide reference points and aids to
interpretation, so as to strengthen the faculties of understanding and judgment.
❖ It is the role of education to provide children and adults with the cultural
background that will enable them, as far as possible, to make sense of the changes
taking place. This presupposes that they are capable of sorting the mass of
information so as to interpret it more effectively and place events in a historical
perspective.

Four Pillars of Education

1. Learning to Know: Combining a sufficiently broad general knowledge with the

opportunity to work in depth on a small number of subjects, means learning to
learn, so as to benefit from the opportunities education-provides throughout life.
2. Learning to Do: In order to acquire not only an occupational skill but also, more
broadly, the competence to deal with many situations and work in teams means
learning to do in the context of young peoples' various social and work experiences
which may be informal, as a result of the local or national context, or formal,
involving courses, alternating study and work
3. Learning to Live Together: By developing an understanding of other people and an
appreciation of interdependence-carrying out joint projects and learning to manage
conflicts-in a spirit of respect for the values of pluralism, mutual understanding and
peace means learning to live together.
 4. Learning to be: To develop one's personality and be able to act with even greater
autonomy, judgment and personal responsibility education must not disregard any
aspect of a person's potential: memory, reasoning, aesthetic sense, physical
capacities and communication skills.

Role of Formal Education

Formal education systems emphasize the acquisition of knowledge to the detriment

of other types of learning. It is now vital to conceive education in a more encompassing
fashion to inform and guide future educational reforms and policy, in relation to contents
and methods.

Role of Different Levels of Education.

❖ A requirement valid for all countries, is the strengthening of basic education, the
emphasis on primary education and its traditional basic programmes- reading,
writing, arithmetic as well as on the ability to express oneself in a language that
lends itself to dialogue and understanding.
❖ The need, for receptivity to science and the world of science, which opens the door
to the twenty-first century and its scientific and technological upheavals.
❖ Adaption of basic education to specific contexts, the most deprived countries as
well as the most deprived section of the population, starting out with the facts of
everyday life which affords opportunities for understanding natural phenomena and
for different forms of socialization.
❖ Remembering the pressing needs of literacy work and basic education for adults.
❖ Laying emphasis on pupil-teacher relations, since the most advanced technologies
can be no more than a backup to the relationship (transmission, dialogue and
confrontation) between teacher and pupil.

Better Secondary Education

In this general context of learning throughout life secondary education must be to thought.
The key principle is to arrange for a variety of individuals paths through schooling, without
ever closing the door on, the possibility of a subsequent return to the education system.
Better University Education

1. Universities should be central to the higher level of the system, even if, as is the
case in many countries, there are other, non-university establishments of higher
education.
2. Universities should carry on four key functions:
i. To prepare students for research and teaching
ii. To provide highly specialized training courses adapted to the needs of
economic and social life.
iii. To be open to all, so as to cater for the many aspects of lifelong education
in the widest sense.
iv. International co-operation.
3. As entirely independent and fully responsible institutions exercising a kind of
intellectual authority that society needs to help it to reflect, understand and act, the
universities should be able to speak out on ethical and social problems.
4. By dispelling the obsession with a one and only educational 'king's highway', the
diversity of secondary schooling and the possibilities afforded by universities should
provide a valid answer to the challenges of mass education. Combined with more
widespread application of the practice of alternating periods of education with
periods of work, these approaches can provide effective tools for fighting against
school failure. The extension of learning throughout life requires new procedures
for certification that take account of acquired competencies.

Comparison of India and USA

Secondary Education

❖ Vocational courses are very few in Indian schools. They usually train students for
college education. American secondary schools offer many vocational courses.
❖ There is no public examination at the end of the school stage in USA. In India,
public examination marks the end of the secondary education.
❖ Enrolment in schools in USA is generally between 3,000 and 4,000. In India,
enrolment usually does not exceed 1,000students.
 ❖ Earning and learning go side by side in USA. Such tradition hardly exists in India.
Secondary schools in USA are better equipped than those in India.
❖ As a rule male teachers generally work in boys schools in India. In the USA, male
and female teachers are either equal in number or female teacher exceed the male
teachers.
❖ Educational and vocational guidance programs exist in almost all schools in USA.
Such programs are very few in Indian schools.
❖ Provisions for mid-day meals on concessional rates exist in almost all schools in
USA. In India such a provision is an exception rather than a rule.
❖ In USA, secondary education is free for nearly the entire school going population
in this age group. Such a facility hardly exists in India. Secondary education is free
only in a few States in India.

Higher Education

❖ In India degrees are awarded by Universities alone. Many independent colleges also
award degrees in USA.
❖ Universities can be opened more easily in USA. An elaborate procedure is required
to be followed before the opening of a university in India.
❖ In India, first degree is obtained after 14 or 15 years of education. In USA, it is
obtained after 16 years of education i.e., 4 years after 12-year school education.
The total period of education for obtaining a first degree in the new pattern
10+2+3 is 15 years as against 16 in USA.
❖ In India, Master's degree is usually obtained 2 years after graduation. This degree
can be obtained in USA a year after graduation.
❖ As compared in India variations in standard of various universities in USA is very
wide.
❖ In India all reliance is placed on public examinations. A large number of examiners
are outsiders. Class records are emphasized while awarding degrees in USA. It is
usually the teacher who evaluates the student.
❖ The doctoral examinations are conducted in India by thesis. In USA these are
conducted partly by thesis and partly by examination in allied fields.
 ❖ In India classes are usually organized on an annual basis. Semester system is the
basis in USA.
❖ Laboratories and libraries are not so better equipped and utilized in India as in
USA.
❖ In USA, the tradition of 'earning by learning' is deep rooted. In India such a
tradition hardly exists.
❖ The field of choice of subjects for students is wider in American Universities than in
Indian Universities
❖ Lecture method is the usual method of teaching in In USA, discussion and seminar
method predominate.

Teacher Education

❖ In India prospective teachers for elementary schools take a 2-year professional

course after completing eight or 10 years schooling. After completing a high school
course, prospective teachers for elementary schools in USA, proceed to 4-5 years
course in teacher education which includes subject matter study also.
❖ In India there are vast differences with the result that the elementary school
teachers are not given their due respect. There are no differences in the general
education and professional preparation between an elementary school teacher and a
secondary school teacher in USA.
❖ In India, professional training is the sole training for teachers during their
preparation for teaching. In USA, secondary teachers usually take up a course of
liberal arts along with professional training.
❖ In USA persons who want to join the teaching profession decide at the end of the
high school itself whereas in India, this decision is made only after getting bachelor's
degree.
❖ In USA a student after having passed the training course has to apply to state
authorities for a certificate which may or may not be automatically given depending
on the preputation of the college. He is entitled to apply for the job only on the
receipt of the certificate. In India a student goes directly to the employer, to seek a
job after having passed the training course.
 ❖ Master's and Doctor's courses are available only at the Universities in India. In
USA, such courses in education are available in Colleges as well as in Universities.

Educational Administration

❖ In India, education is a concurrent subject according to the Constitution. The

administration of education in USA, is chiefly the concern of states. The
Constitution of USA is silent on this point.
❖ Central Government in India assists state universities through the University Grants
Commission and also undertakes some programs of school education through
National Council of Educational Research and Training, an autonomous.
Organization set up by the Ministry of Education, Government of India. Federal
Government in USA, looks after education. of the Red Indians, military education
and acts as a clearing house for information.
❖ Unlike India State Governments in USA do not run any Government schools or
give grants-in-aid to private schools.
❖ System of inspectorate existing in India does not find any place in USA.
❖ All universities in India can claim state grants State grants are limited to state
universities only in USA.

Adult Education

In India illiteracy exists on a large scale and as such adult education programs are
primarily concerned with the spread of literacy in the country. In USA, literacy is almost
cent per cent. Literacy programs are planned only for a few aged Negroes or Red Indians
of New Mexico. Adult education takes the shape of better vocational facilities and
recreational facilities.

Technical Education

In USA, technical education is available at various levels from high schools to the
doctoral levels. More emphasis is given on practical work than theory in USA. USA has a
far better provision for technical education than India. Technical schools are better
equipped and have more staff in USA than in India
Comparison of India and UK

Primary Education

1. Compulsory Education: In England, almost everybody has had ten years of education.
The process of providing compulsory education started as early as 1870. In India this
process was started only in 1950, i.e., 80 years after its initiation in England.

Education is compulsory upto the age of 15 in England. In India it has been possible to
cover only 54 per cent in the age group 6 to 14.

2. Quality of Primary Education: In India primary education is very poor in its contents
and quality. Primary education is rich in content and quality in England.

3. Teacher Training: In India about 20 per cent teachers are untrained. Teachers working
in primary schools in England are better qualified and equipped. By and large they have
received two years professional training and all are trained 4. Salary Scale: Teachers in
general get comparatively better pay scale in England than in India.

5. Free Education: Efforts to make primary education free are being made in India. Only a
few States have achieved the target of free education in India. Primary education is free in
England.

6. Primary Education: Both in England and in India primary education is the responsibility
of the local bodies. However, the financial position of local bodies is not satisfactory in
India There is too much of political interference in the administration of primary schools.
Such an interference hardly exists in England.

Secondary Education

❖ Selection Examination: There is no such examination as 11 plus in India. Here

students are admitted in secondary) schools without it. The selection examination is
being abolished gradually.
 ❖ Vocational Education: Most of the schools at this stage are of the academic type in
India. There is an over-crowding in bookish and academic type of education in
India. There isa great provision for industrial and practical courses in England.
❖ Public Examination: India is examination ridden. There is no compulsory public
examination in England. Only those who aspire to enter a university take the
entrance examination.
❖ Scholarships and Grants: Indian schools depend on the tuition fee of the pupils.
There is a provision for free education in England. The financial burden on the
English parent is practically negligible.
❖ Government-run Schools; In India the number of government-run schools is
substantial. In England there are no direct government-run schools.
❖ Teachers Status and Salary Scales: Teachers in India are comparatively ill paid and
enjoy lower status. They often resort to private tuition in India.
❖ Curriculum: In UK the decision of teachers is final in matters relating to school
curricula and teaching methods.

Higher Education

❖ Teaching and Examining Functions. Examination predominates the programme of

Indian Universities. In England, the traditions of teaching functions are much older
than examining functions.
❖ Costs of Education: The burden of university education on the parents is much less
in England than in India. A large number of scholarships exist in England.
❖ Adult Education: In India about 65 per cent of the population is still illiterate.
There is no problem of adult illiterates in England as it has its tradition of
compulsory education for nearly a hundred years. Adult education in England
implies further education only to those adults who need it either to raise their
vocational competence or to provide them with suitable leisure-time activities.
❖ Technical Education: In India facilities for technical education are very poor and
somehow a technical career has not been quite attractive in the past. As England is
an industrial country, there are more openings for technical education. Not only
this, a certain degree of prestige is also attached with technical education.
 ❖ Teacher Status: One of the heartening features of the educational system in
England is the freedom given to the individual teacher to plan out the curriculum
and the various activities that he would like to take up. This freedom to the teacher
is something of which the Britishers feel proud. The McNair Committee observed
that the teachers should be "the very best of our fellow citizens."
❖ Teachers' associations play an important role in raising the status and professional
competency of the teachers in England.

Comparison of India and Japan

Elementary education in Japan is infested with many psychological and social

problems. Among the problems pointed out were excessive uniformity and strengthened
administration leading to an excessive degree of control over children's behavior. The
growing seriousness of the problems was frequently alluded to in the media. These include
ARE (violence) KIRE (angry outbursts), UJIME (bullying), FUTOKO (refusal or fear of
schools attendance caused by social anxiety), unhealthy student-teacher relationships, and
an unnatural aura of passivity in the classroom. These problems are of general nature and
are common to all the Prefectures in variant degrees of depth and nature.

Homeroom teachers and teachers on student guidance committees have been responsible
for addressing the problems such as school refusal syndrome, bullying, and juvenile
delinquency. Concerned with the increasing number of school related problems, since
1995 the Ministry of Education had deployed professional school counselors to schools to
consult with students, parents, and teachers. The researcher has attempted to present
current school-related problems and discussed how schools are solving these problems in
cooperation with parents, volunteers, and law enforcement. The main causes leading to
wastage and stagnation in Japanese elementary education are: (1) School Refusal
Syndrome, (2) Bullying (Ijime).

School Refusal Syndrome

School refusal syndrome is a phenomenon where students do not go to school or

cannot go to school, despite a desire to go to school, due to some psychological,
emotional, physical and social factor, and environment, with the exception of illness or
economic factors. Since 1980s, the number of students with school refusal syndrome has
been increasingly rapidly, and school refusal syndrome has become a nationwide school
problem. Until 1990 'Long Absentees' were those pupils who were absent from school
for total of 50 days or more in the school year. However, since 1991, the MOEhas
counted those who were absent from school for 30 days or more in terms of school
refusal syndrome. These students are called 'the students of non-attendance at school".

There are two types of students having school refusal syndrome (1) those who
cannot go to school because of emotional or neurotic problems, (2) those who do not
intend to go to school because of truancy. Truants deliberately skip school to spend time
with their friends. They tend to be low-achievers, act rebelliously toward teachers, be late
for school, ditch classes, and have family problems. Many students with schools refusal
syndrome want to go to school and think that they should go to school, but cannot
because of emotional disturbance, anxiety, or some other neurotic problem.

School refusal syndrome frequently means the type of behavior of the students as
mentioned in Table 4 not the truant these children usually stay at home and do not like to
meet people. Many of the students with school syndrome have sleep disorders and
abnormal hormone secretion. To all appearances, they are ordinary children with average
or above average school performance. However, they tend to be over sensitive, anxious,
serious, perfectionist, selfish, timid, and anti-sociable. Their parents, specially their
mothers, are likely to be overprotective and demanding

The major causes can be school related, family and home problems, and the
students' own physical and emotional health. However, the main cause of school refusal
syndrome is problems with peers, especially bullying Poor academic performance accounts
for school refusal syndrome, many of whom are also troubled students. Family problem,
such as divorce, poor relationships with parents, can also cause school refusal syndrome.
More than one fourth of the cases of school refusal syndrome are linked to the
psychoneurotic problems, such as emotional disturbance, extreme anxiety, and stress.
Many more students drag themselves to school with the burden of anxiety and tension,
and exhibit the symptoms of school refusal syndrome.

Bullying (IJIME)

The Ministry of Education defines bullying as a physical or psychological attack

against weaker one, which brings deep suffering to the victim. Ijime21 or bullying is also
seen as a disturbing feature of Japanese school life. Curiously, explanations of bullying in
Japan often dwell on the personalities of the bullied rather than the bullies themselves
because in a country where uniformity and conformity are highly valued, students that are
slow, quiet or secretive stand out from the group and appear to become victims of their
own marginality. The Japanese word for bullying, Ijime is defined by Morita as: "type of
aggressive behavior by which someone who holds a dominant position in a group-
interaction process, by intentional or collective acts, causes mental and physical suffering
to another inside a group."

As this definition clearly indicates, the most outstanding characteristic of Ijime is

that it is mostly group bullying. Group bullying often involves the whole class, and is
typically supported by a four-layered structure of victim, bullies, spectators, and
bystanders. The group dynamics function is the key to exacerbating bullying. It has been
found that the more frequent the bullying is, the longer it trends to last and that the more
persistent the bullying is, the larger the number of students involved. Although bullying
that involves the whole class is not unique to Japanese schools, the fact that it is one of the
most common forms of bullying in Japan is noteworthy. It is also notable that in Japan
classroom is main venue of peer victimization, where some 75% of bullying among school
occurs. It is therefore, uncommon for the bully to belong a higher grade than the victim.

When the group dynamics does not involve the whole class, the victimization often
occurs within a small group of close friends. In a situation where every student in the class
belongs to a small circle of friends, to be bullied within the group creates a really difficult
situation. For fear of being isolated in the class, the victim clings to the group despite being
bullied, trapping him or her into victimization. This form of bullying is quite different from
the one often seen outside Japan, which involves perpetrators who are not in the victim's
friendship circle. At the same time, bullying in the schools in Japan often involves ordinary
and good students both as victim and bully. Ijime can be very violent, and can involve
threat and extortion, Bullying on the other hand, can be psychological as well as physical,
indirect as well direct, relational as well as verbal.

Problems of Primary Education in India

The problems of primary education in India may be explained in the areas of Wastage and
Stagnation.

