Chief Reader Report on Student Responses:

2021 AP® Chemistry Free-Response Questions

• Number of Students Scored 135,997

• Number of Readers 413
• Score Distribution Exam Score N %At
5 15,195 11.2
4 22,355 16.4
3 32,244 23.7
2 33,648 24.7
1 32,555 23.9
• Global Mean 2.66

®
The following comments on the 2021 free-response questions for AP Chemistry were written by the Chief
Reader, Paul Bonvallet, The College of Wooster. They give an overview of each free-response question and
of how students performed on the question, including typical student errors. General comments regarding
the skills and content that students frequently have the most problems with are included. Some
suggestions for improving student preparation in these areas are also provided. Teachers are encouraged
to attend a College Board workshop to learn strategies for improving student performance in specific areas.

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 Question #1 Task: Analysis of methanoic acid Topics: Equilibrium, Lewis structure, gas
laws
Max. Points: 10 Mean Score: 3.93

What were the responses to this question expected to demonstrate?

Question 1 presents a suite of questions on the reactions and structure of methanoic acid, HCOOH. Part (a) asks the student
to write the equilibrium constant expression for the acid ionization reaction of HCOOH. This question addresses Learning
Objective SAP-9.C and Science Practice 5.B from the AP Chemistry Course and Exam Description. The Ka expression is used
in part (b) to calculate the pH of a solution of HCOOH of known concentration. Two points are possible: one for determining
the concentration of H3O+ (SAP-9.C, 5.A) and one for the correct pH (SAP-9.C, 5.F). Part (c) then asks for a drawing of the
complete Lewis diagram for HCOOH (SAP-4.A, 3.B).

Methanoic acid reacts with hydrazine (H2NNH2) in an acid-base reaction that the student must describe with a net ionic
equation in part (d)(i) (TRA-1.B, 5.E). In part (d)(ii), the student determines whether the resulting solution is acidic, basic, or
neutral and explains why (SAP-9.D, 6.D).

Methanoic acid also undergoes a decomposition reaction in the presence of a catalyst. In part (e), the student must determine,
with evidence, if it is a redox reaction (TRA-2.A, 6.D). The H2(g) and CO2(g) products increase the total pressure inside the
reaction vessel, as shown in a graph. The student needs to calculate the total number of moles of CO2 produced in the
reaction in part (f). This part is worth two points: one for the correct pressure of CO2 (SPQ-4.A, 5.F), and one for the correct
number of moles of CO2 (SAP-7.A, 5.F). As a follow-up, part (g) asks about how (if at all) the amount of catalyst changes as
the reaction proceeds (ENE-1.A, 1.B).

How well did the responses address the course content related to this question? How well did the responses
integrate the skills required on this question?

The mean score for Question 1 was 3.9 out of a possible 10 points, with a standard deviation of 2.6 points. The distribution of
scores on this question is shown below. Question 1 had the lowest average among the three long (10-point) free-response
questions. Credit was earned most often on parts (a), (b), (c), and (f), while parts (d) and (g) were the most challenging.

Part (a) was an accessible entry point for most students. The “Ka =” component was required as part of a complete
mathematical expression. The algebraic rearrangement and substitution on part (b) also generally went well. Responses that
earned less than full credit contained either computational errors (omitting either the square root operation or the division by
0.25) or conceptual errors (treating HCOOH as a strong acid or calculating pH from the natural log of [H3O+]). Some students
interpreted the formula HCOOH as a hydroxide. In part (c) students were often successful in drawing the correct Lewis
structure for HCOOH, although some used an incorrect number of valence electrons.
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Responses to part (d)(i) contained a variety of errors. Students often treated the weak acid-weak base neutralization reaction
as something other than a proton transfer process, while others used H2O, H+, or OH− as reactants. Part (d)(ii) was the lowest-
scoring part of Question 1. A common error was treating H2NNH2 as a weak acid rather than a weak base. There were also
many unsuccessful attempts at calculating the exact numerical pH of the solution with the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation
and other incorrect methods.

Part (e) was surprisingly challenging for students. Some interpreted the formula HCOOH as a peroxide. Many did not identify
the process as redox, and those who did either assigned oxidation numbers incorrectly or did not assign them at all. Claims
about hydrogen being reduced or carbon being oxidized had to be supported by evidence to receive credit. In part (f), most
responses earned one out of the two points possible. Very few recognized that the partial pressure of CO2 was half the total
pressure inside the vessel, although most correctly used the ideal gas law to convert a partial pressure to a number of moles.
Some students struggled with selecting the appropriate version of the gas constant R and/or converting between Celsius and
Kelvin temperatures correctly. In part (g), most responses correctly stated that the amount of catalyst in the overall reaction
remains the same. The best explanations were correct, clear, and concise. Those that were ambiguous or only discussed
activation energy did not earn credit.

What common student misconceptions or gaps in knowledge were seen in the responses to this question?

Common Misconceptions/Knowledge Gaps Responses that Demonstrate Understanding

Part (a):

• Including H2O in the expression: [H3O+ ][HCOO− ]

Ka =
[HCOOH]
[H3O+] [HCOO−]
Ka =
[HCOOH] [H2O] Note: H+ may be used interchangeably with H3O+.

[H3O] [HCOO]
• Missing ionic charges: Ka =
[HCOOH]

• Writing the inverted expression:

[HCOOH]
Ka =
[H3O+] [HCOO−]

• Omitting “Ka =” at the beginning of the expression

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Part (b):

• Dividing, rather than multiplying, the Ka by 0.25: → H O+ + HCOO–

HCOOH + H2O ← 3
I 0.25 0 0
1.8 × 10−4 2 C –x +x +x
= x ⇒ x = 2.7 × 10−2
0.25 E 0.25 – x x x

pH = −log (2.7 × 10−2) = 1.57 x

2
−4
Let [H3O+ ] = x, then 1.8 × 10 =
• Omitting the factor of 0.25: (0.25 − x )

1.8 × 10−4 = x2 ⇒ x = 1.3 × 10−2 x

2

Assume x << 0.25, then 1.8 × 10−4 = ⇒

−2 0.25
pH = −log (1.3 × 10 ) = 1.87 x = 0.0067 M
• Omitting the exponent: +
x pH =
− log[H3O ] =
− log(0.0067) =
2.17
1.8 × 10−4 = ⇒ x = 4.5 × 10−5
0.25
pH = −log (4.5 × 10−5) = 4.35

