Programming in C++

Q. Give the difference between C and C++.

Ans. C 1. C is a procedural oriented language. 2. It is a weakly typed language. 3. A function in C can be declared with no argument or any number of arguments. 4. In C, all the functions can be optionally declare the prototypes. 5. A character constant in C is automatically converted into its equivalent ASCII. 6. In C, main() function can be called within the program like the invocation of other functions. 7. In C, register variables cannot be addressed. 8. The stdio.h library is used in C to execute input output operations. 9. In C, class is an extension of struct C++ 1. C++ is an object oriented language. 2. It is a strongly typed language. 3. In C++, the function may not have any arguments (parameters) 4. In C++, all the functions should be prototyped before its use. 5. This is not in the case of C++ 6. This is not possible in C++ 7. Register Variables can be addressed in C++ 8. The stream.h library is used in C++

9. Abstract Data Type mechanism is implemented through class data in C++. 10. Overloading is not possible in C 10. Operator overloading and function overloading supports the implementation of new types in C++ 11. In C, array model is a pointer based and is one- 11. In C++, multi-dimensional, dynamic and bound dimensional checked arrays are implemented.

Q. Give the characteristics of Object Oriented language.

Ans. The characteristics of Object oriented language is as under: 1. Object An object in object oriented programming is a physical entity that has a nature of its own. In other words, an object is a run time entity. The result of object oriented programming display many real world object. All living and nonliving things can be treated as an object. Every object has some attributes (characteristics) and function (behaviour). Objects are further sub-divided into physical and logical object. Objects may be concrete or conceptual i.e. can be used locally or globally. Objects have communication with other objects through the functions. object can access the private data and function by using the public function. Data or attribute of an object is called member data and the action or function or behaviour of an object is called member function. Member data is like variables used in procedural programming language but member data cannot be directly accessed by other object. It can be accessed if object give permission for accessing the data. Actually member data keep its importance and depend over the life of an object. 2. Classes A class is described as a group of similar objects. A class may consist of single object. A class can define unlimited number objects. A class is a template and can be used for different wizard to handle objects. In other words, it is a reference copy for object. A class represents both data and functions and manipulates it. A class is an implementation of an abstract data type. It defines attribute and methods which implement the data structure and operations of the ADT. Thus classes define properties and behaviour of sets of objects. The syntax for defining a class is Class-name obj1, obj2,, objn; 3. Inheritance and class hierarchy Inheritance is process by which objects of one class acquire the properties of object of another class. It is in hierarchical order. In OOP, each sub-class shares common characteristic with the class from which it is derived. There are five types of inheritance:

A derived class inheriting from a single base class is called single inheritance. A derived class inheriting from multiple base classes is called multiple inheritance. A derived class inheriting from a class that inherits from another class is called multilevel inheritance. Number of derived classes inheriting from a single base class is called hierarchical inheritance. A derived class inheriting from multiple base classes and multiple base classes inheriting from a single base class is called hybrid inheritance. With inheritance, user can plan a class hierarchy. It means OPP defines a hierarchy of different classes and subclasses within it. Class hierarchy also describes the relationship between classes and subclasses. It helps the programmer to scan minutely a small number of categories instead of a large number. Also coding can be shared by using the concept of inheritance and class hierarchy. 4. Polymorphism Polymorphism allows many different types of objects to perform the same operation by responding to the same message. It is the ability to take many shapes and forms. Polymorphism helps the programmer to call different functions with a single statement. It is very close inheritance. Polymorphism means the ability to take more than one form i.e. an operation may exhibit different behaviour in different forms. Polymorphism has overloading and virtual function classifications. When an existing operator, such as + or =, is given the capability to operate on a new data type, it is called overloading. A virtual function is used to handle some specific tasks related to class objects. Polymorphism plays an important role in allowing objects having different internal structure to share the same external interface. It is extensively used in implementing inheritance. 5. Encapsulation Encapsulation is also called data hiding. It consists of separating the external aspects of an object from the internal implementation details of the object which are hidden from other objects. In other words, collecting of data and functions into a single unit is called encapsulation. It prevents a program from becoming interdependent. Encapsulation gives a more clear result. Encapsulation in programs like C, BASIC, and FORTRAN are doe in small sub-programs. All external files and functions are encapsulated. Thus encapsulation means to hide the hide internal operations of a class to support abstraction. It permits accessing of data only through calling the functions. So these functions provide the interface between the object data and the program. Thus insulation of the data from the direct access by program is called data hiding. 6. Data Abstraction Abstraction is restricted examination of certain aspects of a problem. Here the most essential aspect of the problem is considered important and the other unimportant details are ignored. This concept is one of the major components of classes. User defined data type is called abstract data and the process of defining this type of data is called data abstraction. struct, typedef and class are three ways through which the user can define a data type. Classes use the concept of abstraction and are defined as a list of abstract attributes such as size, weight and cost and functions to operate on these attributes. They encapsulate all essential properties of the objects that are to be created. Since the classes use the concept of data abstraction, they are known as Abstract Data Types (ADT). 7. Dynamic Binding Binding in C++ is done in two ways: 1) Static binding and 2) Dynamic binding. Binding means linking. It is the linking of a procedure call to the code to be executed in response to the call. Dynamic binding is the address of the code in a member function and invocation is determined at the last possible moment. It is based on the dynamic run time of the object. Dynamic biding is the result of virtual function. In dynamic binding we use non constant pointer to postpone the allocation of memory until the program is running. Thus dynamic binding means the code associated with a given procedure call until the time of execution. 8. Message Passing Messaging passing is linked with inheritance and data binding. Although it is used only in virtual functions but it has a very important role in OOP. A message for an object is a request for execution of a procedure. It will call a function or procedure in the receiving object that generates the desired results. Message passing involves specifying the name of the object, the name of the function and the information sent. 9. Reusability Once a class has been written, created and debugged, it can be distributed to other programmers for use in their own programmers for use in their own programs. This is called reusability. It is similar to the way a library of functions in a procedural language can be incorporate into different programs. In OOP the concept of inheritance provides an important extension to the idea of reusability. A programmer can take an existing class without modifying and can use to develop any new application. This is done by

deriving a new class from the existing one. The new class will inherit the capabilities of the old one but is free to add new features of its own.

Q. Give the difference between Procedural and Data Abstraction.

Ans. Procedural Abstraction This type of abstraction uses function and procedures in OOP. It results from using user-defined or library function to perform certain tasks in a program. Actually use of these functions conceals the unnecessary details and so the programmer need not know the precise steps performed by the function. Data Abstraction All high level languages uses data abstraction. Data abstraction is a fundamental premise of object oriented programming. Actually data abstraction is the process of defining user type and using these types only through a set of interface operations instead of directly manipulating their representations. Data abstraction results in formation of user defined data types like class, int, long, flat, double and other user defined data. The programmer deals with these data types. Data abstraction also has some features of procedural abstraction.

Q. Give advantages and disadvantages of Object Oriented Programming.

Ans. Object Oriented Programming is a programming methodology where the main emphasis is given on the object or the data and not on the functions or operations that operate on data. Advantages 1. promotes organization in programming style 2. offers reusability i.e. the work done in the past can be put into use as in future 3. one function can have many forms that permits widening of area of application Disadvantages 1. OOP is a high level concept so it takes m ore time to execute as many routines run behind at the time of execution. 2. It offers less number of functions as compared to low level programming which interacts directly with hardware. 3. Increased burden on he part of OOP developer.