Wastage at the Primary Stage in India

Wastage means drop-out of pupils or leaving the schools before completing the
primary course. Despite the level of expansion of education, vast ground is yet to be
covered for fulfilling the Constitutional mandate of UEE. Drop-out rates are significant;
retention of children is low; wastage is considerable.

VOCATIONALISATION OF EDUCATION

In its recommendations of 1974, UNESCO defined. vocationalisation as a

"Comprehensive term embracing those aspects of the educational process involving, in
addition to general education, the study of technologies and related sciences and the
acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, understanding and knowledge relating to
occupation in the various sectors of economic and social life."

Primary education in the country lacks a methodological approach. There is a

dearth of suitable schools buildings, trained teachers, essential equipment, libraries and
necessary amenities. This lack of bare necessities at primary stage leads the students to lose
interest in their education. They, therefore, leave primary education unfinished. It is also
difficult for the teachers to setup efforts aimed at the mental, physical and moral
development of the personality of their students in the absence of basic things necessary
for primary education.

A huge population in India is still illiterate. These illiterate people do not

understand the worth of education. When the parents are illiterate and the education is
not capable of enabling the children to earn money, the natural consequence is that the
guardians soon make their children leave the schools and join some work or trade to earn
wages:

Lack of proper planning and good administration has also adversely affected the
development and quality of primary education. There has been an emphasis on the
expansion of primary education without equal emphasis on the number of teachers and
supervisory administrative personnel, equipment and buildings. The number of students
has increased. However, the strength of teacher s has not increased in proper proportion.
Similarly, the strength of inspecting staff and administrative officers has also not increased.
Due to this inadequacy, the teachers-students ratio has gone up and teachers find
themselves unable to pay personal attention to each student. All these help to increase
waste of funds and deepen stagnation in the primary education.

Poverty of the people in India is the most dominating factor responsible for wastage
in the sphere of primary education. Most of the guardians are so poor that they are in
great difficulty to manage two meals a day for their families. It is too much to expect from
guardians in such condition to arrange books, note books etc. for their children. They find
it easy to stop the children's education and put them into some trade to earn money. In
this way, a large percentage of promising children become the victims of poverty and are
deprived of even full primary education.

Many of the primary schools have yet not been under the umbrella of newly
patterned basic schools. They still teach the old curriculum which is not interesting to
children. The children find it monotonous. Gradually boredom creates in them a desire to
leave the school.

India has yet not been able to give up conservative practices and adopt a more
liberal and progressive attitude. Old traditions mainly still govern the Indian social life. The
old traditions like child marriage, untouchability, secondary position of women folk,
unfavour co-education etc. are still in vogue. This results in wastage. People do not favor
girl's education because they consider it a waste so far as money earning is concerned.
Marriage of boys and girls give a sever jolt to education because most of the students give
up studies as soon as they are married.

Stagnation at the Primary Stage

Stagnation means failure to complete the prescribed course within the prescribed
time. It also means failure of students in the class for once or for a number of times. This
stagnation is responsible for waste in primary education both directly and indirectly. Some
of the main causes leading to stagnation in Indian education are as follows:

• For primary classes there are as many as five subjects including arithmetic and
science which are apparently dry subjects for children belonging to tender age
group of six to eleven years. This leads to failure of many students in the class.
• Lack of any definite rule relating to admission in primary classes is a factor
responsible for stagnation.
• Absence of any age restriction allows any child of any age to get admission to any
class he desires for. The result is that children of different age groups and mental
caliber are found in a class and their physical and mental development does not
take place in a balanced manner. Many students, therefore, fail in their classes, thus
causing stagnation
• A child joining a school finds an atmosphere there, which is quite different from the
atmosphere prevailing in his home. He, therefore, faces a difficult adjustment
problem. Many children who fail to adjust themselves in the environment develop
an anti- social out-look and turn into juvenile delinquency. This may lead
stagnation.
• Physical weakness caused by unhealthy environment, malnutrition or diseases is also
a cause of stagnation, because physically under-developed children cannot study
hard to cover their courses. Their memory gets weak and they fail in their
examinations. Bad social customs like early marriages also prove a cause for
stagnation. Married boys and girls start enjoying their married life, thus neglecting
their studies.
 • In primary schools the number of teachers is too small. In many schools there is
only one teacher who cannot do justice to various subjects. The result is that it is
very difficult for the children to complete their courses. Besides, the shortage of
teaching and reading material, in sanitary conditions of school building and
unhealthy environment play havoc with children's studies causing stagnation.

Vocational Education in USA

Vocational education is an integral part of the Secondary education in the USA.

The primary object of vocational education is to provide a suitable background of students
in order to increase their vocational skill. The Federal Government gives matching
assistance to different community agencies and educational institutions.

The Secondary schools include it as a subject and teach it like other subjects.

General Vocational Education Programme

The programme may be divided under the following four main categories:

1. Industrial Education: This programme includes training in machines, like motor

engine, railway engine, aero planes, radios, electricity, mining, painting, metal
work, etc.
The students during the training period are trained and taught in different uses of
general subjects such as Arithmetic, art, science, etc., which are frequently
appointed in the industrial sphere. Provisions are made for the employment of
specially trained teachers and using instruments of the latest design.
2. Business and Commerce Education: The primary object of providing courses of this
nature is to make available facilities of service or jobs to young men and women
and also enable them to do their work with better skill and efficiency. Besides
typing and shorthand this programme includes training in hotel running, merchant
ship, storage etc. This system of education exists mostly at the secondary stage.
Arrangements have also been made for higher education and research work.
3. Agricultural Education: Agricultural education in USA has become very progressive
now-a-days and has an important and nation-wide programme. The system of
 training includes both class-room study and outside work in fields with farmers and
young men are given training in the various activities of farm and farm shops, e.g.,
preparation of fields, production, sale and consumption of products etc. The
schools have their own independent buildings and farms for carrying on the
agriculture education. The schools are provided with the latest implements.
4. Home Economic Education: This education aims at training young boys and girls in
matters relating to family life so that they are prepared to become worthy members
of the family. The educational programs include training in home furnishing,
cooking, dressing, care of health, child care, family budget and inter-relationships.

Vocational Education in UK

Recognizing the need to equip pupils of all abilities with the skills needed by
modern commerce and industry, UK Government launched the Technical and Vocational
Education Initiative in England and Wales in 1983 and in Scotland in 1984. Originally a
series of pilot projects, it was extended into a national scheme in 1987. The scheme is
funded and administered by the Department of Employment, working in close co-
operation with government education departments and Her Majesty's Inspectorate of
Schools. Projects provide general, technical and vocational education for 14 to 18-year-
old pupils leading to nationally recognised qualifications; the extension of the scheme will
make it available to all young people in this age- group in maintained schools and colleges.

Computer Education

The Government aims to integrate information technology (IT) across the school
curriculum: Britain has already developed a world lead in several aspects of computer
education. In 1987 the Government announced a major new initiative for developing IT
in schools and extending its benefits as widely as possible. The objects are to increase the
number of microcomputers and accompanying teaching materials in schools; recruit
advisory teachers who will be trained in the applications of IT, and provide training for
teachers in the use of IT. Government funding of the initial five-year programme is
expected to amount to some £ 100 million. Almost all schools possess at least one
computer.
 As part of this strategy, the Government has set up the National Council for
Educational Technology (NCET) to evaluate the newest technologies as they can be
applied to education. Formed from a merger of the Council for Educational Technology
and the Microelectronics Education Support Unit, the NCET carries forward the Support
Unit's functions of devising curriculum materials, offering advice to teachers and providing
an information service. In this way, the NCET makes available an integrated professional
service covering the whole spectrum of educational and information technology

School Technology

British School Technology, an independent education centre to promote the

teaching of technology in secondary schools and colleges, has been developed with funding
from the Department of Trade and Industry and the Department of Employment. The
centre provides help to local education authorities wanting to introduce courses into their
schools, assists in training teachers, co-operates with examination boards to assess new
courses, and assists new firms planning to produce equipment for British schools and for
export

Vocational Education in Japanese

Position of a vocational school

As a college/junior college, a vocational school is a school that is positioned as a higher

education institution.

At a vocational college, you will learn the expertise and skills necessary to get into a
specific occupation / occupation, and master the practical ability to become an immediate
fighting force.

Many vocational schools are two years, but there are also courses of 1 year, 3 years, 4
years depending on the content to be learned and the characteristics of specialized fields
etc Also, for graduates who have completed two or three years of study, a professional or
a graduate of a four year degree will be awarded the title of an advanced professional.
Specialist can transfer to the third year of university and advanced specialist can enroll in
graduate school.

Educational contents of a vocational school

The vocational school currently offers a wide range of education to accommodate various
occupations and occupations, but it is classified into 8 categories depending on the content
of education and job / occupation you desire.

FIELD EDUCATIONAL CONTENT

Industry Information Processing IT, Game, CG, Automobile
Maintenance Railway Technology, Machine Electric
Electronic Technology, Building Civil Engineering, etc.
Agriculture Agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry, landscaping,
biotechnology, chemistry/biological, protection and
preservation of the natural environment, etc.
Medical Nursing, dental hygiene, dental laboratory, clinical
examination, physical therapy, occupational therapy, speech
hearing, judo reduction, emergency, lifesaving, etc.
Hygiene Barber, beauty, makeup, nutrition, cooking, confectionery
bakery, etc.
Education/ social Child care, early childhood education, nursing care welfare,
welfare social welfare, mental health welfare, etc.
Commercial Practice Business, Accounting Bookkeeping Travel Tourism Hotel,
Accounting. Management, Hospital Administration, Public
Security Security, etc.
Clothing/Home Family Fashion Design, Fashion Business, Japanese Dressmaking,
Knitting Handicraft, etc.
Culture - Culture Music, video, broadcast, theater movies, 404 photography,
manga, foreign languages, is civil servants, sports health,
animals, etc.
Course after graduating from vocational school

The curriculum of a vocational school consists of subjects related to specialized

knowledge and skills to take jobs and jobs of your choice. Especially emphasis is placed on
practical lessons to acquire practical skills by moving the body, and many lesson times are
assigned. In addition, workplace training (internship) that acquires practical skills while
actually experiencing work in the workplace not only in the school but also in companies is
actively performed in many vocational schools.

After graduating from a vocational school, many of the students find employment
as professional female professionals to companies that can make use of what they learned
there. Some students go to work after transferring to university and going to graduate
school to further enhance their expertise and skills.

After employment, in many cases, I will career as a professional career and work as a
specialist.

Vocational Education in India

Keeping in view the priority accorded to vocationalisation of education in the NPE-

86, the Centrally Sponsored Scheme of Vocationalisation of Secondary Education was
started in February, 1988. The main objectives of the scheme are to provide
diversification of educational opportunities so as to enhance individual's employability,
reduce the mismatch between demand and supply of skilled manpower, and provide an
alternative avenue for those pursuing higher education.

The selection of vocational courses is made on the basis of area vocational surveys,
registration in the Employment Exchanges, and a general assessment of manpower needs
made under District Developmental Plans. This ensures, to some extent, that students are
trained in those occupational areas wherein self or wage employment opportunities are
assured. On- the-job training is an integral part of the curricula. The remaining time is
allocated to the study of languages and general foundation course.
 Under the scheme, a Joint Council of Vocational Education (JCVE) has been set
up at the national level, with counterpart bodies at the State level, for laying down policy
guidelines, planning and coordination of vocational programme conducted by different
agencies/organisation. The JCVE has as its member's representatives from various
Ministries/Departments, Members of Parliament, State Governments, voluntary
organisation, experts in vocational education and all-India professional bodies. Union
Education Minister is its Chairman. A Standing Committee of the JCVE has also been set
up under the Chairmanship of the Union Education Secretary to ensure that the tasks laid
down by JCVE are effectively performed.

The scheme is presently being implemented in 27 States/ UTS. Up to the end of

the Seventh Plan 7888 vocational sections had been approved with an enrolment capacity
of 3.9 lakh students in classes XI and XII together, During 1990-91 an additional 1128
sections were approved. During 1991-92 it was proposed to sanction another 1400
vocational sections. Thus by the end of 1991-92 facilities would have been created for
5.85 lakh students in the vocational stream. The estimated enrolment during 1991-92 at
+2 level was 66.05 lakh. This would mean a diversion of about 8.7 per cent to the
vocational stream. The actual enrolment is however likely to be less as optimum utilization
of facilities created may not be achieved.

Educational Technology Programme

An Educational Technology Programme was started in the Central sector in the

year 1972 during the Fourth Plan period for widening access to and bringing about
qualitative improvement in education. Under the scheme, a Centre for Educational
Technology was set up in the NCERT and 100 per cent assistance was provided to
twenty-one States for setting up Educational Technology (ET) Cells. A Central Institute of
Educational Technology (CIET) in the NCERT and State Institutes of Educational
Technology (SIETS) in six States, viz., Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Maharashtra,
Orissa and Uttar Pradesh have been set up.

Improvement of Science Education in Schools

 In order to improve the quality of science education and promote scientific temper,
as envisaged in NPE, a Centrally Sponsored Scheme of Improvement of Science Education
in Schools was started during the last quarter of 1987-88. Under this Scheme, financial
assistance is provided to States/Union Territories for provision of science kits to upper
primary schools; up gradation and strengthening of science laboratories in secondary and
higher secondary schools up to a desired standard; up gradation of libraries in secondary
and higher secondary schools; setting up of District Resource Centres for science
education, development of instructional materials; and training of Science and
Mathematics teachers. The scheme also provides for assistance to voluntary organisation
active in the field of science education for undertaking innovative projects and resource
support activities in science education.

Computer Education in Schools

sA pilot project on Computer Literacy and Studies in Schools (CLASS) was

initiated in 1984-85 in 248 selected secondary/ higher secondary schools, jointly by the
Department of Electronics and the Department of Education to acquaint students and
teachers with the range of computer applications and its potential as a learning medium. In
pursuance of the objectives laid down in the NPE, an expanded programme was prepared
in 1987-88 to cover 13,000 higher secondary schools all over the country. However,
due to paucity of funds and other administrative reasons, the proposal to cover 13,000
schools was not finalized.

UNIT 5

ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION FROM

THE PERSPECTIVES OF COUNTRIES

Challenges of Pre-school Education

It has been seen over the years that pre-school participation has become more common &
as such public support for these has grown drastically. Although policies Introduction: It
has been seen over the years that pre-school participation has become more common & as
such public support for these has grown drastically. Although policies.

❖ It has been noticed that various pre-school program have shown to yield positive
effects on children learning & development. These effects although vary in
persistence by the type of the program. size & persistence by the type of the
program.
❖ In order to guarantee a well-designed pre-school education, program provisions
should produce long-term improvements in school success, including better
achievement level, lower rates of grade repetition & higher attainment of education
The challenge lies among some pre-school programs that are associated with
reduced delinquency & crime in childhood & adulthood.
❖ Numerous evidences suggest that economically deprived children reap longterm
benefits from a good pre-school. It is needless to comment that children from all
other economic background have been found to benefit from such schools.
❖ The state should recognize the dearth of amenities in pre- school & should aim at
providing financial help in order to promote educationally weak programs. Children
from middle income families have least access & also majority of the children in
poverty also lack pre-school experiences.
❖ Increasing public investment in effective pre-school education programs for all
children can yield substantial educational, political, social & economic benefits.
❖ Policy makers should not depart from pre-school education models that have
proven highly effective.
❖ Well-educated teachers with proper training in the concerned area with adequate
pay will lie a boost to the betterment of pre-school education in India.
❖ Teachers in preschool programs should receive intensive supervision & coaching &
they should be involved in a continuous improvement process for teaching learning.
❖ Pre-school educational programs should be designed in such a way so that it can
produce positive effects on children's behavior & later reductions in crime &
delinquency.
 ❖ In a broader aspect, pre-school education policy should be developed in the contest
of comprehensive public policies programs to effectively support child development
from birth to age 5 & beyond.

Challenges of Primary Education

❖ Nationally 29% of children drop out before completing 5 years of primary

schooling & nearly 43% before reaching upper primary school. This data puts
India among the top 5 nations for out of school children of primary school age.
❖ Taking into account, the physical barriers, many schools are not equipped to handle
the full population. There is shortage of teachers. Only 53% of the schools have
functional girl's toilets & 74% have proper access to drinking water.
❖ The key concern however rests on the quality of learning & reports show that
children are not achieving class appropriate learning levels.
❖ According to Pratham's annual status of education 2013 report, close to 78% of
children in standard III & about 5% of children in standard V cannot yet read std
II texts. Arithmetic is also a cause for concern as only 26% students in standard V
can do a division problem. Hence, improving the quality of learning in schools is
the big challenge for both the state & central Govts.
❖ Improving learning will require attention to various issues like teacher
accountability. According to some studies, teacher attendance is just 85% in
primary level & responsibility for student learning also needs improvement.
❖ Overall, the public school system also needs a better general management system.