• Omitting the square root operation:

x2
1.8 x 10−4 = ⇒ x = 4.5 × 10−5
0.25
pH = −log (4.5 × 10−5) = 4.35

• Treating HCOOH as a strong acid:

pH = −log(0.25) = 0.60

• Treating HCOOH as a strong base:

pOH = −log(0.25) = 0.60
pH = 14 – pOH = 13.40

• Mis-applying the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation:

0.25
pH = −log (1.8 × 10−4) + log = 3.74
0.25

• Using natural log rather than log10 to relate pH to [H3O+]:

pH = −ln(0.0067) = 5.00

Part (c):

• Including the correct number of valence electrons, but

violating the octet rule:

• Including too many or too few valence electrons, e.g.,:

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Part (d)(i):

Omitting ionic charges: H2NNH2 (aq ) + HCOOH(aq ) → H2NNH3 (aq ) + HCOO (aq )
−
•
+

H2NNH2 + HCOOH → H2NNH3 + HCOO

• Using H+ or OH− as a reactant:

H+ + H2NNH2 →H2NNH3+ or
OH− + HCOOH → H2O + HCOO−

Part (d)(ii):

• Treating HCOOH and H2NNH2 both as weak acids Acidic.The Ka of H2NNH3+ is greater than the Kb of
HCOO−, so the production of H3O+(aq) occurs to a greater
• Comparing the magnitude of 1.8 × 10−4 vs. 1.3 × 10−6 extent than the production of OH−(aq).
without providing any further explanation

• Claiming that [H3O+] > [OH−], without any explanation

Part (e):

• Claiming that decomposition reactions are always redox • Yes. The oxidation number of hydrogen changes from
+1 in HCOOH to zero in H2.
• Asserting, without evidence, that certain atoms are
reduced or oxidized or

• Assigning incorrect oxidation numbers to one or more • Yes. The oxidation number of carbon changes from +2
atoms in HCOOH to +4 in CO2.

Part (f):

• Using 24 atm, rather than 12 atm, as the partial pressure 24 atm total × 1 atm CO2 / 2 atm of product = 12 atm
of CO2 CO2

• Using R = 8.314 J mol−1 K−1 or R = 62.36 L torr mol−1 PV = nRT

K−1
PV (12 atm)(4.3 L)
• Converting °C to Kelvins incorrectly, or not at all n
= = = 2.1 mol CO2
RT (0.08206 L atm mol K )(298 K)
−1 −1

• Using the standard molar volume of 22.4 L mol−1

Part (g):

• Discussing the effect of a catalyst on the rate of reaction, It would remain the same. In a catalyzed reaction the net
rather than focusing on the conservation of the material amount of catalyst is constant.

• Claiming incorrectly that the catalyst “is not involved in

the reaction” or “does not react”

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Based on your experience at the AP® Reading with student responses, what advice would you offer teachers to
help them improve the student performance on the exam?

1. Emphasize acid-base chemistry as a proton transfer process in which the ionic charges of species also changes.
2. Highlight the various ways of describing organic acids (Lewis structure and formula units CO2H or COOH). Some
students interpreted the formula HCOOH as a peroxide or a hydroxide compound.
3. Require students to use units in all of their intermediate calculations, to avoid simple errors such as using the
incorrect version of the gas constant R or using degrees Celsius instead of Kelvins.
4. Practice drawing Lewis structures that are clear and easy to understand. Avoid depicting a bond as both a line and
a pair of electrons simultaneously (·−· or ÷). Including the correct number of valence electrons is essential.
5. Demonstrate how to use the values of Ka and Kb to (a) evaluate whether a chemical species will act as an acid or as
a base in aqueous solution and (b) predict the predominant direction of reaction for weak acid-weak base
neutralization reactions.
6. Strengthen students’ skills in writing clear answers that include relevant details. Responses like “The reaction is
redox because oxidation numbers change” or “The catalyst speeds up the reaction” did not receive credit.

What resources would you recommend to teachers to better prepare their students for the content and skill(s)
required on this question?

• Teachers can use AP Classroom to direct students to the AP Daily videos on Topics 2.5, 4.2, 4.5, 4.7, 2.5, 3.4, 5.11,
8.3, and 8.4.
• Teachers can use AP Classroom to direct students to the Unit 5 Faculty Lecture that discusses the role of catalysis
in biological reactions.
• To help students with improving the clarity and specificity of their written responses, teachers can use the “Write
This, Not That—Updated 2019” compiled by Nora Walsh, available in the Resources Library of the Online Teacher
Community.
• Teachers can assign topic questions and/or personal progress checks in AP Classroom to monitor student
progress and identify areas for additional instruction or content and skill development.

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 Question #2 Task: Analysis of Si and its Topics: Atomic structure and
compounds thermodynamics
Max. Points: 10 Mean Score: 4.66

What were the responses to this question expected to demonstrate?

Question 2 deals with the atomic structure of silicon and the properties of silicon-containing compounds. In part (a)(i), the
student is asked to interpret a mass spectrum to determine the number of subatomic particles in the most abundant isotope
of Si (SPQ-1.B, 5.D). Part (a)(ii) asks for the ground-state electron configuration of Si (SAP-1.A, 3.B). In part (b), the student
must use principles of interparticle forces to explain the relative boiling points of SiH4 vs. SiO2 (SAP-5.B, 6.E).

Part (c) asks for the balanced chemical equation that describes the decomposition of SiH4 into elemental silicon and
hydrogen gas (TRA-1.B, 5.E). These two products have different absolute molar entropies, as shown in a data table, and the
student is asked to explain why S° of solid Si is less than that of H2 gas (ENE-4.A, 6.E). The absolute entropies are used in
part (e) to calculate the standard entropy change of the reaction (ENE-4.B, 5.F). Part (f) then asks for an explanation for why
the reaction occurs only at high temperatures (ENE-4.D, 4.A), despite being thermodynamically favorable at all temperatures.

Part (g) shows an incomplete photoelectron spectrum of silicon, which must be completed by drawing the missing peak
corresponding to the electrons in the 3p subshell (SAP-1.B, 3.A). Part (h) asks the student to compare the first ionization
energies of Si and Ge using principles of atomic structure (SAP-2.A, 6.C). Finally, part (i) involves a calculation of the energy
of a single photon of a given wavelength (SAP-8.B, 5.F).

How well did the responses address the course content related to this question? How well did the responses
integrate the skills required on this question?