Q. What are Constants? Give types and rules for each one of them.
Ans. Constant is a quantity that doesnt change and can be stored at any location in the memory of the computer. These quantities may be combinations of alphabets, numbers or special symbols in C++. eg: 2y=30, where 2 and 30 are constants i.e., their value cannot be changed. C Constants can be divided into two categories: 1. Primary constants 2. Secondary constants Primary constants are as follows: i. Integer Constants An integer constant refers only to numbers. It may be a single digit or combination of digits. Generally, integer constants are written in decimal number system, which consist of combination of digits from 09. Rules for constructing Integer constants. a) An integer constant must contain of at least one digit. b) It should not contain decimal values. c) The numbers could either be positive or negative. d) It does not allow commas or blank space. e) The range of integer constant is 32768 to +32767 ii. Float Constants A float constant refers to numbers that contains a decimal point or an exponent or both. The float constants are often known as real constants that could be written in two forms: fractional or exponential. Rules for constructing Float constants a) A float constant must consist of at least one digit. b) It should have decimal values c) The numbers could either be positive or negative

d) It does not allow commas or blank spaces e) A letter e should separate the mantissa part and the exponent part. For example, 301224x10-17 would be represented as 301224 e 17 in float constants. f) The range of real constants is much greater than integer constants, which is expressed as 3.4e38 to 3.4e38. iii. Character Constants A character constant is defined as a single alphabet, a single digit or a special symbol enclosed within single quotes (r). Rules for constructing Character constants a) The maximum length of character constant can be 1 character. b) The quotes within the character is enclosed must point to the left as a. c) The characters constant have integer values determined by computers ASCII character set. d) The range of character constant is 128 to +127. Secondary Constants are as follows: Logical Constants A logical constant refers to either of two values zero or non-zero. Zero is treated as false whereas non-zero value is treated as true. eg: 12, -24, 1.7, are logical constants with true value whereas 0 is a logical constant with false value. These constants help solving logical expression and complex conditions easily. ii. String Constant A string constant is a combination of characters enclosed within double quotes (India). Some special characters like backslash are included as a part of string constant. Each of the string constant is ended with special character called null character represented as \0 that acts as a string terminator but it is not displayed on the screen. iii. Pointer Constants These include the name of an array without subscripts and the name of a function without parentheses. A string literal actually is an instance of a constant pointer, since its value is a pointer to the string. i.

Q. What are Variables? Explain

Ans. Variables are quantities that can be changed. Variable names are the names given to the locations in memory of a computer where different values are stored. The locations may however contain an integer, character, real or any constant but if a variable has been declared with int data type, it must be contain an integer value and so on. While declaring a variable the first character in the variable name must be an alphabet. The name of the variable should not have any commas, blank spaces or special symbols except the underscore (_). We cannot give name of the variable similar to any reserved word of the C++ programming language. Examples of declarations: int i; char var; float floating-point; int year, month; While declaring the variables you can also assign some initial values to them as shown below: int i = 10; char c = A; int j = i; Rules for naming variables: 1) Variables names must begin with a letter of the alphabet. In C++, the underscore character is considered a letter. It is legal to start a variable name with the underscore character, but this practice is discouraged to prevent possible conflict with some special system names that begin with the underscore. 2) The first character may be followed by a sequence of letters and/or digits (0 through 9). 3) On most microcomputers, the first seven or eight characters (depending upon the version) of the name must be unique. That is, no other variable used in the program may begin with the same seven or eight characters. If it does, it will be treated as the same name and the program may produce questionable result. 4) The compiler regards uppercase and lowercase letters as different, although both may be used in constructing variable names. Therefore, the variable names NET, net and Net are regarded as different variable names in C++. Usually, variable names are entirely entered in lowercase.

5) No variable name may be a keyboard. This rule means we cannot give a variable a reserved name such as int. 6) No special characters, such as a blank space, period, semicolon, commas or slash are permitted in variable names.