India also faces many challenges that can be tackled through the education system. In this
context, gender issues have come to the forefront due to recent cases of violence against
girls. Changing gender mindsets seems to be imperative & gender studies education is one
way of doing so.

ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION FROM

INDIA:
 Many of India's concerns about education are shared by the US: such as ensuring
quality, improving teacher capabilities, effective use of technology & improving
management systems. The U.S. & India can achieve better learning outcomes if they
aggregate their experience & resources in terms of intellectual & economic. These are
possible by

❖ Potential leveraging technology.

❖ Teacher education
❖ Regular & useful assessment systems
❖ Gender studies education
❖ Skills development
❖ Spending on education to be enhanced
Challenges of Secondary Educations

The provision of responsibility & financing of secondary education is like other

aspects of education - a joint responsibility of union & state governments. In the recent
past, it has been noted that both levels of Govt. had prioritized to the policy development
of financial investment in elementary education. However the recent focus on secondary
education was provided by the 2005 Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE)
Report (2005). Whether through domestic pressures or the indulgence of the Millennium
Development Goals, many countries, including India have devoted time, effort &
resources to elementary education. (World Bank, 2005). Although secondary education
in this context has served to filter out students who would not go on to higher education.
In this context there appears numerous & varied challenges in secondary education. There
are noteworthy points of discussion regarding these national challenges that poses a
tremendous threat to the development and quality of secondary education in India.

Access under the premise of challenges in Secondary Education:

There are approximately 50 million children in secondary education in India whose

translation into a Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) of 46.81% in class ix-xii. Most of these
50 million (approx) children are in lower secondary education 28.4 million, while the
remaining are in higher secondary education.
 In the near future, the no. of children in secondary education is expected to rise
due to both supply & demand factors. Taking into consideration supply, the GER in
primary education is over 100%. The no. of children completing primary & upper
primary education continues to rise. If the demand side is looked upon, the returns to
education for individuals indicate that there is still labour market demand for secondary
education despite increasing number of them in the working age population. It has been
documented that over the last decade, returns for lower secondary & higher secondary
education have been the highest returns for any level of education.

Equity' as a challenge in secondary education:

It is not surprising that there are gaps in enrolment rates for several subpopulations.
Examples can be sited in lower secondary education nearly 51% of children aged between
14-15 attend school in urban area; whereas in rural areas, same aged, 41% children
attend school (Fig la, lb). It is noteworthy that a prominent proportion of children in both
rural & urban areas are over-aged in secondary education. Looking back at SC, ST and
Muslim minority students are always under represented, in proportion to their place in the
populations. It is documented that SCS constitute about 20.6% of the general population
of the requisite age but only 17.9% in the school population. It is further noted that the
differences between minority groups & the majority population are generally less than the
rural urban & gender gaps.

However it is noted that there is an equity factor to the enrolment in different type
of schools. It has been further noticed that private school have significantly lower
proportions of students from the SC & ST categories, in secondary education. Although
the share is very low in private aided schools. This is actually not surprising issue that these
sub-groups are on average poorer & hence they are less likely to be able to afford the fees
associated with private schools that are situated in urban areas.

Quality as a challenge in Secondary Education:

Landmark data on the quality of education is very low. There is no national

assessment of performance in secondary education. It is known that there are about 30
state examination boards that are entitled to prepare examinations for secondary students.
However the pass rates across states are not comparable as they consistently vary. In
addition to this, pass rates are not comparable across-time within one state. Moreover pass
rated are not comparable across time within one state there are 5 state boards in which
the pass rate fluctuated by more than 5% points between 2007 & 2008 & a further 6
boards in which the difference was more than 10% points. This is because the general
abilities of students do not vary greatly & they have had very similar educational
experiences over consecutive years.

Some assessments conducted in individual states, using internationally standardized

assessments, suggest student learning is very weak & below standard in India.

Addressing the challenges:

In order to implement any strategy to address these challenges in secondary

education must start from the understanding of institutional landscape in the sector: a
scenario that is very different from that in primary education.

Patterns of school management of secondary education are complex & vary considerably
across the Indian states.

It is further noted that in West Bengal almost all enrolment is in aided schools, whereas
there are none such schools in Manipur or Chhattisgarh. These states have almost equal
numbers of Govt. & private unaided schools.

Expanding Access will require both public & private investments, given the needs & the
distribution of management types.

Many of the equity gaps will be closed over time merely due to the expansion of
secondary education. There is good experience internationally in conditioning these
transfers on school attendance & achievement, an option which is likely to make a
difference in India too.
 In order to improve the quality of secondary education & upgrading the learning
outcomes of students, it is the joint key challenges for all types of schools throughout
India. A major quality aspect of secondary education includes

❖ Revision of state syllabi & textbooks at secondary stage should be in accordance

with the National Curriculum Framework 2005)
❖ Improvement of classroom processes & management of schools so that the
curricular & pedagogic shift for enhancing participation in learning may be
implemented.
❖ Promotion of continuous & comprehensive evaluation and examination reform at
secondary level.
❖ Quality imperative in teacher preparation should be encouraged. v) Monitoring &
quality improvement in researches need to be intervened.
❖ Information & communication technology to be infused in all areas of concerns.
❖ Establishment of roles of various national, state, district level agencies in this aspect.
❖ Multi-layer strategic guidelines & indicative financial norms to be introduced at a
faster pace.

Challenges of Senior Secondary Educations

India is the largest democracy with remarkable diversity among its population of 1.2
billion that accounts for 17% of the world's population. Nearly 70% of Indian population
is rural. The adult literacy rate is approx. 60% & is considerably lower in females &
minorities. The following are the challenges posed by higher or senior secondary education
in India.

1) Physical barriers:

Inadequate school infrastructures owing to teaching learning conditions is a primordial

factor in this respect. Improper public transportation is also a determinant factor in
excluding students from the education system. Persons living in poverty are the mostly
affected. This require bringing schools closer to communities, often through improvements
in the aforesaid areas. Strategies also include the establishment of boarding schools.
Threat of violence against girls on the way to & from schools limits their inclination
towards education. Within schools, inadequately built classrooms & toilets can also restrict
their use by students with disabilities.

2) Financial barriers:

Direct & indirect costs of schooling is a central reason for children being out of school or
dropping out. Tuition fees appear as the most significant financial obstacle in this respect.
Furthermore targeting elimination of child labour in order to safeguard mandatory
education is relevant in this respect. Besides disparities in the provisions for public
education contribute to unequal opportunities for many students receiving Comparative
Education educations in poorly resourced schools as compared to its contrast counterparts.

States should shoulder the responsibility to alleviate this financial burden & ensure that
higher secondary education is generally available &accessible to all & also ensure equal
access to higher education on the basis of merit.

Incentives in the form of school meal programmes, in poverty stricken areas to be

implemented in order to ensure income deprivation in particular & poverty in general.
Broadly speaking, state investment in social protection policies & its contribution to
alleviating the burden on families & child poverty plays a pivoted role in the promotion of
education.

As poverty & social exclusion is one of the major barriers in achieving the EFA, the use of
direct financial support. These comprises of fellowship schemes, conditional cash transfers
or social assistance support for school going children).

The right to education establishes the state to take the responsibility of promotional
measures including financial support schemes. Article 13 of the International covenant on
economic, social & cultural rights proposes the establishment of an adequate fellowship
system, among its provision on the right to education.

1) Linguistic & cultural barriers:

The lack of education in mother tongue or native languages in often a source of exclusion.
This is applied for minorities & migrants cases. The united Nations Declaration on the
Rights of persons belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious & Linguistic Minorities,
establishes in article 4(3) that states should take appropriate measures so that wherever
possible, persons belonging to minorities may have adequate opportunities to learn their
mother tongue or to have instruction in their mother tongue the forum on minority issues
recommended that states take appropriate measures, wherever possible, to ensure that
persons belonging to minorities may have adequate opportunities to learn their mother
tongue or to have instruction in their mother tongue.

Respecting the richness of linguistic & cultural diversity, education policies in today's
globalized world should give high consideration to mother-tongue based multilingual
education.

University Autonomy in INDIA

In the advanced countries of the world there is a great deal of autonomy for the
universities. Even there is scope for free enterprise as much as private universities are
allowed to run and to award degree. This is possible because societies of those countries
are in a position to pass their own verdict on the products of these universities. At the
other extreme, there are socialist countries which take command of higher education.
India follows midway policy. All university autonomy has a legal frame provided by the
Acts which create the universities as well as the Act which created the University Grants
Commission. Thus the educational process in the Universities will have to follow certain
basic and fundamental principles. Another factor of importance is the national planning
for economic and social development. All developing countries will have to be concerned
with the number to be admitted for different courses the need for new courses and the
standard to be maintained, because these have direct or indirect impact on the quality and
quantity of manpower requirement. Lastly, under the Constitution of India, entry 66 of
List I, the Government of India is required to coordinate and maintain standards in
university education. Obviously, therefore, it does get a right to make policy decisions in
university education and these will be binding upon State Government under Article 257
(i).

Student Unrest in INDIA

The problem of student unrest has been examined by a number of authorities from time-
to-time. In 1958, University Grants Commission set up a Committee under the
chairmanship of Diwan Anand Kumar. The Vice-Chancellor's Conference in June, 1960
and October, 1965 also discussed the matter. The problem was also discussed at the
National integration Council meeting in June, 1962, at the Chief Ministers Conference in
July, 1964; at the Education Ministers' Conference held at Srinagar in June, 1965 and at
the Conferences of the Inspectors General of Police in 1960 and 1966. The Education
Commission 1964-66 discussed this problem in detail.

Cause of Student Unrest

Dr. P.B. Ganjendragadkar, retired Chief Justice of India, in this context observes in the
foreword to 'Student Challenge Round the World... "In India several factors appear to
have contributed to the dissatisfaction, disillusionment, perplexity and anger of the student
community. In a sense this disillusionment is a part of the general disillusionment which has
overtaken the whole of the Indian Community. After India became politically free, the
expectations of the general community to be able to enjoy life, liberty and happiness in full
measure were awakened. The promises made by the Constitution and extravagantly
repeated by politicians from time-to-time naturally created expectations in the minds of
ordinary citizens. The grave disparity between these promises and performance has led to
the general disillusionment and anger. The student community shares this disillusionment
and anger. The student unrest in the university campuses is social, sociological, emotional
and political problem and it needs to be carefully studied before the university community
is able to find adequate remedies to solve this problem."

Lack of Ideal

Responsibility for Indiscipline does not rest on the Student Community Alone: "Society is
seething with sordid self-seekers actuated by greed for power and self. Schools, colleges,
Government Organizations, Legislative Assemblies, Municipalities, and Hospitals present a
sorry picture, Ethical standards and a sense of right and wrong are conspicuous by their
absence. Defiance of Law and authority is at a premium. Mobocracy carries the day...
Teenagers grow up in this vitiated atmosphere where character based on incorruptibility,
efficiency and sincerity is at a discount. The result has been all-round student indiscipline".

Classification of Students Grievances

I. Grievances against Education Authorities

1. Examination system.

2. Curriculum.

3. Tuition fees.

4. Hostel accommodation.

5. Admission rules.

6. Behaviours of teachers, etc.

It was observed that during the period 1965-68 only 36.3 per cent of the cases of
student unrest emerged from students' grievances against educational authorities. Of these,
22.4 per cent were related to the present examination system, 2.9 per cent were related
to hostel accommodation, 5.1 per cent were associated with tuition fees, etc. Cases
indicating protest against the behaviours of teachers added up to 5.9 per cent of the total
number of academic grievances, a significant point worth noting.

II. Grievances against Public Authorities.

7. Dislocation in the set-up of administrative affairs in the country.

8. Absence of adequate facilities for employment.

9. Protests against police excesses on students.

10. Protest against discussion or actions taken by the Government on certain issues.
Distance Education in India: IGNOU

The Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) was established by an Act
of Parliament in September, 1985 for the introduction and promotion of Open University
and Distance Education Systems in the educational pattern of the country. The major
objectives of the University include widening of access to higher education by providing
opportunities to larger segments of the population, particularly the disadvantaged groups,
organizing programmes of continuing education and initiating special programmes of
higher education for specific target groups like women, people living in backward regions,
hilly areas, etc.

The IGNOU provides an innovative system of university level education, flexible

and open in regard to methods and pace of learning, combination of courses, eligibility for
enrolment, age of entry, methods of evaluation, etc. The University has adopted an
integrated multi-media instructional strategy consisting of printed materials and audio
video aids, supported by counselling sessions at a network of study centers throughout the
country. The evaluation system followed by the University consists of both continuous
evaluation as well as term-end examinations.

Academic Programmes

The IGNOU introduced its academic programmes in 1987 and has so far launched
21 programmes. These include a certificate course in Guidance (for Primary School
Teachers), Food and Nutrition (in 7 languages) and Rural Development, the preparatory
programme for the Bachelor's Degree, Diploma Programmes in Management, Rural
Development, Higher Education, Distance Education, Creative writing in English and
Hindi, Computers in Office Management and Operations Management; the Bachelor's
Degree Programmes in Arts/ Science/Commerce and Library and Information Sciences as
well as the Master's Degree in Business Administration and Distance Education. The
University has published 1,127 volumes of course materials and has produced over 425
audio programmes and 325 video programmes.
 The total number of students registered for various programmes of study in the
IGNOU during 1992-93 was likely to be over 60,000. With this, aggregate enrolment of
students in the University was likely to be 1.80 lakh. About 4,900 students have so far
successfully completed their programmes of study.

Staff

The IGNOU has so far recruited nearly 170 teachers and other academic staff and
about 900 technical, professional, administrative and supporting staff. In addition, the
University is utilizing the services of nearly 250 coordinators.

Examinations

A comparative study of the examination and evaluation system of various countries

is likely to help in understanding the real significance of the problem.

Examination System in India

Examination Ridden System

The Secondary Education Commission 1952-53 observed, "We are convinced that
our system of examination is very much examination ridden." There are both internal and
external examinations in India. External examinations are held at the end of the school
stage in all the States. For this purpose there are different State Secondary Boards,
Departments of Education or Universities, besides the Central Board of Secondary
Education whose service may be availed of by any educational institution in India. In some
States the external examinations are held at the end of class X (High School or High
School Leaving Certificate Examinations) and in some States at the end of class XI or XII
(Higher Secondary or Senior Secondary School Certificate Examinations). The main
purpose of these examinations is certification which enables students either to go to the
University or get some employment. In the past there used to be two other external
examinations, one at the end of the primary stage, and another at the end of middle
school stage but now these are not a common feature. In addition, in some states special
examinations are held at the end of class IV or V and VII or VIII for award of scholarship.
There is another examination conducted at the national level for the award of merit
scholarships for the age groups 9 to 11 and 11 to 13.

Internal Examinations

Internal examinations are conducted by schools. Generally there are three quarterly
examinations and one annual or comprehensive examination every year. In some areas
there may be monthly or weekly tests in the place of or in addition to the quarterly
examinations. Usually in the eyes of both the school authorities and the pupils, the most
important of these internal tests and examinations is the annual examination. On the
results of this examination the annual promotions are decided so that it dominates all our
tests and examinations.