The mean score for Question 2 was 4.7 out of a possible 10 points, with a standard deviation of 2.3 points. The distribution of
scores on this question is shown below. Question 2 had the highest average among the three long (10-point) free-response
questions. Most responses earned the point in parts (a)(i) and (a)(ii), reflecting a strong understanding of atomic composition
and electron configuration.

Part (b) was the most challenging part of Question 2. Students often struggled to identify the predominant interparticle forces
in the two substances. Many responses invoked hydrogen bonding in SiH4 or dipole-dipole forces in SiO2, while others
focused on the relative polarizability (size / number of electrons) of the SiH4 vs. SiO2 formula unit. Very few recognized SiO2
as a network covalent solid.

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A majority of responses to part (c) received credit for providing the correct balanced equation for the decomposition of SiH4.
The most common error was writing an unbalanced equation. Part (d) was a difficult question. Most responses failed to earn
the point because they gave an ambiguous rationale or did not provide one at all. Many students correctly claimed that gases
have higher entropy than solids but simply stopped at that assertion without providing any further explanation. Comparative
terms like “more random,” “more chaotic,” and “more disorganized” were common, although in a few impressive cases
entropy was defined as a measure of the dispersion of matter or number of available microstates. The responses to part (e)
had mixed success. Most correctly used the S° values to calculate ∆S°, but many failed to use the stoichiometric coefficient of
H2 from the balanced chemical equation in part (c). In part (f), many responses focused entirely on the phrase “the reaction
occurs only at high temperatures” and tried to build an argument based upon the algebraic sign and relative magnitudes of
∆H° and ∆S°. They overlooked the first part of the prompt indicating that the reaction is thermodynamically favorable at all
temperatures. Relatively few students answered correctly in terms of activation energy or kinetic control.

Most students were successful in drawing a peak with the correct location and height in the photoelectron spectrum in part
(g), representing both the number and appropriate shell/subshell of 3p electrons. Part (h) was much more challenging. Most
students cited a periodic trend correctly but simply stopped at that point. A complete explanation based upon principles of
atomic structure (orbital shell occupancy and Coulombic attraction) was required to receive credit. Most responses to part (i)
had the correct setup, with the majority earning credit. The correct scientific notation mantissa of 4.97 was almost always
present, but the power of 10 varied widely, suggesting that students had difficulty keying in and manipulating exponents
with their calculators.

What common student misconceptions or gaps in knowledge were seen in the responses to this question?

Common Misconceptions/Knowledge Gaps Responses that Demonstrate Understanding

Part (a)(i):

• Providing the number 14 by itself, rather than explicitly 14 protons and 14 neutrons
stating 14 protons and 14 neutrons

• Using 28, the atomic mass

• Using 92, the percent abundance of 28Si

Part (a)(ii):

• Incomplete labeling of every shell or subshell, e.g.: • 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2 or 1s2 2s2p6 3s2p2
or

• [Ne] 3s2 3p2

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Part (b):

• Failing to recognize SiO2 as a network covalent SiH4 is composed of molecules, for which the only
compound: intermolecular forces are London dispersion forces. SiO2 is
a network covalent compound with covalent bonds
o “SiO2 has stronger London dispersion forces than SiH4 between silicon and oxygen atoms. London dispersion
because SiO2 is more polarizable / has more electrons / forces are much weaker than covalent bonds, so SiH4 boils
is larger.” at a much lower temperature than SiO2.

o “SiO2 has dipole-dipole forces.”

o “SiO2 is ionic.”

• Claiming that SiH4 has hydrogen bonding.

• Comparing the bond dissociation energy of the Si—H

bond in SiH4 to that of the Si=O bond in SiO2.

Part (c):

• Neglecting to balance the equation: SiH4(g) → Si(s) + 2 H2(g)

SiH4 → Si + H2

Part (d):

• Restating the prompt as the only form of explanation: The H2(g) molecules are more highly dispersed than the
“The entropy of the gas is greater than the entropy of the Si(s) atoms and, therefore, have a higher absolute molar
solid.” entropy. Silicon is a solid; therefore, its atoms are in fixed
positions, are less dispersed, and have a lower absolute
• Providing an incomplete explanation: molar entropy.
“gases occupy a greater volume than solids” or
“gases have higher entropy than solids.”

Part (e):

• Missing the stoichiometric coefficient on H2: ∆S rxn =


(18 + 2(131)) − 205 =
+75 J/(mol rxn ⋅ K)
∆S° = (18 + 131) – 205 = −56 J/(molrxn·K)

• Reversing the sign or order of products and reactants:

∆S° = 205 − (18 + 2(131)) = −75 J/(molrxn·K)

Part (f):

• Focusing on thermodynamics rather than kinetics: High temperature is required for the reactant particles to
have sufficient thermal energy to overcome the activation
o “Because ∆S is positive in part (e), ∆H must be positive, energy of the reaction.
so ∆G is negative only at high temperatures.”

o “Breaking bonds is an endothermic process.”

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 • Defining kinetics or kinetic molecular theory, without any
explicit or implicit mention of activation energy

Part (g):

• Drawing a peak that has a relative height of six electrons

(showing a completely-filled 3p subshell rather than the
partially-filled 3p subshell found in an atom of Si)

Part (h):

• Citing a periodic trend without providing an explanation The valence electrons of a Ge atom occupy a higher shell
that uses principles of atomic structure: (n = 4) than those of a Si atom (n = 3), so the average
distance between the nucleus and the valence electrons is
o Ge is larger than Si. greater in Ge than in Si. This greater separation results in
weaker Coulombic attractions between the Ge nucleus and
o Ge has more orbitals than Si. its valence electrons, making them less tightly bound and,
therefore, easier to remove compared to those in Si.
o Ge is less electronegative than Si.

o Ge has more shielding/lesser effective nuclear charge than

Si.

o Ge is below Si in the periodic table.

Part (i):

• Substituting wavelength, instead of frequency, into the  c =  2.998 × 108 m s −1 

hν =
E= h
−34
equation for photon energy:  6.626 × 10 J ⋅ s  4.00 × 10−7 m 
λ  
E = hν = (6.626 × 10−34 J·s) (4.00 × 10−7 m) = E 4.97 × 10
=
−19
J
2.65 × 10−40 J

• Providing the incorrect exponent in the answer:

4.97 × 10−n J (where n is an integer other than 19)

Based on your experience at the AP® Reading with student responses, what advice would you offer teachers to
help them improve the student performance on the exam?