Q. What are operators? Classify them.

Ans. Operators refer to symbol that represents a particular operations to be performed on data. The data, on which the operation is to be performed, is called operand and the term, which performs the function, s called the operator. For example, in the expression, 12 + 24, 12 and 24 are operands whereas + is an operator. An operator needs two or one operand to perform any action. 1) Assignment Operator Assignment operator is used to assign the value to a variable. This is done by the assignment operator =. The syntax of assignment operator is identifier = expression, where identifier generally represents a variable and expression represents a constant, a variable or a more complex expression. For example, a=30; /* here variable a is given a value from constant 30 */ 2) Arithmetic Operators Arithmetic operators are used in mathematical expressions. There are basically four arithmetic operators in C++. They are (a) + (Addition) This operator is used to add two numbers. Eg: i=3+j; (b) (Subtraction) This operator is used to subtract two numbers. Eg: i=3-j; (c) * (Multiplication) This operator is used to multiply two numbers. Eg: i = j*k; (d) / (Division) This operator is used to divide two numbers. Eg: i = j/2; 3) Modulus Operator This operator can also be considered a part of arithmetic operator because this is also used for mathematical operations. This is generally represented as %. This operator returns remainder after integer division and is a supplement to the division operator as the division operator returns the quotient. It can only be applied to integer data type. For example, 24 % 7, will give the output 3 as it is the remainder. If the numerator is smaller than the denominator, then the operator will return the numerator itself. Eg: j = 2 % 4; /* this will store value 2 in j */ 4) Relational Operators These operators are used to compare to check whether they are equal, unequal, greater or lesser than the other. The operands can be variables, constants or expressions that ultimately give a numeric value. the relational operators also need two operands for their operation. There are six operators used in C: (a) < (less than) This operator evaluates whether a given value is less than the other or not. E.g.: 4 < 3 would return false. (b) > (greater than) This operator evaluates whether a given number is greater or not. E.g.: 4 > 43 would return true. (c) <= (less than or equal to) This operator evaluates whether a given value is less than or equal to the other or not. (d) >= (greater than or equal to) This operator evaluates whether a given value is greater than or equal to the other or not. (e) = = (equal to) This operator evaluates whether a given value is equal to the other value or not. (f) != (not equal to) This operator evaluates whether a given value is not equal to the other. 5) Logical Operators- Logical operators combine the result of evaluate of expression and produce the result in terms of either true or false value. There are three types of logical operators in C. They are: (a) && (And) This operator is used to combine two expressions or values and produce result as true only if both are true. If one of the expression is false, the && operator will return false. E.g.: (2>4) && (4>3) would return false but if the same expression is written as (2<4) && (4>3) would return true as both the expressions are true. (b) || (Or) This operator gives the result as true even if one of the expressions is true. For example, (2>4) || (4>3), in this statement though the first expression is false but the second expression is true therefore it would return true. (c) ! (Not) This operator returns the reverse of what is evaluated i.e. it makes a true expression false and a false expression true. For example,! (2<4) would return false in spite of expression itself being true.