Recommendations of Education Commission

1. Question Papers: Most of the weaknesses in the present system of external

examinations are due to defects in the question papers set for the examination.
Very few of the paper setters possess the necessary knowledge and skill in the
construction of valid and reliable tests.
No major break-through towards the improvement of external examinations is
possible unless: (a) the technical competence of paper-setters is raised through an
intensive training programme sponsored by the State Boards; (b) the question
papers are oriented to testing not merely the acquisition of knowledge but the
ability to apply knowledge and the development of problem solving abilities; and
(c) the Comparative Education nature of the questions asked is improved.
2. Scientific Procedure: It is essential that scientific scoring procedures should be
devised so that there may be optimum reliability in the assessment of the
candidate's performance.
3. Time Available to Evaluate Papers: With the ever increasing number of students
appearing for the Board examinations, the task of the getting the answer scripts
properly evaluated and processing the results efficiently within a given time is
becoming more and more difficult. It is necessary that this process should be
mechanized so as to make it more accurate and expeditious.
 4. Certificates Given by Board and the School: The certificate issued by the Board on
the basis of the results of the external examination at the end of the lower or higher
secondary stage, should give the candidate's performance only in those subjects in
which he has passed, but there should be no remark to the effect that he has passed
or failed in the whole examination. The Board, however, should issue a statement
along with the certificate showing his marks or grades in all the subjects. The
candidate should be permitted to appear again, if he so desires, for the entire
examination or for separate subjects in order to improve his performance.
On the completion of the course, at the end of the lower or higher secondary
stage, the student should receive a certificate also from the school giving the record
of his internal assessment as contained in his cumulative record card. This certificate
may be attached to that given by the Board in connection with the external
examination.
5. No Compulsory External Examination: The external examination need not be
compulsory for all the students of Class X or XI or XII. A student may choose to
leave school with the school certificate only without appearing for the external
examination, and seek a job or even an entry into some vocational course on the
basis of the certificate and the school record. A student seeking entry into
institutions of higher education may have not only to pass the external examination
in the subjects laid down and secure the prescribed grades but also submit himself,
if necessary to certain admission tests required by the institution.

ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION FROM

USA

University Autonomy in USA

Colleges and Universities, both public and private are chartered by the States in
which they are established. There is no central authority with overall responsibility for the
organisation and control. Each State retains the right to issue characters for new
institutions. These institutions of higher education enjoy autonomous status within the
framework of the charter. "In recent years the trend has been towards increasing control
by the executive branch of the State. This has accompanied the great increase in
enrolments, which has called for increased State appropriations." College and university
administration has thus become increasingly subject to various external restraints. "As
higher education has become more important to the national well-being and security of
the nation, individual colleges and universities have come more and more to operate under
the policy and financial direction of the government.

Student Unrest in USA

1. Main Features: The part played by the ideologically committed students is

relatively small but the majority of the militants are disgusted with the society in
which they live: the Vietnam War, the nuclear threat, the degradation of
political standards, hunger and poverty amidst such abundant wealth. The
inference is always that the Establishment is to blame. The target is the
universities. Students are no doubt interested in existential things-equalisation of
opportunities and decent living standards-but some hardly know in which
direction they are going.
2. Very Little Dialogue between the Students and Teachers: There is no dialogue
between students and teachers and the two talk on different wave-lengths. They
don't have the same inhibitions about speaking on sex, politics and the
establishments as their elders, thanks to television, movies and the Press. They
have not acquired a stylized way of talking about their emotions and would
rather carry a pill than listen to discourses on sexual morality in a permissive
society. True, they say there is the problem of the protesting minority which
involves the majority in protest. Those who are led docilely along the path of
strife often say, "Why don't you do something about it?" And yet they
themselves don't.
3. Detachment of the Academicians: At the same time, the academicians want to
be left in peace to pursue their research and hate to be drawn into this war.
Their loyalty is to their subject and not the students or the university and they
are ever eager to escape to lucrative jobs. Only the mediocre and, perhaps, the
 tradition bound teachers care to stick to the university but their personal
demands and the endless bureaucratic complexities catch up with them.
4. Vital Issues Not Properly Attended: The educationists are giving no indication
that they intend to build a humane society by directing the idealism of the
youth in constructive channels. The politicians don't either. It looks that for
some time to come the students will continue to waste their idealism in futile
gestures of rebellion and the authorities, who refuse to come to grips with the
problem, will find the easy way out by talking recourse to expression.

Distance Education in USA

Distance education programme in the USA are marked by their diversity in respect
of size, educational approach and administrative procedures. In the United States
correspondence instruction plays only a limited role in the formal secondary school
systems and in colleges and universities. Yet correspondence instruction is more extensive
in the United States than in any other country. Federal Government, particularly the U.S.
armed forces, was the largest single user of correspondence courses. The army students
mostly took courses for military-service jobs. 75 per cent students of the home-study
schools took job-related courses and the remaining students took academic cultural or
hobby courses.

Two important national level organizations in the field of distance education are the
following:

1. National Home Study Council (NHSC), Washington.

2. National University Continuing Education Association (NUCEA), Washington.

Examination System in USA

The American system is distinguished by the absence of external examinations. The

educational achievement is usually evaluated by daily class work, test results, project or
committee work, and pupil growth over a long period of time. Tests are prepared and
given by the subject teachers. In addition, standardized achievement tests are used
periodically in many schools. Normally promotion is based on the earning of a required
number of units of credit, and not upon a comprehensive examination at the close of
secondary school year. To achieve credit for a subject at the end of the school year, the
student in most schools need a D' or above on a letter scale of A, B, C, D, E and F. 'A'
represents the highest achievement and 'F' unsatisfactory performance. Graduation from
high school ordinarily occurs after a student has completed the 12th grade, the normal
age of graduation being 17 or 18. No special examination given by the state or external
agency is taken as a requisite for passing the high school. The United States is the only one
among the advanced nations in the world which lacks a school leaving public (external)
examination.

ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION FROM

UK

University Autonomy in UK

British universities function in a kind of Limbo between state control and full
independence, more of independence than control. They all continue to exist and work
under Royal Charters and secure most of their funds from the Central Government, but
they remain self-governing without being directly answerable to anybody. The University
autonomy in Britain takes a middle position between the two patterns- American and
European 5.4.2 Student Unrest in UK Student's disturbances do occur but English love
for tradition and evolution do not allow them to grow as noisy as those on the other side
of the Atlantic.

Distance Education in UK

Distance Education

• In 1856, in Germany, Charles Toussiant and Gustan Langenscheidt, started a

school for teaching languages by correspondence.
• In 1891, in the United States of America, Thomas J. Foster, a newspaper
proprietor started a course of instruction on mine surveying.
 • Again the same year the University of Wisconsin approveda resolution for the
development of University Extension Correspondence Study Courses.
• In 1892, William R. Hasper, the President of the University of Chicago established
a correspondence teaching division the University's Extension Department.
• In Sweden, Hans Hermond published his first of correspondence course in book-
keeping in 1898.
• In England in 1884, Goseph William Knipe taught six students by correspondence.
Out of this small beginning, grew the Wolsey Hall, Oxford.
• Technical education through correspondence began in Australia in 1910.

The first Distance Education University was opened in UK in 1969, thereafter many
countries followed the example. In India, the Andhra Pradesh Open University was
established in 1982 and the Indira Gandhi National Open University, was opened in New
Delhi in 1985.

In the United Kingdom, education through correspondence courses is not so well

developed and integrated with the rest of the education system as in the USSR, Australia
or Japan. In 1963, the Advisory Centre for Education set up National Advisory College
for providing educational facilities for students whose needs cannot be met by the existing
educational system. It mostly provides correspondence courses for GCE subjects or
London external degrees so as to help adults who need paper qualifications in middle life.
It also provides correspondence courses to schools who are short of subject specialists or
who want to enlarge their range of teaching. There is yet no central organisation to
regulate or register correspondence schools.

Examination System in UK

1. No National Examination: Although there is no national leaving examination,

secondary school pupils (and others) may take the General Certificate of
Secondary Education (GSE) administered by 8 Boards or the Certificate of
Secondary Education (CSE) administered by 14 Boards. Thus there are 22 Boards
approved by Department of Education and Science.
 2. No Compulsory Subjects: There are no compulsory subjects at either level and
candidates may take as many or as few subjects and as many times as they wish.
They do not need to take the same subject at both O, and A-levels. A candidate
who fails to gain a pass at A-level may be awarded an O-level pass on his A-level
papers.
3. Five Grades: At A-level, passes are awarded in five grades: A, B, C, D and E. In
addition A-level candidates may take Special ('S') papers which are normally set
on the same syllabus as the basic A-level papers but contain questions of a more
searching kind. Only candidates whose basic A-level papers are graded A, B, or C
are eligible to have their work on S-papers taken into account. These candidates
may be given a supplementary grading of 'distinction' or 'merit based on their
performance on S-papers. Candidates are not normally expected to take S-papers
in more than one subject and are not allowed to take them in more than two.
4. Conditions for Eligibility: The examinations are open to any suitable candidates
whether they are attending school or not. The normal minimum age of entry is 16
although candidates may be entered earlier if their headmaster or headmistress
(orother responsible person) certifies that this is educationally desirable and that
they are likely to be successful. There is no upper age limit.
5. Number of Subjects: There are about 80 subjects to choose from at O-level and
about 60 at A-level. Besides the normal academic subjects they include art, music,
and handicrafts, domestic, technical and commercial subjects.
6. The C.S.E: The Certificate of Secondary Education (CSE), was introduced in
1965. Earlier in 1959, the Crowther Committee had recommended the
introduction of an external examination below the level of the GSE.

The CSE which like the GSE, is on a single subject basis, can be examined in a number
of ways but is in all cases controlled by serving teachers, represented on the regional
examining boards. Schools may prepare their own syllabuses and conduct their own
examinations subject only to moderation by the regional board to ensure comparable
standards; they may conduct their own syllabuses (subject to the board's approval) but
have the examination papers marked by the board; or they may use syllabuses prepared by
the board's subject panels, which are mainly or entirely composed by teachers, and take
the board's examination. Work done by candidates during their final school year may be
taken into account.

The CSE is open to pupils of any school who have completed, or are about to
complete, five years of secondary education. It is marked in five grades, apart from the
lowest performances which are upgraded. The top grade corresponds to a GSE O-level
pass. Grade 4 is appropriate for pupils of average ability, taking the age-group as a whole.
Control over the definitions of scope and standards of the examinations is exercised by the
independent Schools Council for the Curriculum and Examinations to ensure national
comparability.

ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION FROM

FINLAND EDUCATION

Education Policy:

Providing equal opportunities for all citizens to high-quality education and training is
a long-term objective of the Finnish education policy. The keywords in Finnish education
policy are quality, efficiency, equity and internationalization. The basic right to education
and culture is recorded in the Constitution. The policy is built on the principles of lifelong
learning and free education. Education is seen as a key to competitiveness and well-being
of the society.

There is a wide-spread consensus of the main pillars of education policy and the policy is
characterized by cooperation and continuity evolution rather than revolution. A tripartite
partnership among Government, trade unions and employer organizations is an integrated
part of policy-making. Participation and consultation of a wide range of different
stakeholders play a central role in educational reform. Teachers and the Trade Union of
Education as their representative are the key players in the development of education. The
main objectives and broad lines of the policy are defined at the central level, but the
implementation of these is the responsibility of the local level. The main steering
document in the Finnish education policy is the Government's Development Plan for
Education and Research.

The main objective of Finnish education policy is to offer all citizens equal
opportunities to receive an education. The structure of the education system reflects these
principles. The system is highly permeable, that is, there are no dead-ends preventing
progression to higher levels of education.

The focus in education is on learning rather than testing there are no national tests
for pupils in basic education in Finland. Instead, teachers are responsible for assessment in
their respective subjects on the basis of the objectives included in the curriculum.

The only national examination, the matriculation examination, is held at the end of
general upper secondary education. Commonly admission to higher education is based on
the results in the matriculation examination and entrance tests.

Governance has been based on the principle of decentralization since the early
1990s. Education providers are responsible for practical teaching arrangements as well as
the effectiveness and quality of the education provided. Local authorities also determine
how much autonomy is passed on to schools. For example budget management,
acquisitions and recruitment are often the responsibility of the schools.

Polytechnics and universities enjoy extensive autonomy. The operations of both

polytechnics and universities are built on the freedom of education and research. They
organize their own administration, decide on student admission and design the contents of
degree programmes.

Most education and training is publically funded. There are no tuition fees at any
level of education. In basic education also school materials, school meals and commuting
are provided free of charge. In upper secondary education, students pay for their books
and transport. In addition, there is a well-developed system of study grants and loans.
Financial aid can be awarded for full-time study in upper secondary education and in
higher education.
Early childhood education and care:

All children under school-age have a subjective right to early childhood education
and care (ECEC). The municipalities are responsible for arranging the ECEC services, for
their quality and supervision. Families can also opt for publicly subsidized private ECEC
settings. The Finnish ECEC is based on an integrated approach to care, education, and
teaching, the so- called "Educare" model. Learning through play is essential.

The main form of ECEC is daycare organized in daycare centers and in family
daycare. The content of ECEC is guided by the National Curriculum Guidelines on ECEC
(2018). Other forms of ECEC services include clubs run by the local parishes and other
non-governmental organizations and the various forms of open early childhood education
activities organized by the municipalities for children and their families. Participation in
ECEC is subject to a fee which depends on family income and the number of children.
Client fees in municipal daycare cover about 14 percent of the total daycare costs.

Basic education is non-selective

The objective of basic education is to support pupils' growth towards humanity and
ethically responsible membership of the society and to provide them with the knowledge
and skills needed in life.

Basic education encompasses nine years and caters for all those between 7 and 16
years. Schools do not select their students. Every student is allocated a place in a nearby
school, but they can also choose another school with some restrictions.

All school follow a national core curriculum, which includes the objectives and core
contents of different subjects. The education providers, usually the local education
authorities and the schools themselves draw up their own curricula within the framework
of the national core curriculum.

Upper secondary education and training

 After compulsory basic education school-leavers opt for general or vocational
upper secondary education. Both forms usually take three years and give eligibility for
higher education. Vocational education and training are popular in Finland, more than 40
percent of the relevant age group starts vocational upper secondary studies immediately
after basic education. The biggest fields are technology, communications and transport,
and social services, health and sports.

The selection of students for upper secondary school is based on their grade point
average for the theoretical subjects in the basic education certificate. Entrance and
aptitude tests may also be used, and students may be awarded points for hobbies and
other relevant activities.

Vocational qualifications can be completed in upper secondary VET, apprenticeship

training, or as competence-based qualifications. The majority of young learners complete
their upper secondary vocational qualifications at Vocational institutions. Competence-
based qualifications are usually completed by adults.

Pedagogical Approach

❖ The conception of learning, where students own activity and interaction with the
teacher, other students and the learning environment is important, is steering the
schoolwork, teaching, the organization controls
❖ Student deals with and interprets the received information based on his/her earlier
knowledge (constructive pedagogy approach)
❖ Political consensus to educate all children together in a common school system
❖ An expectation that all children can achieve at high levels, regardless of family
background or regional circumstance
❖ A single-minded pursuit of teaching excellence
❖ Collective school responsibility for learners who are struggling
❖ Modest financial resources that are tightly focused on the classroom
❖ A climate of trust between educators and the community

Deep Dive:
 ❖ Pupils' learning and well-being of the individual is supported and related instructions
have been recorded the nationwide basis for the curriculum.
❖ Both schools and the learning outcomes and assessment of pupils are in the nature
of encouragement and support.
❖ The aim is to provide information that will help both schools and pupils to develop
❖ There are no national tests of learning outcomes and school ranking lists Teachers
at all levels of education are well trained and strongly committed to their work
❖ All teachers are required to a Master's degree and initial teacher training includes
practical teaching training The teaching profession in Finland is a valued and
popular, so students can be chosen the best in young people
❖ In Finland, there is substantial attention to subject- specific pedagogy for
prospective primary as well as upper-grade teachers.

Teachers in Finland:

❖ Enjoy pedagogical autonomy in the classroom

❖ Are considered pedagogical experts
❖ Are entrusted with considerable independence in the classroom.
❖ Have decision-making authority as concerns school policy and management
❖ Are deeply involved in drafting the local curricula and in development work.
❖ Have responsibility for the choice of textbooks and teaching methods

ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION FROM

JAPAN

Japan spends approximately half of the public expenditure on education is shared

by the national (Central) government. Between 16 and 20 per cent of national and local
expenditure is spent on education every year. In Japan private educational institutions play
an important role in the entire system of education. In 1993, about 74 per cent of
university and junior college students, about 29 per cent of upper secondary, students and
about 79 per cent of kindergarten students were enrolled in private institutions. In view of
this role, the national government under the Private School Promotion Subsidy Law, has
been providing subsidies to the institutions.
Problems in Higher Education

While the reform solved some historical problems of Japanese higher education-by
creating a single-track non elitist system, eliminating discrimination against women, and
vastly increasing access to the university-it did not solve all of them, and it even created
new ones. It failed, for example, to destroy the university prestige hierarchy. Although a
handful of private universities have improved their ranking slightly and there are minor
adjustments here and there, the basic picture is not unlike that of pre-reform days,
although the canvas on which it is drawn is much larger.