1. Compare and contrast boiling (disruption of intermolecular attractions) versus decomposition (breaking of
covalent bonds). Illustrate the differences with multiple representations such as pictures and chemical equations.
2. Encourage students to use the AP curriculum definition of entropy (dispersion of energy or matter) rather than
colloquial ones like “disorder” or “chaos” to deepen their understanding.
3. Insist that students provide complete explanations that follow the claim / evidence / reasoning model. Reciting a
fact, rule, or trend by itself is an incomplete explanation.
4. Emphasize the foundational reasoning (atomic structure, Coulomb’s law) that underpins periodic trends.

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What resources would you recommend to teachers to better prepare their students for the content and skill(s)
required on this question?

• Teachers can use AP Classroom to direct students to the AP Daily videos on Topics 1.5, 1.8, 3.1, 3.2, 3.12, 9.1, 9.2,
and 9.4.
• Teachers can use AP Classroom to direct students to Review Session 4: Examining Coulomb’s Law, Periodicity,
and Intermolecular Forces.
• Teachers can use the self-paced webinar, Exploring Atomic Structure Using Photoelectron Spectroscopy (PES)
Data, available on AP Central, for strategies on how to interpret and reason with PES data and atomic structure.
• Teachers can refer to the article “Disorder in Thermodynamic Entropy” by Frank L. Lambert and the discussion on
APTeach.org on Explaining Entropy Changes on the Particle Level for helping students use appropriate
terminology and explanations for concepts related to entropy.
• To help students with the claim / evidence / reasoning (CER) model and argumentation skills in chemistry,
teachers can access the article on ChemEd X by Ben Meacham.
• Teachers can assign topic questions and/or personal progress checks in AP Classroom to monitor student
progress and identify areas for additional instruction or content and skill development.

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 Question #3 Task: Determine molar concentration Topics: Stoichiometry, laboratory
of CuSO4 technique, Beer-Lambert law
Max. Points: 10 Mean Score: 4.44

What were the responses to this question expected to demonstrate?

Question 3 illustrates two different methods for determining the concentration of CuSO4 in an aqueous solution: gravimetric
analysis and spectrophotometry. The student begins in part (a) by providing the net ionic equation for the precipitation of
BaSO4 (TRA-1.B, 5.E) followed by calculating the number of moles of precipitate that formed, based upon a data table. Part
(b) is worth two points: the first for calculating the mass of the precipitate (SPQ-1.A, 5.F) and the second for calculating the
number of moles of BaSO4 (SPQ-4.A, 5.F). This information is used in part (c) to calculate the molarity of the original CuSO4
solution (SPQ-3.A, 5.F).

The spectrophotometry experiment begins with the creation of a calibration curve using samples of CuSO4(aq) of known
concentration that are created by diluting a stock solution. The volume of stock solution required to reach a target volume
and concentration is calculated in part (d) (SPQ-3.A, 5.F), and then in part (e) the student writes a brief experimental
procedure for preparing that solution (two points; both SPQ-3.A, 2.C). The calibration curve is shown in a graph and then
used in part (f) to determine the concentration of a solution of CuSO4 based upon its absorbance (SAP-8.C, 5.D). Part (g) is a
two-point question about the effect of residual water inside the cuvette; the first point is awarded for predicting that the
measured concentration will be less than the actual concentration (SAP-8.C, 6.A) and the second point is for a valid
justification (SAP-8.C, 6.G).

How well did the responses address the course content related to this question? How well did the responses
integrate the skills required on this question?

The mean score for Question 3 was 4.4 out of a possible 10 points, with a standard deviation of 2.8 points. The distribution of
scores on this question is shown below. Nearly every student attempted to answer at least one part of this question. Parts (d)
and (f) were accessible to most students, as were the first points in parts (b) and (g).

Part (a) was challenging for many students because it required them to identify the precipitate and assign ionic charges
correctly. Responses often indicated Cu(NO3)2 as the product, had incorrect or missing electronic charges on the reactants or
products, or failed to balance the equation with respect to mass and/or charge. By contrast, students did well determining the
mass of the precipitate in part (b). This part was worth two points; the second point required the student to convert the mass
of precipitate to moles of precipitate and report their answer to the correct number of significant figures. This point was
frequently missed due to incorrect rounding. In part (c), many responses attempted to calculate the molarity of the original

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CuSO4 solution based upon the amount of excess reagent, Ba(NO3)2(aq), rather than upon the amount of BaSO4 precipitate.
The volume of the original CuSO4 solution was often indicated incorrectly as 500 mL, 70 mL, or 20 mL.

Most students successfully set up the dilution formula in part (d) but not all performed the algebraic rearrangement correctly.
The procedure for preparing the dilute sample of CuSO4, in part (e), was one of the hardest parts of Question 3. Many
responses mentioned inappropriate equipment and/or procedures for measuring the volume of the stock solution and the
volume of the final diluted sample. The standard curve in part (f) was interpreted correctly by most students and was one of
the most frequently earned points. In part (g), many students correctly concluded that the residual water in the cuvette would
cause the measured concentration to be less than the actual concentration, although they sometimes struggled to construct a
cogent explanation for why.

What common student misconceptions or gaps in knowledge were seen in the responses to this question?

Common Misconceptions/Knowledge Gaps Responses that Demonstrate Understanding

Part (a):

• Misidentifying the precipitate, often as Cu(NO3)2 or Ba2+(aq) + SO42−(aq) → BaSO4(s)

Ba(SO4)2

• Omitting or mis-assigning ionic charge to species (sulfate

was frequently assigned a charge of −1)

• Writing an equation that was unbalanced with respect to

mass and/or charge

Part (b):

• Using 1.136 g (the mass of the filter paper and dried 1.136 g – 0.764 g = 0.372 g BaSO4
precipitate) as the mass of the precipitate 1 mol BaSO4
0.372 g × 233.39 g BaSO4
= 0.00159 mol BaSO4
• Reporting the number of moles of BaSO4 with an
incorrect number of significant figures

Part (c):
1 mol CuSO4
• Using the concentration and volume of the aqueous 0.00159 mol BaSO4 × 1 mol BaSO4
= 0.00159 mol
Ba(NO3)2 solution to calculate moles of CuSO4 CuSO4
• Dividing by total volume of the mixture (0.0700 L) 0.00159 mol CuSO4
instead of the original volume of the CuSO4 solution 0.0500 L
=0.0318 M CuSO4
(0.0500 L)