6) Increment and Decrement Operators (a) + + (Increment operator) This operator increments the value of the operand by one. E.g.: if a = 23, the expression a+ + will increase the value of a by 1 that means now the value of a will become 24. (b) - - (Decrement operator) This operator decrements the value of the operand by one. For example, if a = 23, the expression a- - would return 22. These operators can be used either before i.e., prefix or after i.e., postfix to the operand. In both the cases the value of the operand is incremented by one. But if the increment or decrement operator is used in an expression that has to assign a value to some other variable, there is a difference between postfix and prefix notation. In the prefix form, the operand is incremented or decremented before the value is obtained expression. In the postfix, the original value is used in the expression and then the operand is modified. For example, consider the following expression int a = 10; int b; b = ++a; Here, there are two things to be done. One job is to assign the value of a and b and secondly, the value of a is to be incremented. This example is using the prefix notation that means the increment operator is written before the operand a. In prefix form the value of a will be incremented first and then the value of a will be assigned to b. This means b will get the value 11. a however, is incremented so after the expression the value of a will become 11 and that of b will also come out to be 11. Now let us consider the postfix notation. In this notation, the same example can be written as : int a = 10; int b; b=a++; Here also two jobs are to be done, assignment and increment. But since, it is a postfix notation the value of a will be assigned to b first and then the value of a will be incremented. Hence in this type of expression the value of b will be 10 and that of a will become 11. Note that it is the value of b that is affected due to prefix and postfix notations, the value of a will always be incremented. 7) Bitwise Operators The bitwise operators allow you to manipulate individual bits in a number. Bitwise operators perform Boolean algebra on the corresponding bits in the arguments to produce the result. These are special operators used for low level programming. These operators are used for the manipulation of binary data (bit). Bitwise operators should not be of float or double type. The six types of bitwise operator are: & Bitwise AND | Bitwise OR ^ Bitwise exclusive OR << Bitwise left >> Bitwise right ~ Bitwise NOT These operators are used for addition, multiplication, shifting and negating the binary data (bits). These operators are faster than any other operators as these operate in a part of the memory. These operators only operate on char or integer data types. It can be sign, unsigned, short or long. 8) Special Operators These are used for special purposes in C++ language. These operators are used in pointers, structures and unions etc. some special operators are: (i) Unary Operator The unary operator like plus(+) and minus (-) figures out the usage of an expression. The unary minus produces the negative of the value and the unary plus provides symmetry with unary minus. The unary increment (++) and unary decrement (--) increase or decrease the value by 1 respectively. The last unary operators are the address of (&), dereference (* and ->) and cast operators in C++ and new and delete in C++. These are used with pointers. e.g. x = ++a 7 * (-3) (+2) * (-7); (ii) Comma Operator When number of statements occur in C++ program having a relationship between expressions then we can write all the expressions or statements in a single expression using comma operator. e.g. a=12; b=10; c=a+b; can be written as c=(a+12,b=10,a+b);

(iii) Sizeof Operator The sizeof() operator stands alone because it gives you the information about the amount of memory allocated for data items. Thus it tells you the number of bytes used by any particular variable. It also gives the size of data type with no variable name. e.g. cout<<sizeof(double) = <<sizeof(double); (iv) Type Operator the type operator will automatically change one type of data into another if the circumstances allow it to. For instance if you assign an integer value to a floating-point variable, the compiler will secretly call a function to convert int to float. Type operator is used for conversion purpose. So it is called convert operator. This operator converts float data type in integer data type. The syntax of type operator is: (type) v or c; where v is variable (v) Pointer Operator There are two pointer operators used in C++. These are & (address) and * (indirection). (vi) Explicit Operators These are keywords for bitwise and logical operators. These keywords are: Keyword AND OR NOT NOT_EQ BITAND AND_EQ BITOR OR_EQ XOR XOR_EQ COMPL Meaning && (logical AND) || (logical OR) ! (logical NOT) != (logical not-equivalent) & (bitwise AND) &= (bitwise AND assignment) | (bitwise OR) |= (bitwise OR assignment) ^ (bitwise exclusive OR) ^= (bitwise exclusive OR assignment) ~ (ones complement)

Q. What are Conditional Statements?

Ans. Conditional statement refers to determination of flow of control in a program. As it is important to know the precedence of operators to get the problems executed, similarly it is required to know the order in which the instructions are to be executed in a program by the computer. Generally, in most of the C++ programs the instructions were executed in the same order as they appeared. Each of these instructions was executed only once. So, there was a need of group of statements, which would help, in repeated executions or determining whether a condition is true or false. Control statements are classified into following categories: (a) Decision Control Instructions (b) Loop Control or Iteration Instructions (c) Case Control Instructions (d) Branching Statements