At the top of the pyramid we find Tokyo and Kyoto Universities and just below
them the 7 other former imperial universities plus a few distinguished national universities.
They have the best faculties, the best facilities, the most favorable faculty-student ratios,
the best libraries, and the higher budgets in the country. Naturally, they attract the best
students. At the next level come the remaining 17. National universities, plus a small
handful of private and municipal universities. The next stratum includes the 46 nationally
supported prefecture universities plus the better and municipal universities. And so on
down the line.

Because this ranking structure still persists despite the educational reforms, the
competitive entrance examination system has become, if anything, even worse than before
the war. Before the war only an elite was caught up in this desperate scramble for place;
today the numbers who have gone through this experience run into the millions. More
than 500,000 young people go through the examination agony every year, and several
hundred thousand repeaters go through it twice or more (in 1970 alone, 180,000)
spending the time in between cramming at home or in formal schools. in preparation for
their next chance. (More) than one-half fail to make it on their first try). And since boys
are more ambitious and attend university in larger numbers, the proportion of the male
generation between 18 and 21 years of age that has gone through this examination hell is
even higher. In other words, the agony of the elite has been democratized and has now
become the agony of the masses.
 The postwar university reform was only partially successful in another area; the
elimination of the chair system of organization of faculties, which Japan copied from
European models in the late nineteenth century. Although many of the newer-and
therefore less prestigious universities have adopted the U.S.-style department system, the
chair system remains if not intact, then only partially modified in the leading national
universities.

Reforms

1. Expansion of Education: The enrolment ratio for compulsory schools in Japan has
always been nearly 100 per cent. Since 1950 the proportion of the age group on to
upper secondary schools steadily increased year by year and reached 96.4 per cent in
1996. The proportion of the age group going on to universities and junior colleges also
rapidly increased and reached 40.3 per cent in 1996.

2. Enrolment Classified by Sex: Based on the provisions in the Constitution and the
Fundamental Law of Education which guaranteed equal educational opportunity for boys
and girls, the proportion of girl students advancing to upper secondary scools and
institutions of higher education has rapidly increased year by year since 1946.

3. Sex Education in Japanese Schools: At the direction of the Education Ministry, fifth
grade health and science text books for the school year 1992, included material on the
changes of the body at puberty and human pregnancy. Previously, the Ministry had only
stipulated that rudimentary sex education be taught during health classes in the fifth and
sixth grades.

4. 100 Per cent Literacy in Japan: Japan has virtuallyattained 100 per cent literacy and
Japanese children consistently scores higher on achievement tests.

5. Corporal Punishment:. Though the Education Ministry has ordered an end to Corporal
punishment in schools, yet cases of corporal punishment still occur.

Recent Educational Developments in Japan: Since the end of World War II, education in
Japan has experienced a dramatic spread and development, based on the principle of
equal educational opportunity for all, and also on account of the characteristics of the
Japanese people to give priority to education and of the improved level of living standards
due to the high growth of the Japanese economy, over the last decades.

Recent Developments

Remarkable growth of education has been the key factor behind the economic,
social and cultural development of Japan.However, rapid social changes and the
quantitative expansion of education in recent years have greatly affected the state of the
affairs in education. They have exposed a number of problems, which include: an over-
emphasis on the educational background of individuals; and unduly severe competition in
entrance examinations: problematic behaviours of the young people; uniformity and
rigidity of the formal educational system. On the other hand, there has been a strong call
to make the educational system more adapted to such social and cultural changes as:
modifications in the industrial and employment structures; the emergence of an aging
society; the progress of an "information-intensive" society; the trends towards
internationalization in various fields.

To deal with these issues and problems, a National Council on Educational reform
was established, in August 1984, as an ad hoc advisory committee reporting to the Prime
Minister With a view to encouraging the creation of a society filled with creativity and
vitality for the 21st century, the Council made intensive deliberations on education and on
related fields, in a broad perspective, keeping in mind the different issues and problems
involved in the present state of education, and eventually-issued four successive reports to
the Prime Minister.

The Council laid down three basic concepts for the current educational reform:

(1) a gradual transition towards a lifelong education system,

(2) an increased emphasis on the importance of individuality.

(3) the adaptation of the educational system to the internationalization

Beginning around 1984, the general public in Japan began to sense the increasing
manifestation of what was referred to pathological symptoms' of 'desolation' in education
manifested in such actions as: insidious school bullying, children's suicide, children's
rejection of school juvenile delinquency, school violence, home violence, excessive
competition in entrance examinations and corporal punishment. Four major factors were
identified as the contributing factors to this desolation in education'.

(1) Excessive competition in entrance examinations.

(2) Uniformity of the content and methods of teaching schools.

(3) Negative effects of the development of a moderate industrial civilization and the high
rate economic growth Japan.

(4) Deterioration of the social climate prevalent in Japan.

Reports of the National Council on Educational Reforms

The prevailing conditions and concerns led to a call for education reform from all
segments of Japanese society. To respond to this call, the National Council of Education
Reform was set up in August 1984 as an advisory body to the Prime Minister. The
Council submitted following four reports:

❖ The First Report: June 26, 1985

❖ The Second Report: The: April 23, 1986
❖ Third Report: April 1, 1987
❖ The Fourth Report: August 7, 1987

Basic Concepts of Educational Reforms

The first report laid down the following basic concepts:

1. Emphasis on individuality

2. Emphasis on fundamentals..

3. Cultivation of creativity, thinking ability and power of expression.

4. Expansion, opportunities of choices.

5. Humanization of the educational environment.

6. Transition to a life-long learning system.

7. Coping with internationalization.

8. Coping with information age

The fourth and the final report presented three basic points of view for educational
reform.

1. The principle of putting emphasis on individuality,

2. Transition to a life-long learning system, and

3. Coping with various changes:

(i) Coping with internationalization trends, and

(ii) Coping with an information oriented society.

The above mentioned principles are the guidelines of educational reforms in Japan.

Established in August 1990, the Life-Long Learning Council submitted its

recommendations in 1992 on 'measures for the promotion of Life-long Learning to cope
with future Social Trends'. It considered four aspects:

1. Promotion of recurrent education for the members of the society.

2. Support and development of volunteer's activities.

3. Improvement of out of school activities of children and young people.

4. Increased opportunities to learn about present day problems.

During the period 1988 to 1991, the University Council submitted a number of reports
on the reforms of university education. In 1988, its report was titled 'On making the
Graduate School System more flexible (December 1988). In February 1991, it
reproduced five reports:

(i) Improvement of University Education'.

(ii) Reconsideration of the University Degree System and the Evaluation of Graduate
Schools.

(iii) Creation of a Degree Awarding Organ

(iv) Improvement of junior college Education.

(v) Improvement of Education Technology.

In 1991, the Council issued several reports:

1. Systematic Improvement of Higher Education from 1993.

2. Improvement and Expansion of Graduate Schools.

3. Amendments of the University Establishment Standards and to the Regulations of

University Degrees.

4. The Amendments of the Colleges of Technology Establishment Law.

5. Quantitative Development of Graduate Schools.

In July 1992, the Science Council submitted its recommendations concerning

Measures for overall Promotion of Scientific Research for the 21st Century",

SOCIALLY DISADVANTAGED CHILDREN

• The education is the key which allows people to move up in the world, seek better
jobs and ultimately succeed in their lives, and one should be deprived of it. Indian
constitution in its direct.
• Principles of state policy has affirmed free and compulsory education for all
children up to the age of fourteen .So, the disadvantaged children are not an
 exception. Every disadvantaged child should be given opportunity to learn with
integrated of
• Technology to improve overall learning capacity of the student which can enhance
the lives of disadvantaged children

Socially disadvantaged children-Meaning

The children who are socio culturally deprived and under privilege are called as socially
disadvantaged children. The term socially disadvantaged children or simply disadvantage is
used to refer to these children who are economically, educationally, linguistically, or
socially disadvantaged by definition disadvantaged child is one who

❖ suffers from a continuing inadequacy of basic necessities life

❖ Is subject to detrimental environmental stresses of any kind
❖ Has been denied form the basic and universal rights of children (i.e. a stable home,
loving mother, a supportive father who provides the material need such as
protection clothing adequate diet, and play space, fresh experience to stimulate
language and mental growth; reorganization and an encouraging atmosphere and
contact with other children and adults)
❖ Is at risk of future psycho-education problems
❖ Is handicapped or disabled because of certain conditions of exogenous origin 9i;e
not due to any condition arising out with in his own natural rate
❖ He has been the opportunity to grow normally at his own natural rate

The disadvantaged children differ from advantaged class in only six areas namely

❖ Self-concept
❖ Motivation
❖ Social behavior
❖ Language
❖ Intellectual functioning
❖ Physical facilities

Definition of Socially disadvantaged children:

 The disadvantage refers to an inner condition of child resulting from an outer
deprivation

The US government defines "socially disadvantaged" individuals under the small

business act (15 USC "socially disadvantaged individuals are those who have been
subjected to racial or ethic prejudice or cultural bias of their identity as a member of a
group without regard to their individual qualities",

Types of socially disadvantaged children:

The Plan for Protection of Children in Specially Difficult Circumstances (CEDC) 2002-
2006 formulated by the National Youth Bureau identifies CEDC covering the following six
groups:

❖ Abandoned and neglected Children i.e. .street children/ child beggars; orphans;
and slum children;
❖ Children physically or sexually abused i.e. assaulted children; child prostitutes;
sexually violated children; and children involved in child labour;
❖ Children with undesirable behavior i.e. children who use drugs; children pregnant
out of wedlock or before appropriate age; those involved in criminal action /
criminal offence, those in remand homes; and those socializing in brothels and night
spots;
❖ Children with physical/ mental/emotional/intellectual and learning deficiencies;
❖ Socially deprived poor children i.e. children without schooling; children of
migratory
❖ Construction workers; children of unemployed laborers; children of ethnic minority
groups; children of those under, absolute poverty line; and those without Thai
nationality, birth registration certifies or household registration certificates; and
❖ HIV/AIDS-affected children i.e. those infected with HIV/AIDS; and orphans of
parents with HIV/AIDS.

Causes of socially disadvantaged children:

The various causes of disadvantaged conditions are as follows:

❖ Economic causes :
❖ Poverty of parents
❖ Mismanagement of money in the home
❖ Poor occupational status of parents
❖ Un employment or underemployment
❖ Poor diet
❖ Poor clothing
❖ Health related causes:
❖ Malnutrition of children
❖ Inadequate medical care of children
❖ Lack of health care, immunization cleanliness and preventive
❖ Prenatal and post natal complications
❖ Home and neighborhood factors:
❖ Shared inadequate and crowded home
❖ Samyukdha Publications
❖ Lack of play space
❖ Lack of educationally stimulating materials
❖ Depressed or slum-type neighborhood
❖ Socio-cultural factors:
❖ Defective child-rearing and parenting behaviors
❖ Lack of cultural stimulation Parental rejection
❖ Over indulgence
❖ Intellectual factors:
❖ Retarded cognitive growth
❖ Delayed speech
❖ Over or under stimulation
❖ Educational underachievement
❖ Failure, stagnation and drop out
❖ Mental health factors:
❖ Crime and delinquency
❖ Psychiatric problems
 ❖ Behavior problems and disorders

Characteristics of socially disadvantaged children:

❖ Basically they have poor cognitive back ground due to depression

❖ They have below average level intellectual functioning
❖ They have low level of aspiration and marginal social occupational adjustment
❖ Lacking experiences of receiving approval for success in tasks
❖ Seems to be generally unaware of the ground rules for success in school work
❖ They are less able to learn from being told
❖ They are often unable to make simple symbolic interpretations unable to use
standard language
❖ They seem to have low level of curiosity about the things
Disadvantaged children and their teachers experience the following difficulties:
❖ Culturally disadvantaged children seem to be generally unaware of the ground rules
foe success in school work
❖ They are less able to learn from being told
❖ They are often unable to make simple symbolic interpretation
❖ They tend to have small attention span and consequently have difficulty in
following directions
❖ They are unable to us standard language
❖ They tend to have little concept relative size
❖ They are less likely to perceive adults as people to whom they can turn for help
❖ They seem to have low level of curiosity about the things

Needs of socially disadvantaged children:

❖ Self-concept, level of aspiration and achievement motivation should be accelerated

❖ Language training and analytical thinking must be included
❖ Socially disadvantaged children must be trained to achieve three objectives viz
knowledge, skill and attitude
❖ These children must be trained to acquaint themselves with concrete life situation
Samyukdha Publications Comparative Education
 ❖ They must be aware of their various creative talent and they must be trained to
develop sense of comparative living in them so that they can easily participate with
normal students

Educational provisions for socially disadvantaged children:

❖ Establishment of residential school (ashram school)

❖ Financial help for disadvantaged children (scholarship, post-matric and pre-matric
scholarship
❖ Appoint of expert teachers (special training in service training refresh courses
teachers are also trained in tribal dialect and tribal culture)
❖ Craft education (carpentry, tailoring, weaving and some useful hand work)
❖ Incentives to indigent families (recently govt taken steps for more enrollment for
these weaker section of the people and children incentive are provided them so the
they would be able to send their children regularly to school
❖ Compensatory pre-school education (research works reveal that the mental
development of children generally 3 to 7 years so preschool period considered to
be the formative period of child life through the Compensatory pre-school
education can improve his vocabulary and language difficulties can ultimately be
surmounted
❖ Adjustment of school hours and vocations: it is used to reduce the dropouts and
stagnation and also these children get ample opportunity to assist their parents.
❖ Adult education programmes (truly speaking educated parents can get their
children educated with little effort they will be able to understand the value of
education, and responsibility for the future generation so govt initiative to open the
anganwadi adult education centers to help the social disadvantage people
❖ Technique of evaluation (step may be taken to adopt new techniques of evaluation
and continuous assessment of these types will be conducive
❖ Follow up action (students coming from residential type of schools generally go for
higher education or take any job to earn their live hood govt has plan to help the
students providing the grants to settle down in life
GIRL'S EDUCATION

A girl's education is an investment in her future. It's also an investment in the

future of our world - a thriving, peaceful and sustainable world. Education is a powerful
tool in developing the full potential of every child, but it also helps promote
understanding, respect and friendship between nations, peoples and religious groups.

For all children, but especially for girls, education provide stability for today and
opportunities for tomorrow. Learn more about the importance of female education and
how you can help protect girls' education rights.

Girl is not a statistic or a piece of property. She's a child who deserves future, Girls
the world a over face gender discrimination just for being born a daughter and not a son.
A girl's education is less likely to be valued, and she's more likely to be forced into early
marriage, face violence or be stolen by traffickers. Her childhood cut short her very life
and future at risk.

A girl's education changes everything. An educated girl is more likely to grow up

healthy, safe and empowered to determine the course of her life and future. She'll decide
when we understand the importance of education for girl We do whatever it takes to
ensure every last child has a chance to grow up healthy, educated and safe her best chance
for a bright future the course of their lives, their children's lives and the future of their
communities.

Why is educating girls so important?

Every child has a right to learn and get a good quality education, regardless of
gender, where they live or their circumstances. Because educated girls can make informed
choices from a far better range of options, educating girls saves lives and builds stronger
families, communities and economies. With an education, girls will understand their rights,
have a greater sense what is needed to support health and wellbeing, and they will have
greater opportunities to be employed in a fulfilling way and achieve their full potential.

Economic growth
 • Education for girls and boys increases productivity and contributes to economic
growth. Globally, women are not in the formal job market as much as men but
many studies show there are economic benefits if they are allowed to join the
labour force
• Educating girls and young women increases a country's productivity and contributes
to economic growth. Some countries lose more than $1 billion a year by failing to
educate girls to the same level as boys.
• A woman with an education can get a better job with higher wages and has the
effect of addressing gender imbalances in the labour force. Increased levels of
education have a greater positive impact on women's wages.
• According to an International Labor Organization report, "Educating girls has
proven to be one of the most important ways of breaking poverty cycles and is
likely to have significant impacts on access to formal jobs in the longer term."

Health knowledge saves children's lives

A child born to a literate mother is 50% more likely to survive past the age of five.
Over the past four decades, the global increase in women's education has prevented more
than four million child deaths.