Part (d):
M1V1 = M2V2
• Rearranging the dilution equation incorrectly
(0.0500 M )(50.00 mL)
=V1 = 25.0 mL
(0.1000 M )

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 Part (e):

• Using incorrect equipment for measuring and diluting the First, measure out the correct volume of 0.1000 M CuSO4
0.1000M CuSO4 solution, or not mentioning equipment solution with a 25.0 mL volumetric pipet (graduated
at all cylinder or buret is acceptable)

• Filling a 50.00 mL volumetric flask “halfway full” or “up Transfer the 25.0 mL of solution to a 50.00 mL volumetric
to the 25.00 mL mark” with 0.1000M CuSO4 solution flask and dilute the solution with water up to the 50.00 mL
mark.
• Reversing the order of addition, i.e., adding 25.00 mL of
distilled water to the volumetric flask and then filling up
to the mark with 0.1000 M CuSO4 solution

Part (f):
0.63
• Calculating or estimating a number that is out of range or • y mx
= = =x 6.3x
0.1000
has the incorrect order of magnitude (often 0.35 M)
y 0.219 M
x
= = = 0.035 M
6.3 6.3

or

• Estimated value from the graph within the specified

range (0.032 M – 0.038 M)

Part (g):

• Stating that the residual water will increase, or have no The concentration will be less than that determined in part
influence on, the measured absorption (concentration) (f). The additional water will decrease the concentration of
CuSO4 in the cuvette. Therefore, there will be a decrease in
• Attributing the lower measured absorption (concentration) absorbance (according to the Beer-Lambert law). This
to a chemical reaction between CuSO4 and water dilution results in a lower estimated concentration of
CuSO4.

Based on your experience at the AP® Reading with student responses, what advice would you offer teachers to
help them improve the student performance on the exam?

1. Emphasize the importance of balancing chemical equations for both mass and charge. Illustrate the differences
between net ionic and other types of chemical equations.
2. Review the electronic charges of common ions, particularly polyatomic species such as sulfate ion.
3. Practice applying solubility rules to predict the identity of a precipitate.
4. Provide opportunities for students to prepare solutions for laboratory experiments using proper equipment and
methods.
5. Perform gravimetric analysis and spectrophotometric experiments for determining the concentrations of ions in
solutions.
6. After each laboratory experiment, consider possible experimental errors and provide questions where students use
claim, evidence, and reasoning to indicate the effect that the errors have on the experiment.
7. Model for students by “thinking aloud” the process of identifying errors and predicting their effect on experimental
results.

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What resources would you recommend to teachers to better prepare their students for the content and skill(s)
required on this question?

• Teachers can use AP Classroom to direct students to the AP Daily videos on Topics on 3.7, 3.13, 4.2, and 4.5.
• Teachers can use AP Classroom to direct students to Review Session 6: Experimental Methods & Analysis of Free-
Response Questions.
• Teachers can use online simulators like ChemCollective—Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Food Dye and
PhET—Beer’s Law Lab to build student skill and understanding prior to conducting an experiment similar to
Investigations 1 and 2 in the AP Chemistry Guided Inquiry Experiments (available in Course-level Resources in AP
Classroom). Teachers can also engage students in building their own spectrophotometer using a Smartphone
using the information in this article on ChemEd X.
• Teachers can use a variety of gravimetric analysis labs, such as Investigation 3—What Makes Hard Water Hard?
from the lab book, AP Chemistry Guided Inquiry Experiments.
• Teachers can assign topic questions and/or personal progress checks in AP Classroom to monitor student
progress and identify areas for additional instruction or content and skill development.

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 Question #4 Task: Analysis of iron oxidation Topics: Calorimetry, stoichiometry
Max. Points: 4 Mean Score: 1.22

What were the responses to this question expected to demonstrate?

Question 4 involves the catalytic oxidation of elemental iron inside a small container of sand to produce Fe2O3. Part (a) asks
for a calculation of the heat absorbed by the iron/catalyst/sand mixture given the change in temperature of the system (ENE-
2.D, 5.F). In part (b), the student must calculate the mass of iron required to generate the amount of heat produced in the
previous part. Two points are possible for this part: one for determining the number of moles of reaction (ENE-2.F, 5.F) and
one for the calculated mass of iron (SPQ-1.A, 5.F). Part (c) asks the student to predict how the maximum temperature would
change, if at all, if the quantity of iron were doubled (ENE-2.D, 2.F).

How well did the responses address the course content related to this question? How well did the responses
integrate the skills required on this question?

The mean score for Question 4 was 1.2 out of a possible four points, with a standard deviation of 1.3 points. The distribution
of scores on this question is shown below.

Part (a) was the most accessible point, demonstrating a widespread proficiency with the thermochemical equation q = mc∆T.
In a few cases, the response used a temperature change based upon some time interval other than the 0–4 minutes indicated
in the prompt. Occasionally, the point was not earned due to a missing or incorrect unit in the final answer.

Very few responses earned full credit for part (b). Although most reported a positive mass of iron, very few explicitly showed
the inversion of mathematical sign with the relationship q sys = −q surr . Very often the student neglected to account for the
stoichiometry of the reaction, indicating incorrectly that 1650 kJ was released when one mole of Fe(s) reacts. Others
struggled with conversions between units of joules and kilojoules. A few responses bypassed thermochemical thinking
altogether and assumed that the reaction produced 15.0 grams of Fe2O3 because the mass of the iron/catalyst/sand mixture
was 15.0 grams.

The point in part (c) was rarely earned. Responses generally recognized that the temperature would be higher but stumbled
when providing the justification. Some simply restated the prompt (“more iron is present”) while others used incorrect
reasoning related to thermodynamics, kinetics, or equilibrium. Other responses used a q = mc∆T approach which, while
valid, was often executed incorrectly. Students who earned the point clearly explained that with an increase in the amount of
iron, the reaction released a greater amount of energy, resulting in a greater maximum temperature.

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What common student misconceptions or gaps in knowledge were seen in the responses to this question?