Q. What are Decision Control Instructions?

Ans. The decision control instructions enable us to change the flow of a program based on some conditions. These statement are required to take actions on statement based on the condition. These instructions allow the computer to take decision as to which statement is to be executed next. The various decision control instructions are as follows: 1. The if statement 2. The if-else statement 3. Nested if The if Statement The instructions in a program are executed sequentially. If we want to alter the sequence we can do it with the use of decision control statement in C++. The if statement allows decision to be made by evaluating a given condition is true or false. These conditions involve both the comparison and operators. The keyword if is followed with the involvement of both the comparison and logical operators. The keyword if is followed with the conditions and statement next to it are executed only and only if the condition is true. If the condition is not true the statement next to it are skipped. The syntax of if statement is:

if (condition) statement; If there is more than one statement to be executed in case the condition is true, than You would be required to include all such statement in a pair of curly braces as Shown below: If (condition) { Statement } Failure of doing so will result in the execution of just the immediate statement after the if condition. Rest of the statement will become ineffective form the if clause. The operation of if statement is

Test Expression

False

True Body of if

Exit

For example, to check the identity of a person named Mahesh and display an Appropriate message, we use the if condition as follow: If (identity = = 1024) { cout<<Found Mahesh; } The if-else statement The statement enclosed within the curly after the condition of the if clause would be executed only if the condition of is true. If you want to execute some statement if the condition is false, you can do this using else i.e., if condition is false the control moves to statement following else. The if-else statement helps reduce the complexity of a program to some extent and also improves its readability. The syntax of if-else statement is: if (condition) { statement; } else { statement; } For example, to find whether the number is odd or even if (number%2 = = 0)

{ cout<<the number is even; } else { cout<<the number is odd; } The if-else statements can also use the following syntax: (condition)? Statement1: Statement2

Test Expression True

False

Body of if

Body of if

Exit

Nested if - When we combine several if statements, it is referred to as nested if statement. This improves the flexibility in programming. In these statements the control is moved to the next if statement only if the condition is true and after performing the first statement the next if condition is checked and if this is also true, then the second statement is performed. In case, the first condition is false, the control skips the following statements of both if conditions and moves to the else part, if specified. The syntax of Nested-if statement is: if (condition 1) { statement 1; if (condition 2) { statement 2; } } For example, to check if the identity of the person is 1024, display an appropriate message and then check if this age is greater than 25 and then display another message. If you make the program as shown below: if (identity = = 1024) { cout<<found match; } if (age> 25) { cout<<age matched; } here condition for age is checked separately from that of identity. In this case, if the age greater than 25 and the identity is not equal to 1024, then also the message is displayed. But actually it is required that the age verification should be checked only if the identity verification is true. The solution to this problem can be done through nested if as shown below: The syntax of the nested if-else statement is: If (condition 1) { statement 1; if (condition 2) { statement 2; else statement 3; } else

statement 4; }

Q11. Define Loop control or Iteration Instructions.

Ans. Loop is basically the execution of a sequence of statements repeatedly until a particular condition is true. A computer program is a set of statements, which is normally executed sequentially. But, most of the times it is necessary to repeat certain steps to meet a specified condition. Loops enable programmers to write a simple statement or group of statements instead of writing a large number of statements again and again. Loops help in the ability to perform a set of instructions repeatedly. This repeated operation is done through a loop control statement. The loop statements supported in C programming are : 1. while loop 2. do-while loop 3. for loop While Loop When you know the number of times an action is to be performed, you can use the while loop. This loop repeats a statement or a number of statements till a certain condition is true. These statements form the body of the loop. First, the loop is initialized then the condition is mentioned after the keyword while, then start within the curly braces, write the body of the loop i.e. the statements to be performed and then increment the value of the variable that is taken while initializing the condition. The syntax of the while loop is as follows: while (test loop variable by a condition) { statements } The operation for the while loop is as follows:

Test Expressio n

Exit False

True Body of loop

for example, to display the numbers from 1 to 10 main( ) { int a = 1; /* initialize the variable */ while (a <= 10) { cout<<\n<<a; a+ +;} /*increment the value of the variable*/ } In this program, first the condition is checked if it is true, then the value of a is displayed as 1, then the value of a is incremented and again the condition is checked. The process continues till the value of a is less than and equal to 10. Do-while loop If the condition in the while loop is initially false, then the body of the loop is not executed at all i.e. it first checks the condition and then performs the statement, but in the do-while loop the statement within the loop