Educated mothers are better informed about sanitation, nutrition and immunization
for their children, leading to fewer child deaths from preventable diseases such as
diarrhoea, pneumonia and malaria or from malnutrition.

Smaller and more sustainable families

Girls' education helps reduce population growth. Educated women have fewer pregnancies
and are also less likely to become pregnant as teenagers.

In many countries in sub-Saharan Africa, the birth rate among girls with secondary
education is four times lower compared to those with no education.

Reduced infection rates for HIV/AIDS and malaria

 When researchers analyzed the declining HIV/AIDS infection rate in Zimbabwe
from 29% of the population to 16% from 1997 to 2007, they found that high levels of
girls completing secondary education was an important factor in making awareness
campaigns and efforts to reduce infection by partners more effective. Better-educated girls
and women are also more likely to use techniques to prevent malaria, such as using bed
nets, and are less likely to become infected.

Fewer girls in child marriages.

Girls who are better educated are less likely to be married as children and are more
likely to have opportunities for a healthier and more prosperous life for themselves and
their families. Across 18 of the 20 countries with the highest prevalence of child marriage,
girls with no education are up to six times more likely to marry as children than girls with a
secondary education.

Better prepared for natural disasters and climate change.

Higher levels of education generally help prepare families for coping with shocks.
Girls' education in particular is associated with reduced injury and death and increased
family and community resilience from the hazards of natural disasters and extreme weather
that results from climate change.

More control over their lives

When girls go to school, they grow into women who have more say over their lives
and have an increased sense of their worth and capabilities. They are less likely to be
subjected to domestic violence and will participate more in decision-making in households.

More skills to be leaders

Education helps women to gain the skills needed to take on leadership roles at local
and national levels. Better-educated women are more likely to join bodies, whether
volunteer or elected, where they can take part in making decisions that affect their lives
and those of their communities
What are the barriers to girls' education?

Poverty and child labour

Girls from the poorest and rural households face the greatest disadvantages because
parents are less educated and therefore may value education less. Rural communities have
fewer support systems, often forcing girls to work or manage their household.

Many girls begin working as early as five years old - mainly in agriculture or in
homes as domestic servants. Child domestic workers have limited or no access to
education as employers often do not allow them to enroll in school.

Caring for relatives

Women and girls disproportionately share the burden and care of ill family
members and relatives. This affects not only whether they can attend school but also the
time and energy they can devote to schoolwork.

Water and sanitation

Due to inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene facilities, poor girls can spend six
hours each day collecting water, leaving little time for school. Those girls who do go to
school often drop out when they start to menstruate because there is no safe place to keep
clean at school.

Conflict and emergencies

Girls living in conflict-affected countries are 90% more likely to be out of

secondary school than those living in peaceful areas. Schools can be destroyed in conflict
situations, while targeted attacks on girls' schools can make parents afraid to send their
daughters to school. In humanitarian emergencies, including natural disasters, increased
poverty for families and lack of employment opportunities means girls are at higher risk of
early marriage or ending up in prostitution.

Child marriage
 Every year 15 million girls under the age of 18 become wives - an average of
40,000 every day. Marriage interrupts and ends girls' education so they don't gain the
skills that could lift them out of poverty - over 60% of child brides in developing countries
have no formal education. Many cannot return to school after marriage because they
cannot afford to pay school fees. Child marriage also means girls have early and frequent
pregnancies, which contributes to higher rates of girls dropping out of school.

Pregnancy

Each year about 16 million girls between 15 and 19 give birth. Stigma, lack of
support and discriminatory laws around pregnancy exclude girls from school, forcing them
to stay at home and care for their children. Childcare and flexible school programmes or
adult classes are not available to them.

Disability

Globally between 93 million and 150 million children live with a disability. The
World Health Organization and the World Bank estimate that in some countries "being
disabled more than doubles the chance of never enrolling in school". Girls with disabilities
face discrimination both because of their gender and their disability, making them among
the most marginalized groups of children. Respondents to the World Health Survey 2002-
2004 indicated that 41.7% of girls with a disability completed primary school compared
to 52.9% for those without a disability.

UNICEF's work to promote girls' education

UNICEF works with communities, Governments and partners to remove barriers to

girls' education and promote gender equality in education - even in the most challenging
settings.

Because investing in girls' secondary education is one of the most transformative

development strategies, we prioritize efforts that enable all girls to complete secondary
education and develop the knowledge and skills they need for life and work.
This will only be achieved when the most disadvantaged girls are supported to enter and
complete pre-primary and primary education. Our work:

❖ Tackles discriminatory gender norms and harmful practices that deny girls access to
school and quality learning.
❖ Supports Governments to ensure that budgets are gender-responsive and that
national education plans and policies prioritize gender equality. Helps schools and
Governments use assessment data to eliminate gender gaps in learning.
❖ Promotes social protection measures, including cash transfers, to improve girls'
transition to and retention in secondary school.
❖ Focuses teacher training and professional development on gender-responsive
pedagogies.
❖ Removes gender stereotypes from learning materials.
❖ Addresses other obstacles, like distance-related barriers to education, re-entry
policies for young mothers, and menstrual hygiene management in schools.

CHILD LABOR AND EDUCATION

June 12 is the World Day against Child Labor and while the number of children 5-17 who
work has declined by 30% since 2000, there are still 168 million child laborers
worldwide according to the International Labour Organization (ILO). More than half, 85
million, are in hazardous work.

In the 2015 report Child Labour and Education - Progress, challenges, and future
directions the ILO analyzes the role of child labor in keeping children away from school, as
well as the lack of accessible, affordable and good quality schooling as a factor for children
to enter the workforce.

The findings outlined in the report include:

❖ Child labor lowers net primary enrollment ratios.

❖ There is a strong negative effect of child labor on school attendance. In some
countries, school attendance rates of working children are only about half of those
of non-working children.
 ❖ There is a significant negative correlation between levels of economic activity of
children aged 7-14 years and youth literacy rates in the 15-24 age bracket.
❖ Rural working children tend to be among the most disadvantaged.
❖ Boys and girls often do different jobs. Girls are usually overrepresented in non-
economic activities such as work in their "own household". They also often bear
the double burden of work outside and inside the house, often with little time left
for schooling.
❖ For children who manage to combine work and education, performance at school
often suffers.

Specific measures to end child labour amongst girls:

❖ Enact explicit laws and put in place enforcement mechanisms and child protection
interventions to counter the risks faced by all children, but especially girls, engaged
in domestic work.
❖ Implement community-based dialogue, social and behaviours change interventions,
and parenting programmes to help counter unequal gender norms that encourage
overburdening girls with household chores in their own homes.
❖ Implement cash transfer and other social assistance programmes designed to
diminish financial barriers to quality education and learning for girls.
❖ Increase flexible learning paths so that all girls benefit from quality education and
provide more support to girls to pursue education that leads to more equal
employment opportunities in all sectors, including in fields such as science and
technology.

TEACHER EDUCATION

Teacher Education in UK

The education system of England gives a place of respect and honor to the teachers.
About a hundred years ago there was no requirement for the training of the teachers.
They were not subject to extra-ordinary standards. Now the situation has changed. Royal
Society of Teachers has laid standards for the teachers as well as persons engaged in the
task of teaching. There are well set standards in this direction.

Categories of Teachers

There are four categories of the teachers in England

(1) Qualified teachers,

(2) Graduate teachers,

(3) Teachers of special subjects, and

(4) Teachers employed in further education.

1. Qualified Teachers: They have to undergo two years full-time training in a Training
College after attaining the age of 18. Then they get a General Certificate of Education in
five subjects. This is the minimum academic standard for entering into the teaching
profession. Most of the qualified teachers are engaged in primary and secondary schools.
In order to be eligible for in primary or secondary schools, one has to become a qualified
teacher. The definition of qualified teacher has been laid down by the Ministry of
Education.

2. Graduate Teachers: These possess a University degree. They undergo one year's
compulsory professional training in a University Training Department.

3. Teachers of Special Subject: These are qualified to teach certain special subjects. They
have to undergo a training for the teaching of those specific subjects. To enter such a
training institute, a candidate has to possess General Certificate of Education. There are
different courses for training in different subjects. In order to become a qualified teacher
of Domestic Science, a person has to undergo a three years' course in a College
maintained for training of the teachers of the subject. In order to become a teacher of
Physical Education, a candidate has to undergo training of four years. For a Music Teacher
also such a requirement is needed. If a teacher has not undergone training, he must have
secured the Associate ship of the Royal College of Art or Royal College of Music. Trained
teachers may be employed in primary or secondary schools or in institutions imparting
education in special subjects.

4. Teachers Engaged in Further Education: These are recruited from the field of Industry
and Commerce. They are not required to possess certain specific qualifications. They may
be well experienced in the field or may possess highest academic standard. It depends
upon the nature of the task that they have to undergo. It is not necessary for them to
undergo a professional training. They may acquire such a training in order to be more
efficient in this direction.

Provision for Teacher Education

The Ministry of Education in England lays down standards for the teachers, and the
requirements for admission into the Training Colleges. They have also laid down the
courses and the syllabi that the students in these Training Colleges have to study. All this is
subject to the requirement of the teachers in England.

Recruitment of Teachers

The National Advisory Council for the recruitment and training of teachers advises the
Minister on recruitment as well as the training of the teachers.

Training of Teachers

England has its own method of the training of the teachers. Prior to the Act of
1944 there was no standardized arrangement for the training of the teachers. This training
was being imparted by private bodies. Most of these agencies were denominational in
character. The teachers who read in those institutes had to dedicate themselves for the
cause of the religion.

Now there is an Institute of Education in England which makes arrangement and

lays down courses and syllabi for the training of the teachers. It conducts the
examinations. Almost all the bodies running Training Colleges or Institutes for the teachers
are affiliated to it.
Categories of Institutions for the Training of the Teachers:

1. Institutions Maintained and Run by Local Education Authorities: These colleges and
institutes impart training to the teachers who, later on get into the service of the Local
Education Authorities and impart education to the future citizens of the country.

2. Institutions Run and Maintained by Private Agencies: These Institutes are maintained by
voluntary organisation and a major portion of the expenditure is met by these voluntary
bodies. However, half of the expenditure of such Institutes and Training Colleges is borne
by the Ministry of Education, and given out by way of grant-in-aid.

Local Education Authorities and voluntary organizations are engaged in the task of
producing a large number of trained teachers. About 15,000 teachers a year are
produced by various agencies. Even then England is not able to cope up with her need.

Area Training Organizations

There are Area Training Organizations responsible for looking after the training
facilities in certain regions. Each organisation has a particular region under its jurisdiction.
It represents the University or the Training Colleges, and the Local Education Authorities
of the area. It is for the general organisation of teachers training in that area. The planning
for the recruitment and the training of the teachers is done on scientific lines.

Employment and Conditions of Service

Generally the teachers in the schools, Colleges and Universities etc. are appointed
either by Local Education Authorities or by the Governing Bodies of the Institutions
concerned. In the schools maintained by Local Education Authorities the teachers are
appointed by the Authorities. But the teachers in the independent schools are appointed
by the Governing Body of the schools concerned. In aided schools, the teachers are
appointed by the Managers or the Governors although the salaries are paid by the Local
Education Authorities.

Local Education Authorities have powers to delegate the authority of appointment

to Governors or Managers of certain Schools. But the teachers that are appointed to the
service of the Local Education Authority are responsible for the conditions of service
under which the teachers are employed.

Security of Tenure

Teachers of England as well as Wales enjoy a security of tenure. It is a condition of

contract that the service of a teacher may be terminated on a two months' notice at the
end of the school term. Heads of the Institutions are terminated usually on three months'
notice. A teacher can be dismissed from his service only when he has committed some
gross misconduct or serious dereliction of duty. Before dismissal he is given every
opportunity to explain his position and served with a show cause notice. He is also
furnished the charge-sheet or complaint or an adverse report. They can be published only
when the decision has been arrived at. Only that part of the decision can be published
which is concerned with the operative part. Other proceedings and records are kept
confidential.

Role of Teachers' Associations

Teachers of different categories have their Associations to look after their interests. These
Associations defend the teachers from dismissal and other sorts of punishments. They do
not defend the incompetence of the teachers.

The Teachers' Associations are also conscious of the interests of the children. Any teacher
who does something which goes against the interest of the children, is not defended by the
Associations.

Teachers are secured in their job. Their conduct is also of a high order. Only teachers
neglect their duties and do not look after the interests for which they actually exist.

Vacations

Teachers usually enjoy three months' vacation in a year. Vacations begin when the school
is closed.

Medical Leave and Pay

In regard to the problem of sick teachers and their salaries there is an arrangement
between the Associations of Local Education Authority and the Associations of the
Teachers. A school teacher gets three months, medical leave on full pay and three
months' leave on half pay. An individual Local Education Authority may extend this
period in its description. The leave is extended according to different diseases.

Principles Governing the Salaries of the Teachers of Secondary and Primary Schools

1. There are separate scales for men and women teachers in England. This separation
applies to all the qualified teachers.

2. The salary of the teachers goes on increasing with the increases in the qualification of
the teacher. If the teacher acquires further qualifications, he or she is likely to get
additional pay.

3. If a teacher has spent a longer period in training than the minimum of two years, after
the age of 18, F likely to get an addition in the basic scale, or she is

4. The teachers get addition in their salaries for the responsibilities. In other words, it
means that the Head Teacher get more salary than his Assistants. Similarly, Assistant
Teachers who have to discharge certain responsibilities, get addition to their basic pay
scales.

5. Teachers who are serving in London Area get addition in their basic salary.

Burnham Technical Committee Report' controls the salaries of the teachers in the
Institutions and Establishments runs for further education. There are Lecturers as well as
Heads of the Departments. An attempt is made to provide them with a handsome salary
and scales of pay. Specific scales have not been prescribed. One who is more qualified, has
to be paid more. In some places teachers are employed on part-time basis.

Salary Scales of the Teachers in the Training Colleges

Pelhum Committee' is charged with the duty of negotiating salaries for the teaching
staff in the Training Colleges. Sir Henry Pelham was Permanent Secretary of the Ministry
of Education. The Committee was appointed under his chairmanship and is known after
him. On the Committee, the teachers are represented by the Association of the Teachers
in Colleges and Departments of Education. On the side of the employers there are
representatives of Local Education Authorities and representatives of the Governing Bodies
of the Voluntary Colleges. There are two scales of pay for the teachers of these Colleges;
one for Lecturers and the other for Senior Lecturers.

Farm Institute Report lays down the salary scales of the teachers working in such Institutes.

Thus the salary scales of the teachers in England and their terms and conditions of services
are properly laid down. This makes the status of the teachers quite respectable.

Teacher Education in USA Historical Background in USA

Up to the early years of the nineteenth century, there was no programme of the
teacher education in USA. Teaching was not profession or a vocation. Any person, who
had the knowledge, could be a successful teacher.

In 1839 State of Massachusetts was established a State Normal School. After one
year of training, teachers could get a certificate and could be employed as teacher. Then,
State Normal University was established in the State of Illinois. Its main aim was to
prepare teachers for the primary as well as secondary classes. In 1860 a change took place
in the programme of teacher education and the course was made a two year course.

For a very long time the colleges and universities remained indifferent to the
training of the teachers. In 1873 the University of low a established a part-time
Educational Training Department. The University of Michigan followed the course. In
1879 a whole-time education training department was established. In 1887 Teacher's
Training College was established at Columbia University at New York. It has influenced to
a very great extent the programme of the teacher's training in the United States of
America.

Selection and Requirements of Admission

 One who wants to get admitted in a teachers' training college, has to fulfil certain
requirements. Formerly no such things were required. Up to 1920, there were no rigid
requirements. In 1922 Columbia University modified its programme of teachers' training
and influenced the whole programme of the teacher education. New standards have been
laid. Every pupil teacher has to undergo certain rigours of admission and fulfil certain
requirements. A minimum academic qualification has been laid down for admission to a
teachers training college. There are certain other requirements also like the
recommendation of the Head of the last institution attended, academic and character
record, record of extra-curricular activities, etc. A psychological test is also carried out and
only such persons are selected for admission to the training colleges that have an aptitude
for teaching work and possess psychological as well as physical efficiency.

A candidate has to possess a Masters' Degree and some teaching experience for
acquiring training to become a teacher in a secondary school. To be a pupil teacher of a
primary school, the candidate has to possess a Graduate's Degree and some teaching
experience. In certain States even Doctor's Degree is expected.