Common Misconceptions/Knowledge Gaps Responses that Demonstrate Understanding

Part (a):

• Reporting an answer with incorrect units (cal, J/g, °C) or =

q mc ∆T
no units at all = q (15.0 g)(0.72 J/(g ⋅ C))(39.7 C −=
  
22.0 C) 190 J
• Reversing the mathematical sign of the answer without
explanation, thereby reversing the meaning of the ∆T
term

Part (b):

• Failing to account for the change in mathematical sign qsys = −qsurr

between heat absorbed in part (a) and the heat released
by the reaction 1 kJ 1 mol rxn
−190 J × × =
0.00012 mol rxn
1000 J −1650 kJ
• Mistaking the mass of the starting mixture (15.0 g of
4 mol Fe 55.85 g Fe
Fe(s), SiO2, and catalyst) for the mass of Fe2O3 that was 0.00012 mol rxn × × =
0.027 g Fe
produced in the reaction 1 mol rxn 1 mol Fe

• Converting between joules and kilojoules incorrectly

(often 1000 kJ = 1 J) or not at all

• Missing the stoichiometric conversion of 1650 kJ of

energy being released when four moles of Fe(s) react

Part (c):

• Invoking unrelated concepts such as kinetic molecular Greater than. A greater mass of iron provides a greater
theory or Le Chatelier’s principle number of moles of reaction, which would transfer a
greater quantity of thermal energy to the same mass of
• Claiming that the additional Fe(s) absorbs heat or acts as sand and, therefore, lead to a greater maximum
a thermal conductor that dissipates heat to the temperature.
surroundings

• Stating that the temperature decreases because the

equation q=mc∆T states that mass and temperature are
inversely proportional

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Based on your experience at the AP® Reading with student responses, what advice would you offer teachers to
help them improve the student performance on the exam?

1. Show students the benefits of using dimensional analysis in intermediate work so that they can avoid simple
errors like expressing heat in units of J/oC or oC. Review the common errors (1 J = 1000 kJ) in conversions
between units.
2. Reinforce the mathematical expression for the conservation of thermal energy (q sys = −q surr ) to avoid errors of
mathematical sign.
3. Demonstrate how the stoichiometric coefficients for each species in a balanced chemical reaction are related to
the overall ∆H rxn .
4. Practice identifying the key chemical concepts involved in an experiment (calorimetry and conservation of
energy, versus kinetics or equilibrium).
5. Encourage students to use precise vocabulary in their explanations. Terms like kinetic energy, thermal energy,
and temperature are related but not exactly the same.

What resources would you recommend to teachers to better prepare their students for the content and skill(s)
required on this question?

• Teachers can use AP Classroom to direct students to the AP Daily videos on Topics 6.4 and 6.6.
• Teachers can review the Units in Thermochemical Calculations in the Classroom Resources section of AP Central
for tips on how to use the mole of reaction to help students understand how to use coefficients in chemical
equations with thermochemical quantities like ∆H rxn.
• Teachers can assign topic questions and/or personal progress checks in AP Classroom to monitor student
progress and identify areas for additional instruction or content and skill development.

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 Question #5 Task: Analysis of an electrolytic cell Topics: Electrochemistry
Max. Points: 4 Mean Score: 1.12

What were the responses to this question expected to demonstrate?

Question 5 provides a diagram of an electrolytic cell in which MgCl2 is decomposed into its constituent elements. In part (a),
the student must draw an arrow to indicate the direction of electron flow in the cell (ENE-6.A, 3.B). Part (b) asks whether a
driving voltage of 2.0 V would be sufficient for the reaction to occur and to provide supporting quantitative evidence (ENE-
6.B, 6.D). In part (c), the student calculates the amount of time required for the cell to produce a given mass of elemental
magnesium. The question is worth two points: one for identifying the number of moles of electrons involved in the process
(SPQ-1.A, 5.F) and one for correctly calculating the number of seconds (ENE-6.D, 5.F).

How well did the responses address the course content related to this question? How well did the responses
integrate the skills required on this question?

The mean score for Question 5 was 1.1 out of a possible four points, with a standard deviation of 1.3 points. The distribution
of scores on this question is shown below. Most students attempted to answer at least some parts of Question 5.

The arrow in part (a) was the most frequently earned point. Common errors included an arrow in the reverse direction (from
the Mg cathode to the Cl2 anode) or an arrow passing through the molten MgCl2 rather than through the external circuit.
Students struggled in part (b), primarily with sign conventions (reporting E°cell = +3.73 V rather than −3.73 V). Many
responses failed to earn the point because they did not show any work for the calculation. Others provided a valid calculation
but misinterpreted its meaning, stating that “yes,” an applied voltage of 2.0 V would be sufficient to drive the electrolysis.
Many responses to part (c) started with the equation I = q/t and then suddenly stopped, implying that students could select an
appropriate mathematical expression but grappled with how to apply it. Some students successfully calculated the number of
moles of electrons involved in the process and earned the first point, but only earned the second point if they recognized an
ampere as a Coulomb per second and Faraday’s constant as a conversion between moles of electrons and total charge. The
best answers used dimensional analysis clearly and effectively.

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What common student misconceptions or gaps in knowledge were seen in the responses to this question?

Common Misconceptions/Knowledge Gaps Responses that Demonstrate Understanding

Part (a):

• Drawing an arrow in a clockwise direction (treating the Electron flow in a counter-clockwise direction in the
cell as voltaic rather than electrolytic) external circuit, from the Cl2 anode to the Mg cathode

• Drawing an arrow that passed through the molten MgCl2

Part (b):

• Reversing the mathematical sign of the standard cell No, because 2.0 V is less than 3.73 V, which is the
potential, reporting it as +3.73 V rather than −3.73 V minimum voltage needed for electrolysis to occur.

• Incorrectly comparing the values of the applied voltage E cell =−2.37 V + ( −1.36 V) =−3.73 V


and E°cell, e.g., “Yes, because 2.0 V is greater than −3.73

V”

• Performing the calculation without any supporting work

Part (c):

• Missing the stoichiometric conversion implying that two 1 mol Mg 2 mol e

−

0.165 mol e
−
moles of electrons are required to reduce one mole of 2.00 g Mg × × =
24.30 g Mg 1 mol Mg
magnesium ions to elemental magnesium

• Missing or misapplying essential conversion factors: 96, 485 C 1s

0.165 mol e ×
−
× =
3180 s
1 mol e
−
5.00 C
o Faraday’s constant converts between moles of electrons
and total charge.

o An ampere is a unit of current, i.e., Coulombs per

second.

• Performing the calculation without any supporting work

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Based on your experience at the AP® Reading with student responses, what advice would you offer teachers to
help them improve the student performance on the exam?

1. Compare voltaic and electrolytic cells and the means by which to identify the type of cell represented in a diagram.
2. Ask students to describe the operation of electrochemical cells in terms of electron flow, half-reactions, and
standard cell potential. Have them identify the anode and cathode according to the materials being oxidized and
reduced.
3. Emphasize the meaning of mathematical sign in half-reactions and standard cell potential as they relate to the
thermodynamic favorability of electrochemical processes.
4. Use dimensional analysis to practice using Faraday’s law of electrolysis: converting between mass of reactant,
moles of electrons involved in the process, electrical charge per mole of electrons, electrical current, and time.
5. Implement electrochemistry experiments into classroom demonstrations or the laboratory curriculum to illustrate
these key concepts.

What resources would you recommend to teachers to better prepare their students for the content and skill(s)
required on this question?

• Teachers can use AP Classroom to direct students to the AP Daily videos on Topics 9.8 and 9.10.
• Teachers can use the interactive Electrolysis Computer Simulation and the accompanying Student Activity to
visualize the atomic-level processes in an electrolytic cell, practice net-ionic reaction writing, and calculate various
quantities using Faraday’s law.
• Teachers can assign topic questions and/or personal progress checks in AP Classroom to monitor student progress
and identify areas for additional instruction or content and skill development.

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 Question #6 Task: Analysis of sulfate salts Topics: Properties of ionic compounds,
solubility equilibria
Max. Points: 4 Mean Score: 1.31

What were the responses to this question expected to demonstrate?

Question 6 focuses upon two salts, CaSO4 and PbSO4. In part (a), the student must explain why neither compound conducts
electricity in its solid state (SAP-5.B, 1.B). The student is then presented with electrical conductivity data on saturated
solutions of each salt and asked to identify which compound is more soluble in water and to explain why (SAB-5.B, 2.D). A
particulate representation of the saturated solution of CaSO4 is provided, and a corresponding diagram of the PbSO4 solution
must be drawn that is consistent with the relative solubility of the two salts (SPQ-5.A, 3.C). Finally, in part (d), the student
explains why adding sulfuric acid to the saturated solution of CaSO4 produces additional precipitate (SPQ-5.B, 6.F).

How well did the responses address the course content related to this question? How well did the responses
integrate the skills required on this question?

The mean score for Question 6 was 1.3 out of a possible four points, with a standard deviation of 1.2 points. The distribution
of scores on this question is shown below. Question 6 had the highest average among the four short (4–point) free response
questions.

Most responses to part (a) reflected an understanding of electrical conductivity, although some tried to frame the observation
entirely in terms of whether or not the bonding within a solid may be represented by the “sea of electrons” model. Students
who incorrectly invoked the mobility of electrons in solids in part (a) often correctly argued about the mobility of ions in
solution in other parts of the question. Part (b) was accessible for most students. However, many simply stated that greater
conductivity is equivalent to greater solubility, without any form of reasoning or further explanation. To earn credit, it was
necessary to attribute the higher conductivity of the saturated CaSO4 solution to a greater concentration of ions in solution
(greater extent of dissociation).

Part (c) was the most frequently earned point. Students generally seemed comfortable with the particulate representation and
its relationship to the solubility of each material and the degree of electrical conductivity of the resulting saturated solutions.
Students who gave an incorrect answer to part (b) could earn credit here if they provided a diagram that was consistent with
their earlier answer.

In part (d), a common answer was that “There is more SO42− available to react,” without any further explanation. Since this
fact is already reflected in the prompt, the student had to provide additional reasoning based upon chemical equilibrium
(common ion effect, Le Chatelier’s principle, comparison of Q vs. Ksp) to earn credit.

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What common student misconceptions or gaps in knowledge were seen in the responses to this question?

Common Misconceptions/Knowledge Gaps Responses that Demonstrate Understanding

Part (a):

• Focusing entirely on the mobility of electrons, rather Ionic solids do not have free-flowing ions that are required to
than ions, as the cause of electrical conductivity carry an electric current. Therefore, there is no conduction of
electricity.
• Misattributing the lack of conductivity to the type of
bonding within each solid (i.e., the salts cannot be
described by the “sea of electrons” model)

Part (b):

• Asserting a claim without further explanation: CaSO4. The greater electrical conductivity of the CaSO4
“Higher conductivity equals higher solubility.” solution relative to the PbSO4 solution implies a higher
concentration of ions, which comes from the dissolution
• Failing to attribute the degree of conductivity to the (dissociation) of CaSO4 to a greater extent.
concentration of ions

Part (c):

• Showing an inequal number of cations and anions in Solid PbSO4 at the bottom of the beaker and fewer
solution and/or the solid dissociated Pb2+ and SO42- ions in solution

• Drawing the same representation as the beaker on the

left

Part (d) :

• Failing to describe the system in terms of chemical The additional precipitate is CaSO4 that forms in response to
equilibrium, i.e., stating only that SO42− reacts with the increased [SO42−] in solution. According to Le Chatelier’s
Ca2+, as if the process was a simple precipitation principle (Q>Ksp), the introduction of SO42− as a common ion
reaction shifts the equilibrium toward the formation of more
CaSO4(s).

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Based on your experience at the AP® Reading with student responses, what advice would you offer teachers to
help them improve the student performance on the exam?

1. Teach students that a complete explanation must include evidence and reasoning, not just repeating the prompt or
reciting a trend. Have students practice their reasoning skills in both speaking and writing.
2. Incorporate particle-level drawings to describe chemical phenomena.
3. Highlight the similarities and differences between electrical conductivity in metals (electron sea) and dissolved or
molten salts (mobile ions).
4. Encourage students to be specific and precise in their verbal answers. “Sulfate is the common ion” is better than
“there is a common ion” or “it is a common ion.”

What resources would you recommend to teachers to better prepare their students for the content and skill(s)
required on this question?

• Teachers can use AP Classroom to direct students to the AP Daily videos on Topics 3.2, 7.11, and 7.12.
• Teachers can use the PhET simulation—Salts & Solubility—and several accompanying Teacher-Submitted Activities
to connect particle-level views to calculations of solubility and K sp .
• Teachers can assign topic questions and/or personal progress checks in AP Classroom to monitor student progress
and identify areas for additional instruction or content and skill development.

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 Question #7 Task: Analysis of O2 gas Topics: Density, kinetic molecular theory,
intermolecular forces
Max. Points: 4 Mean Score: 1.01

What were the responses to this question expected to demonstrate?