Role of National Education Association

Selection of the candidates for entry into training colleges, occupies national importance in
USA. In 1938 National Education Association established a body called "Association of
Future Teachers of America". It spread into various institutions and added to the
efficiency of the teachers. As educational authorities in America are well aware of the
requirements of a future teacher the selection is done very carefully and cautiously.

Agencies of Training of the Teachers

1. The State; and

2. The Private agencies.

Private agencies have been playing their part since long in the field of teachers'
training. In 1823, 15 years before the establishment of a State Normal School, a Private
Normal School was established at Vermont. In 1827 another institution of the similar
type was established in Lancaster. By the end of 19th century about 170 training colleges
had been established in United States of America. Many of these institutions were run and
maintained by private agencies.

Types of Training Institutions

Normal Schools: Formerly these schools were like ordinary schools where education was
imparted. Their curriculum did not contain any specific arrangement for the future
teachers. There was a one-year course. Later on, one more year was added to it and the
course became of 2 years.

The programme of education and the teaching has undergone a good deal of change since
1930. Almost all the Normal Schools have assumed the form of teachers' training
colleges. They play a vital role in the development of the teachers' education in United
State of America.

Teachers' Training Colleges

In 1857, a college was established in the State of Illinois. It was a State College. Its
main aim was to impart higher professional training to the teachers. These institutions
continued to play a vital role in the field of teachers' education. In 1888 Nicholas Murray
Bulten established the New York Teachers' College, made a part of the Columbia
University in 1898. By the end of the first quarter of the 20th century, the Normal
Schools became Teachers' Training Colleges. At present, these colleges prepare teachers
for the primary as well as secondary stage of education. When the pupil teachers have
completed their course, they are given the Bachelor's Degree. These Colleges impart
training for five years. Some of these colleges also award the Master's Degree and have
international importance. These colleges occupy a very important place in the field of
teachers' education.

Schools of Education

Schools of Teachers' Education or Colleges of Teachers' Education are different

from the aforementioned teachers' training colleges in one respect. These are affiliated or
associated with one university or the other. In 1879 such a college was established by
Michigan University. Prior to it, there were institutions imparting part-time courses for the
education of the teachers. Michigan was the first university that started Graduate's Course
in this field. In 1888, Graduate School of Pedagogy was established at New York
University. In 1922, New York University made certain changes. Since then several
institutions started changing their pattern. Now-a-days, these colleges are run as
departments of certain universities. Sometime they also function as full-time institutions for
the training of the teachers. Persons, who have completed two years college course, get
entry into such colleges. The curriculum and the educational programme of these colleges
is more or less the same as is found in teachers' training college. Along with education of
Pedagogy, there is arrangement for the teaching of literature, language, culture etc. After
the completion of the course, Graduates' Degree is awarded.

Departments of Education in the Universities

In United States of America universities started Pedagogy or Education as a regular

subject or as an independent subject in their programme of education of Graduation
Courses. The University of low a made arrangement for part-time education of the
teachers in 1873. After a few years, several universities started full-time courses. These
programmes achieved a good deal of success. Now many arts colleges and universities
have started education as a subject.

In the 20 century, United States of America realized that it was necessary to

impart education of the technique of teaching as well. Many training colleges started
programmes on general education. Universities and arts colleges established independent
Departments of Education. Now-a-days almost all the universities have a separate
Department of education, under which the future teachers are prepared and given proper
training. In certain universities and colleges there is arrangement for occupational and
vocational training as well. All this is done in order to make the programme of teaching
up-to-date and successful.

Curriculum
 The curriculum of the institutions imparting training of future. Teachers of United
States of America may be divided into the following two heads:

1. General Education; and

2. Teaching-Training or Training of the Method of Teaching

In all the States of USA the curriculum is divided under these heads. In some
States, where the training period runs for four years, the first two years are devoted to
general education and the last two years to professional education and training. Both these
education go together in some States. In other States the training programme is continued
in the first two years and then it is also carried out in the last two years. In 41 States, out
of 50 States of United States of America, there is a four-year course for the training of
teachers. In some colleges there is five- year course as well.

Advanced Degree Course

There are over 300 institutions in USA run by both private agencies as well as the
States that make arrangement for Advanced Degree Course for the future teacher of the
country.

According to the curriculum of the teaching in the training colleges, the first two
years are devoted to the study of Liberal Arts and the last two years for study of the
Education and other allied subjects. A good deal of stress is laid on providing a solid
foundation of education to pupil teachers.

Courses for general education include the study of language and literature,
Mathematics, Economics, Music, Science, Social Sciences, etc. Professional education
includes Health Education, Education for Mental Hygiene, Child Psychology, Education for
Internationalism, Cultural Education etc.

Practical Training and Practice-teaching

 Pupil teachers are given the knowledge of the old as well as new methods of
teaching and also provided with opportunity for practice-teaching in primary as well as
secondary schools.

Co-curricular Activities

There is a comprehensive programme for extra-curricular activities. Students have

their own associations and committees. They carry out several programmes of co-
curricular activities through these organizations. On behalf of the training colleges, there is
arrangement of games, athletics and such other activities. Every attempt is made to adjust
the future teachers to the environment in which they have to live and undertake their
activities. The main object is to provide ideal teachers to the country,

Certificates and Degrees

In United States of America, possession of a Degree or a certificate is not

considered as a sufficient qualification for appointment as a teacher. Education includes
the qualities of self-control and strong social sense. Such persons are appointed who can
live amongst the boys and carry out their task of teaching. The teacher must possess
patience, a sense of humour and the recognized capability.

Different States have different standards of capabilities. In 36 out of 50 States of

United States of America, a teacher of a primary school must have completed a two-year
course of education from some college. He must have also undergone a two-year course in
some Normal School or training college. In the remaining States, such a teacher has to
possess a Bachelor's Degree or a Four-Year Training Certificate.

In 41 out of 50 States of United States, of America, teacher of a secondary

school, has to possess, a Bachelor's Degree and a Four-Year Training Course. In some of
the States, there is demand for some specialized training as well.

There is great demand for specialized teachers. Teachers who possess Diploma in
Nursery or Kindergarten Education. Teachers who have higher training degrees and
certificates or have educational ability or qualification ability are preferred for appointment
in secondary schools. Now Five-Year Degree Course is a normal feature of the training
colleges.

In almost all the States the Head of the Education Department issues a certificate to
the teachers. Teachers are put to certain test and then a certificate is issued to them. It is
also recognized in other States. Its basis is the graded ability. There are also certificate of
merit recognized within a particular area. Conditional and probation certificates are valid
for a particular period.

Research in Education

Educators and educationists of USA are very much alive to the need of research work in
the field of education. In order to achieve this object, several universities and colleges have
made arrangement for refresher courses for the teachers engaged in the task. There is also
arrangement for fellowship courses. Harward University has started a fellowship course
under the auspices of Harward Graduate School. This course is run for a period of one
year and provides higher professional training under the guidance of experienced and
competent teachers.

Antioch College of Ohio

It trains people for various trades and occupations. There is great need for such a
programme in Ohio. Teachers and instructors of the colleges, provide guidance and
instructions to the persons in search of jobs in various branches of industry. This college
prepares instructors and professors who can discharge this task successfully. The teachers
are engaged and paid handsomely in research programmes. They bring about further
development in the field of education. Various universities and colleges have devoted
themselves to this task.

Working Conditions, Tenure, Employment and Emoluments etc.

It was towards the end of 19th century, and the beginning of the 20th century that
the US society started realizing the fact that the teachers should be given their due. In the
20th century, several local bodies and local units of administration started appointing
teachers on long-term contract. They were provided with Academic Freedom, Security of
Tenure, Pension, Medical Leave, Weekly Rest and such other facilities. In certain big cities,
teachers were also provided employment on permanent basis. Certain States came out
with the laws making it illegal to dispense with the services of a teacher without prior
notice. The teachers started getting more facilities and greater security of tenure. Now
teachers enjoy all facilities and securities available to people of other trades. The
association of teachers has a membership of over one lakh.

Rules of Service

In most of the State rules and regulations determine the condition of the service of the
teachers. There is also agreement between the management and the teachers. In about 40
States, there are rules that lay down that the services of the teachers cannot be dispensed
with easily. Teachers can be asked to quit only in certain very special circumstances. In
certain States teachers have a permanent tenure. Every State has certain rules that govern
the retirement and the working of the teachers. These regulations provide security to the
teachers.

Different States have different rules and regulations in regard to the appointment
and tenure of the teachers. There is no central agency that lays down rules and regulations
in regard to the security and working conditions of the teachers. In most of the States,
teachers are appointed by the States Employment Agencies for the appointment of the
teachers. After completing the training, the teachers apply to the institutions. Once the
applications have been received a consolidated statement of the educational qualifications
and other capabilities is prepared. Then, these institutions establish contact with the local
unit of the educational administrative machinery. This machinery provides teachers to
various institutions, according to their needs.

Emoluments

The status of the teachers is determined by their emoluments. Teachers serving in

rural areas have lesser emoluments as compared to the teachers serving in urban areas.
Emoluments differ from city to city, determined according to the economic condition of
the State and appointing agency. The teacher employment agency does lay down the
salary of the teachers. The salary of the teacher is subject to the States average income and
the number of the school-going children. In most of the States there are no time scales
and there is no provision of efficiency bar. Only minimum salary is determined. The
emoluments of the teachers go on rising along with the rise in the national income. From
1940 to 1950, the average salary of a teacher had been doubled on account of increases
in the national income

Minimum Salary

There is a minimum salary prescribed in 28 States. This minimum goes up

according to the qualifications of the teachers.

Pension

There is also arrangement for paying pension to the teachers.

Hours of Work and Working Days

A teacher in United States of America has to work for about 35 periods in a week.
Sundays and Saturdays are holidays. From Monday to Friday there are working days. On
an average, every institution has to work for 160 to 200 days. There is a session of 9
months in a year.

There are about 25 students in a particular class. The teacher has to devote some time for
preparing the students for the lesson that is taught the next day. There is also arrangement
for providing help to backward children.

5.10.3 Teacher Education in India

The present set-up of the teacher's education in India is the contribution of the Britishers.
During the reign of East India Company the Educational Boards of Bombay, Madras and
Calcutta felt the needs of the teacher's education in India. They established a few
education centres for the teachers. Wood's Despatch of 1854 gave valuable suggestions
regarding the teachers' education. From 1859 to 1882, very little progress was made in
the field of teachers' education. In the year 1882, a regular system of teacher's education
was adopted. Since then great head-way has been this direction.

In Free India, Radhakrishnan Commission, Mudaliar Commission and Kothari

Commission gave valuable suggestions in the field of teachers' education. Since the down
of independence hundreds teacher's training schools and colleges have been set-up.

Types of Training Colleges

1. Pre-primary Training Schools: Persons having passed Upper Primary or High School
examination are trained in preprimary training schools. Considerable differences exist
between the methods and courses of study in pre-primary schools in different states of the
country. The teachers trained in these schools are given training to teach in nursery,
kindergarten or pre-primary schools. Baroda University has started a post graduate pre-
primary training diploma course to the teachers of these primary schools and inspectors. In
1953-54 the Government of India established the Indian Children Education Committee
for the supervision and development of pre-primary education. There are 3 Government
and 30 private institutions preparing teachers for pre-primary schools.

2. Primary Training (Normal) Schools: Even before independence basic education was
introduced in several primary schools in accordance with the scheme of Mahatma Gandhi.
At present the scheme is being actively implemented in almost all primary schools in the
country. Even then there are many primary schools in every state where some non-basic
primary schools still exist. As such, Normal Training Schools and training schools are of
two varieties. In these schools there are some teachers whose educational qualification is
either High School or Upper Primary only. Therefore two kinds of courses have been
provided for these two categories of teachers and after completing two years' training one
is awarded Junior Teacher's Certificate and the other Senior Teacher's Certificate. In the
course for Senior Teacher's Certificate more attention is comparatively paid on subjects
like algebra, geometry, school and class managements etc.

There is a lot of difference between the basic and the non- basic curricula. In the
basic course not only the social vocational and handicrafts are included in the subject but
particular stress is also laid on acquiring practical knowledge. The basic course may be sub-
divided into four categories, e.g. handicraft, education, social education and literacy
knowledge. Hindustani Tamili Sangh prepared the curriculum of the basic education. Some
States accepted it in to but some accepted it with some modifications. Handicraft has also
a place in the non-basic curriculum but this system is nearly extinct. Even as early as
1956-57 while there were 335 non-basic teachers' training centres the number of basic
teacher's training centres was as high as 581.

3. Junior Training Colleges: Mostly undergraduates work as teachers in the pre-secondary

schools or middle schools. Different types of arrangement have been made by different
states for their training. But generally the curriculum is almost the same; of course there
may exist some difference in standards. The curriculum is mostly divided into two parts,
theoretical work and principles of teaching. Jabalpur, Sagar and Nagpur Universities
provide one year's Diploma in Training Course (Dip. T. Course) and the Baroda, Gujarat,
Bombay, Karnataka and Poona Universities provide one year's T.D. Course. The States
Government have also established a number of Junior Training Colleges.

4. Training Colleges: With the expansion and development of basic education the
education departments of the various States established institutions for the training of
graduates as teachers and inspectors. Some universities have also made efforts in this
direction. Besides, the Education Department of the U.P. Government and the Universities
and Colleges at Aligarh, Allahabad, Lucknow, Gorakhpur, Delhi, Agra, Annamalai,
Baroda, Varanasi, Gauhati, Calcutta, Osmania, Jabalpur, Nagpur, Rajasthan, Bikram,
Patna and others have also made provisions for teachers' training. After training the
teachers for the High Schools are awarded degrees and diplomas like B.T., L.T.B. Ed. and
Dip. Ed; etc. The course of this training is generally of one year's duration. There is a
difference in the courses of basic colleges and other training colleges. Efforts are being
made to bring a uniformity in the course of colleges in different States. The provision to
earn the M.Ed. degree is also made by most of the universities in the country. This is one
years' advanced specialised course in education meant to produce specialists in the area of
education.
5. Specialist Training Centres: Provisions have been made for specialized training in various
subjects besides teachers' training centres. These special training centres or colleges
provide specialized training and research facilities in their subjects like music, physical
education, arts and crafts, domestic science and handicrafts, etc. There are some
institutions in which arrangements exist for training in various subjects. The Union
Government has established a physical training college at Gwalior in 1957 after Maharani
Laxmi Bai

6. Research Work: A two years' Ph.D. course has been provided for post-graduate
students, after he has passed M.A. (Educational) or M. Ed. The examinations of M.A.
(Education) and M. Ed. are almost equivalent in standard. The difference exists in name
only. For Ph.D. a major thesis has to be submitted. It is regretted that research work in the
sphere of basic education has not made any remarkable progress despite sufficient grants
given by the Government of India for this purpose

7. Training of Lady Teachers: Arrangement for the training of lady teachers exists along
with male teachers in most of the training schools, but there are some institutions which
are exclusively meant for training lady teachers.

Problems of Teachers' Training

1. Utilitarian Education Philosophy: The aim of our education is to effect all-round

development of individual's personality and make him a responsible and able citizen. It is
necessary to introduce revolutionary changes in the present educational system. The
education has to be made completely practical and utilitarian. This ideology had given
birth to basic education which is going to be introduced throughout the country. Hence,
efforts are being made to effect changes in the courses of training schools and basic
training schools are being established. Besides, efforts are also being made to introduce
changes in the

Semuladha Publications Comparative Education courses of B.T., B Ed. and M. Ed.,

examinations etc. with a view to bring in co-ordination between life and education.
2. Disparity Between the Basic and Previous Curriculum: The basic schools and the non-
basic ones-two kinds of training institutions in the country are imparting training in
different courses. In the courses of basic training school, special emphasis is laid on
practical work and social life and it has a rural bias. In non-basic training schools emphasis
is laid on principles relating to knowledge. It also lays emphasis on various teaching
methods and has urban bias.

According to the recommendations and suggestions of various committees and

commissions it is desirable to prepare a new curriculum incorporating the special features
of both the systems. Accordingly, in the university education and in the curriculum of
B.Ed. and B.T. etc. emphasis has been reduced on theory while more importance is
attached to practical side. The Viswa-Bharati and the Rajasthan Universities have patterned
their curriculum on this basis.