Question 7 involves a sample of O2 inside a container with a movable piston. In part (a), the student must calculate the
density of the gas based upon its mass and volume (SPQ-1.A, 5.F). Part (b) asks whether releasing some of the gas from the
container will change the density of the gas, and to justify the answer (SAP-7.A, 2.B). The volume of the gas decreases upon
cooling, and part (c) asks the student to explain this observation in terms of kinetic molecular theory (SAP-6.A, 4.C). Part (d)
requires an explanation for why the measured volume of O2 gas deviates from that predicted by the ideal gas law at low
temperature (SAP7.C, 4.C).

How well did the responses address the course content related to this question? How well did the responses
integrate the skills required on this question?

The mean score for Question 7 was 1.0 out of a possible four points, with a standard deviation of 0.9 point. The distribution
of scores on this question is shown below. Although most students attempted this question, it was the lowest scoring out of
all the free-response questions on the exam.

Q7: Mean 1.0

45
40
Percent of Students

35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
- 0 1 2 3 4
Score

Part (a) was the most accessible part of Question 7. The successful students used dimensional analysis to convert moles of
O2 to grams of O2 and then calculate the density of the gas. A surprising number of responses used the ideal gas equation to
calculate the number of moles of O2, even though this information was already provided in the prompt, and sometimes
calculated the number of moles of O2 incorrectly. Others ignored the information in the prompt and declared that the cylinder
contained exactly 32.0 g (1.00 mole) of O2.

Nearly every student answered part (b), but only about half earned the point. Many responses used Boyle’s law, perhaps
overlooking the open valve on the side of the cylinder. Others focused entirely on the mass of O2 being lower, without
mentioning the proportional reduction in the volume of gas. Statements about the temperature and/or pressure of the gas
remaining constant were insufficient; the concept of proportionality was required to earn credit.

Most students attempted part (c) but did not earn credit. Responses often bypassed the requirement of using kinetic
molecular theory and instead used only the ideal gas law or Charles’ law. For those who correctly correlated a lower
temperature with a lower average kinetic energy of particles, many times the explanation for why the volume of the gas
decreased was incorrect or missing. Some students argued that the gas particles themselves decreased in volume.

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About half of students attempted part (d), and only about one-third of those earned credit. Many argued incorrectly that the
entire sample of O2 gas had condensed into a liquid or solid. Responses had to explain the relationship between nonideal gas
behavior, interparticle forces, and the resulting effect on the volume of the gas.

What common student misconceptions or gaps in knowledge were seen in the responses to this question?

Common Misconceptions/Knowledge Gaps Responses that Demonstrate Understanding

Part (a):

• Using the molar mass of O2 (32.0 g/mol) as the mass of •

32.00 g O2
0.325 mol O2 × =
10.4 g O2
gas inside the cylinder 1 mol O2

• Expressing density as moles per liter m 10.4 g

D
= = = 1.31 g/L
V 7.95 L
• Calculating (incorrectly) the number of moles of O2 by
using the ideal gas equation or

m P( MM ) (1.0 atm)(32.00 g/mol)

• D
= = = = 1.31 g/L
V RT (0.08206 mol
L⋅atm
⋅K
)(298 K)

Part (b):

• Overlooking the open valve on the cylinder, which allows • No, the density of the gas remains constant because P,
some gas to escape R, and T remain constant AND the mass and volume of
O2 decrease proportionately
• Neglecting to mention that the mass of O2 and the volume
of O2 decrease proportionately or

• Stating only that temperature and/or pressure remains m n moles of O2 × molar mass of O2 P( MM )
• D
= = =
constant, without discussing the density of the gas V nRT RT
P

Part (c):

• Failing to use principles of kinetic molecular theory (often • As the gas cools, the average kinetic energy (speed) of
just Charles’s law or the ideal gas law) the O2 molecules decreases. The molecules rebound
with less energy when they collide with each other and
• Stating that the gas particles decrease in size or become the walls of the container. The spacing between
immobilized particles decreases, causing the volume occupied by the
gas to decrease.

or

• As the gas cools, the average kinetic energy (speed) of

the O2 molecules decreases. The molecules rebound
with less energy when they collide with each other and
the walls of the container. The only way for the
molecules to maintain a constant rate of collisions with
the walls of the container (maintaining a pressure of
1.00 atm) is for the volume of the gas to decrease.

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 Part (d):

• Describing O2 at −180°C (above the boiling point of The ideal gas law assumes that gas particles do not
−183°C) as a liquid or solid experience interparticle attractions. As a real gas cools
further, the intermolecular forces have greater effect as the
• Implying that low temperature and/or intermolecular average speed of the molecules decreases, resulting in
forces cause gas particles to become frozen in space inelastic collisions. To maintain a gas pressure of 1.00 atm,
the volume must decrease to accommodate more collisions
with less energy.

Based on your experience at the AP® Reading with student responses, what advice would you offer teachers to
help them improve the student performance on the exam?

1. Emphasize that particles of gas will completely fill their container and that both the force and frequency of the
collisions of the particles on the walls of the container contribute to the pressure of the gas. If the gas is inside a
flexible container, the volume of the container will expand or shrink to maintain a balance between the internal
pressure of the gas and external pressure on the outside of the container.
2. Ask students to predict the physical state of a substance at a given temperature, especially at temperatures below
0°C that require comparing the relative magnitude of two negative numbers.
3. Describe the behavior of ideal gases and real gases in terms of kinetic molecular theory. Many responses to
Question 7 tried to use Boyle’s law and Charles’s law quantitatively, rather than using qualitative principles of
particle motion.
4. Use computer animations to illustrate the behavior of gas particles under a variety of conditions: changing
temperature, changing pressure, and phase changes.
5. Explicitly connect real gas behavior to the types and relative strengths of intermolecular forces among the
particles.

What resources would you recommend to teachers to better prepare their students for the content and skill(s)
required on this question?

• Teachers can use AP Classroom to direct students to the AP Daily videos on Topics 3.3, 3.4, and 3.5.
• Teachers can use the videos and live discussions at APTeach.org (Intermolecular Forces, Intermolecular Forces—
Instructional Sequence, and Hydrogen Bonding).
• Teachers can use online simulators like PhET—Gas Properties, AACT—Gas Laws Simulation, sim bucket—The
Behavior of Gases, and Molecular Workbench—States of Matter can be used to develop student models for gas
behavior under a variety of conditions, which can then be explained with Kinetic Molecular Theory.
• Teachers can assign topic questions and/or personal progress checks in AP Classroom to monitor student
progress and identify areas for additional instruction or content and skill development.

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