3. Narrowness of Training Courses: The courses of B.Ed. and B.T. were prescribed at a
time when the basic education had not come into existence. Importance was mainly
attached to theory of the knowledge of principles. Because of this reason the curricula of
these examinations need to be mended and widened. The period of training should be
increased in proportion to increase in the course. Although the B.Ed. course has been
enlarged and made comparatively more practical yet the period of training has not been
increased. The Secondary Education Committee recommended the extension of the
period of B.Ed. course to two years. But this had not so far become possible due to
education expansion policy of the government.

Under the present circumstances some success may be achieved by implementing the three
years' degree course. A three years' B.T. (Education) course may be provided. For
training practical teaching rinse, the schools in rural areas should be selected or the
students be kept under the supervision of trained teachers of rural schools for some time
where besides gaining teaching experience the students may also gain a practical knowledge
of preparing the progress-report and the audio-visual equipment for boys They should get
an opportunity to participate in rural society. In this way the training courses may be
enlarged and made more utilitarian.
The above problems do not relate to higher secondary schools only. The Junior high
schools and primary teachers, too, do not get enough training, because the courses at
normal schools last only for about a year or so. It is necessary for the teachers of junior
high schools that they should acquire specialized training in some sphere of education.
Besides, some people think that the training period of these teachers should also be
extended to two years' duration.

4. Untrained Teachers in Colleges and Universities: The teachers taking graduate and post-
graduate classes in universities and colleges are mostly untrained. They are experts in their
subjects yet. There may be deficiency in the matter of method of teaching. Therefore the
teachers in universities and colleges should know the technique of giving lectures,
explaining the subject and inspiring students towards the acquisition of new knowledge.
Some sort of training is also necessary for them.

5. Narrowness of Post-Graduate Training Course: The main post-graduate course in

education is the M.Ed. Its aim is to provide with specialized knowledge of education for
becoming education administrators, teachers for training colleges and teachers of higher
standard. But due to narrowness of the course the desired results are not achieved and the
present needs are not being fulfilled. As such, the M.Ed. course should not remain an
extension of B.Ed, but instead be divided into three parts compulsory, optional and oral.
Under each of them it is necessary to give detailed instructions in the following subjects:

i) Compulsory: Educational statistics, research, knowledge of elements of educations,

educational psychology, present system of education and courses in foreign countries and
a comparative study of rules regarding educational administration.

ii) Optional: Specialized knowledge in a particular branch of education.

iii) Oral: Determining the success in the above subjects through written examinations alone
is not enough. There should be a viva vice test also.

6. Research: The Secondary Education Commission recommended that the training

institutions should also be charged with the responsibility of carrying on research work
relating to education. The assistance of student-teachers and teachers of secondary schools
may be taken in research work relating to elements of education. There is much need of
research on social education, practical work for prescribing courses of study, child
psychology, teaching methods, intelligence, test, organizing examination, work load on
teachers, vocational guidance and conditions of teachers etc. In order to avoid unnecessary
duplication, the Radhakrishnan Commission recommended the organisation of research
work on an all India basis.

7. Lack of Uniformity in Training Institutions, Their Diplomas and Certificates: Uniformity

in the standard of the curricula of training institutions is necessary for the development
and progress of training. The duration of training should be the same and the certificates
awarded by them, too, should have equal value and recognition. It is also necessary to
remove disparity in the standards of different institution. In the absence of parity the
expected enthusiasm is not witnessed among the teachers. Sometimes even the institutions
of the education department or universities of the same State show disparity in the
standard of teachers training classes. The Secondary Education Commission has
recommended that post-graduate training and undergraduate training should be controlled
by universities and state institutions, respectively. In order to maintain a co- ordination in
both the standards, it is also desirable that a close contact is maintained between the two
departments.

RabindraNath Tagore said, "The teacher can never truly teach, unless he is still learning
himself. A lamp can never light another lamp unless it continues to burn its own flame."
The Report of University Education Commission appointed by the Government of India
contains the following passage: "It is extraordinary that our school teachers learn all of
whatever subject they teach before reaching the age of twenty-four or twenty-five and
then all their further education is left to experience which in most cases is another name
for stagnation. We must realize that experience needs to be supplemented by experiment
before reaching its fullness and that a teacher, to keep alive and fresh, should become a
learner from time-to time. Constant outpouring needs constant in-taking; practice must be
reinforced by theory and the old must be constantly tested by the new."

QUALITY IMPROVEMENT APPROACHES IN PRIMARY EDUCATION

 Primary education is the largest subsidiary of any education system and offers a
unique opportunity for all to contribute to the transformation of communities through the
education of young people from the World Education Conference held in 1990, Thailand,
Jomdian and elementary education enrollment. Fully expanded. However, the quality of
primary education has not kept pace with the expansion of student enrollment. Therefore,
global quality primary education continues to be a global concern and was high on the
agenda for the April 2000 World Education Forum in Docker, Senegal. The resulting
Dakar Framework for Action, Item 7 (ii) states, "By 2015, all children, with special
emphasis on women and children in difficult situations, will have access to a good quality
primary education and compulsory education." The truth is that more than 100 million
children are out of school and among those in school, a significant proportion of them
either do not complete the cycle or drop out permanently without literacy and numbers.
Elementary education is therefore a priority for all. Early childhood education in India is
subject to two serious but opposite shortcomings. On the one hand, millions of young
children in low-income groups, especially rural and girls, make up almost 40% of first-
graders who do not finish primary school. Poorly qualified teachers, high student ratio,
inadequate teaching materials and out-of-mode teaching methods produce low quality
education, which often does not provide little or no real learning. It is not uncommon for
students completing 6 years of primary schooling in rural government schools to lack even
basic reading and writing skills. At the other end of the social and educational spectrum,
children in urban schools, especially middle and upper class children in private schools, are
under intense competitive pressure from an early age to acquire basic language skills and
memorize a wide range of information. Must qualify for admission to the best schools.
Parents and teachers put intense pressure on young children to acquire academic skills, to
give children independence and to encourage them to learn as a result of their innate
curiosity, playfulness and curiosity for experimentation. The Indian education system seeks
to globalize primary education while maintaining a certain standard of educational
experience. The current paper outlines approaches to improving quality and standard in
education.
 Every human being should have the opportunity to make a better life for
themselves. Unfortunately, too many children in the world today grow up without this
chance, because they are denied their basic right to even attend primary school, A
sustainable end to world poverty as we know it, as well as the path to peace and security,
requires that citizens in every country are empowered to make positive choices and
provide for themselves and their families. Today's education system does not deliver
quality education. Education should be able to bring out the best qualities in a person
above all the right to discern and a sense of curiosity which would mould him into an
empowered individual to take on the complexities of life, AzimPremji said (Wipro
Chairman).

The World Education Forum (2000) agreed on six Educations for All (EFA) goals.
The sixth goal concerned Education Quality, ....improving all aspects of the quality of
education and ensuring excellence of all so that recognized and measurable learning
outcomes are achieved by all, especially in literacy, numeracy and essential life skills".

The role of education in facilitating social and economic progress is well recognized.
It opens up opportunities leading to both individual and group entitlements. Education in
its broadest sense of development of youth is the most crucial input for empowering
people with skills and knowledge and giving them access to productive employment in
future. Improvements in education are not only expected to enhance efficiency but also
augment the overall quality of life. The 11th plan places the highest priority on education
as a central instrument for achieving rapid and inclusive growth. It presents a
comprehensive strategy for strengthening the education sector covering all segments of the
education pyramid.

Primary education covering reading, writing and arithmetic is considered as a crucial

aspect of quality of life. Elementary education, under the Indian constitution, is recognized
as a fundamental right of individuals. Thus it is imperative to ensure that every individual
in the country is literate with primary education. The planning commission of India in its
Approach Paper for the 11th Plan (2006) explicitly states, "Large parts of our population
are still to experience a decisive improvement in their standard of living. The percentage of
the population below the poverty line is declining, but only at a modest pace. Far too
many people still lack access to basic services such as health, education, clean drinking
water and sanitation facilities without which they cannot be empowered to claim their
share in the benefits of growth". It also states that, "The provision of good quality
education is most important equalizer in society and it is time we launched a major effort
in this area".

Interpreting 'Quality' in Education-

The quality of education is concerned with a child's experience of education-an-

amalgamation of the school, teachers, teaching as well as the nature of infrastructure and
facilities. It is difficult to arrive at a universally acceptable articulation of what quality in
education means. At the same, such articulation is critical since it plays an important role
in shaping the practice of education. The purpose of universalizing elementary education is
to bring to every child at a bare minimum, the ability to participate in social, political and
economic processes. It has often been possible to bring about such quality in education at
a small scale with intensive utilization of resources. However, the provision/distribution of
quality education by a large-scale system is a daunting challenge.

"Quality' as a term refers to 'how well' certain objects and processes achieve their
given aims. It is validating as well as comparative. Its most immediate connotation is
'better', 'Better' as differentiated from 'good' and implying the existence of at least two
objects or processes, between which a comparison across a decided set of parameters can
be established. Understanding quality in education requires an appreciation of the aims of
education; the social and philosophical roots of these aims as well as determining the
nature of the organization and system that is best oriented to achieve them. Educational
quality concerns typically encompass topics such as teacher-training, textbooks and
materials, evaluation and physical infrastructure especially school buildings,

To define quality in the field of education, it may be instructive to examine the more
widely practiced usage of quality and explore its appropriateness or applicability for
education. Quality is contextual. It is very difficult to give a comprehensive definition of
quality. However, the quest for quality has been the major concern of the entire human
civilization. Quality is not an act, it is a habit. It generally signifies the degree of
excellence.

Concept of Quality in Primary Education-

Defining the concept of quality is a little like trying to define 'motherhood' - it is

clearly a 'good thing' but elusive and likely to be dependent on the perspective of the
person attempting the definition. For many parents, for example, it may well relate to the
learning outcomes, particularly end of cycle examination results of their respective child;
for the school manager or inspector quality may well embrace improved general standards
of reading or handwriting or mathematics; for the classroom teacher a definition of quality
linking closely to improved conditions of service.

Quality is therefore directly related to what occurs in two educational contexts; firstly
in the more focused environment of the classroom; secondly in the wider context of the
school system and social context in which the classroom is embedded Both environments
have a reciprocal relationship with each other. The definition of the quality of primary
education which focused largely on the former, more focused context of the classroom.
Quality, means-

❖ Relevance to context, to needs (both 'needs now' and ' needs later') and to
humanity
❖ Efficiency in setting standards, in meeting standards set and in improving standards;
❖ And as something special... which goes beyond normal expectations of a school.

A relevant, efficient and special education must, in other words, be available to all
children irrespective of gender, ability or wealth.

Drawbacks of Primary Education-

No stimulation at pre-primary age group surfaced as an important barrier to

education. Although the poor economic background is the most important concern for
primary education, yet lecture mode in the multi-grade class and the gaps in the planned
and the realized goals of education also act as major deterrents for the families, which are
poor and face the dilemma of sending their children to school or to make them earn a
livelihood for the families. Besides, the schools are not efficient enough to realize the basic
goals of primary education like functional/numerical literacy. Increase in drop-out rates
can also be attributed to the examination system which lays a lot of emphasis on
memorization, resulting in poor self-confidence.

To iron out the immediate problems faced in the implementation of primary education
goals, some drawbacks of primary education are-

1. Inadequate/absence of access to a comparable quality of education

2. Overcrowding in the existing government school

3. Mismatches between the demand and supply of schooling facility

4. Dilapidated condition of classrooms, particularly those running in rented building

5. Unsatisfactory teaching-learning process

6. Lack of sanitation and water facilities in old school buildings

7. Excessive reliance on centrally sponsored schemes has also created its own problems.
The states seldom initiate programmes of educational development at their own initiatives
and wait for central government initiatives

Quality Improvement Approach

1) Quality Infrastructure- According to finance minister, this is the most important equity
issue considering that almost 85% of the children in our country are in government school
and they deserve much better school. It is not acceptable that these children who don't
have a choice are made to learn in dilapidated, leaky room sitting on the floor. In many
school the current quality of access doesn't meet the government's own norms provided
for in the Education Bill. Another point regarding quality of education in primary school is
that researcher found most of the government primary school having the system of the
multiple classes being conducted simultaneously in the same room. This implies that
students of more than one standard are made to sit in a combined class taken by a single
teacher due to insufficient number of classrooms and/or teacher

2) The Attitude of the Teacher- The most important aspect of the approach is the attitude
of the teacher, which should be that learning is a form of play which fosters the
blossoming of the child's nature development. Learning should and can be made
interesting, enjoyable and fu

3) Teaching Materials- A large portion of the teaching materials are produced at the
school by the teachers, who customize their teaching aids suit the interests and knowledge
levels of student

4) Evaluating the Status of Learning- The current status of the learning assessment was
quite revealing. Surprisingly, 50% of the children in any village could not read fluently
and 70% of the children attending school didn't understand the basic concepts of
numbers and arithmetic. To tackle these underachievement patterns, simplifying the
evaluation becomes a natural choice. Participation of the community must be sought to
improve the current education scenario in general and primary education, in particular.

5) Teacher Pupil Ratio- Among the most crying needs for the development of the country
is the quality of education. Several surveys, researches and reports have established the
current poor quality beyond doubt. In my view, though severs factors influence quality is
the teacher-pupil ratio. The current national average is 1:40. Elementary Education
Budgets has suggested that the quality is probably the best when the ratio is between 1:25
to 1:35.

6) Demonstrating the Change- To demonstrate a change requires multi-pronged and

strategic reforms in teaching. Focus on specific goals or skills, assessing what the children
know, designing activities specific to the child's level, recognizing small improvements and
using all these to change perceptions of children's activities, were discussed as change
factors.

7) Mid-Day Meal Quality-The decision to provide mid-day meal to all children in

elementary schools was the best thing to happen and has positively impacted health,
attendance and reduction in drop-out rates. However, the current budget provision of
approximately Rs.1.80 to 2.50 per meal in various states is unable to ensure achievement
of the nutrition norms of the government itself. Finance minister estimate is that a decent,
nutritious meal would cost at least of Rs.5.00. The government has to, therefore, double
its current budget to bridge the gap considering that in many cases that is the only decent
meal the child has. This will go a long way in making of a healthy educated nation.

8) The Act of Teaching- The act of teaching consists primarily of presenting sensory
images, objects and information to the child in a pleasant and interesting manner and
permitting the child to observe and inquire about the subject, without compelling the child
to memorize. Coloured flash cards with large images are utilized as convenient, low cost
teaching aids.

9) Curriculum Reviewed & Reformed- There is a clear need for relevant curricula in order
to provide quality education, Curricula must be regularly reviewed and reformed to reflect
these changes and to adequately prepare pupils to respond to their environment and its
challenges.

NEW Approaches to Active Pedagogical Learning

New approaches to active pedagogical learning and innovative modalities need to

be developed to encourage teachers to change from using a traditional lecture approach to
a more interactive style of teaching. Pedagogical techniques should include participatory
and gender-sensitive teaching and learning methods and strategies that foster critical
thinking and problem-solving skills. They should instill in pupils willingness and motivation
to continue learning beyond the classroom.

➢ Rapid Acquisition of Basic Math Skills- Rapid acquisition of basic math skills is
achieved through the use of number line method which enables the child to
physically experiment and act out differently combinations of addition and
subtraction.
➢ Story Telling- Story telling is used to make learning fun and to communicate basic
values of goodness, beauty, harmony, responsibility and right conduct. Information
 on people and living things, places, history, geography and other cultures are
presented to the child in the form of stories, pictorial information and explanations
combined together to present facts in a living integrated context rather than as a
series of separate divorced subjects.
➢ Evaluation Methodologies- As an answer to the various problems posed by current
scenario(such as meaningless aggregation of skills etc.), evaluation methodologies
can be evolved in the direction of skill by skill testing, competing with oneself rather
than others, and providing adequate opportunities to better one's performance.

The concern for quality of education has been voiced from time to time in India. The
National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986 and the revised NPE, 1992 again highlighted
the urgency to address the quality concerns on priority basis. Quality can't improve by
itself. It requires multi-pronged and strategic reforms in teacher-training; improvements in
the facilities and infrastructure in schools; teacher's motivation; and a change in the style
of teaching to make it attractive to the students. The policy also recommended that a
system of continuous and comprehensive evaluation would be established. Besides the state
level schemes to improve access and quality of education, a number of centrally sponsored
schemes and externally funded projects, undertaken in the recent years, are experimenting
with various models of bringing about increased coverage, retention and improvements in
quality.