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is performed atleast once irrespective of the condition. In do-while loop the condition is given at the end i.e. after the body of the loop. The syntax of the do-while loop is: do { statements } Body of loop while (condition);

Test Expression

False Exit

True

For example, to display the nos. from 1 to 10, using do-while loop, the program will be as: main ( ) { int a = 1; do { cout<<\n<<a; a + +; while (a<=10); } } In this program, first the value of a is displayed as 1, then the value of a is incremented and the condition is checked for whether the value of a is less than or equal to 10. If it is true the body of the loop is performed otherwise the statements within the body of the loop are skipped and control is transferred to the statements written immediately following the condition. Thus, we see that a would have been displayed even if the condition were false for the first time. For loop In while and do-while loops the variable whose value is checked in the condition is initialized outside the body of the loop. Inside the body of the loop the variable is incremented or decremented as required. For loops with smaller body these are quite satisfactory but for bigger loops having larger number of statements it could become quite difficult to check for what is the initialization statement and to search the increment or decrement statement inside the body of the loop. for provides a better solution for this problem. In for loop the initialization, condition and increment or decrement can be done at one place, in the starting of the loop. The syntax of the for loop is: for (initialize variable; condition; increment or decrement variable) { statement }

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Initialization Expression

False Test Expression True Body of loop Exit

Increment Expression

Here, the variable is initialized first, then the condition is checked. If the condition is true, only then the statements forming the body of the loop will be executed. After the execution of the statements the increment or decrement operation is performed and after that the condition is checked again. If it is still found to be true, the statements are executed once more, then the increment or decrement operation is performed and thus the process goes on till the condition does not become false. For example, to display the nos. from 1 to 10 the program can be written as: main () { int a; /* no need to initialize here */ for (a = 1; a<= ; a + +) { cout<<\n<<a; } } In this program, the first condition is checked, if it is true, then the value of a is displayed as 1, then the value of a is incremented and again the condition is checked for whether a is less than or equal to 10. If it is true, the body of the loop is performed otherwise the control comes out of the loop. the for loop is special for the following reasons: 1. You can declare variable inside the initialization stub 2. You can declare and initialize more than one variable in the initialization stub, all separated by comma. Similarly, more than one variables value can be modified in the increment or decrement stub. Explain the following: Switch statement Switch statement provides better alternative than a large series of if-else statements because any part of the code can be executed on the value of an expression. In this, a particular group of statement can be chosen from several available groups. This selection is based upon the current value of a expression, which is included within the switch statement. The syntax of the switch statement is : switch (n) { case 1: statement; First-case body statement; break; case 2: statement; Second-case body

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statement; break; case 3: statement; statement; break; case n: statement; statement; n-case body statement; break; default: statement; Default body statement; statement; } Continue statement The break statement, when executed, causes the immediate termination of the loop containing it. C also provides a statement called Continue which terminates only the current iteration of the loop that immediate encloses it, thus causing execution to resume with the next iteration. For example the following function prints out all nos. in the range 1 through 100 which are not multiples of 7: non_7 ( ) Start of loop { int 1; for (i = 1 ; i <= 100; i + + ) { if (I % 7 = = 0) continue; Condition cout<<\n<<i; Continue within } loop Normal loop return Third-case body

The continue statement can easily be replaced by an if statement, but in a loop with a more complex body sometime sit is easier to use continue. Many proponents of structured programming criticize the use of continue because it can always be replaced by an if statement, other approve of is use for the same reason. Many programmers believe that both break and continue are acceptable in a structure programs since they permit control to be transferred only locally. Unlike the break statement, continue has no meaning in the context of a switch statement. If it is used inside one, it causes termination of the iteration of a loop enclosing the switch. If a continue statement is not enclosed within a loop a syntax error is indicated by the compiler. Break statement The Break statement is used to terminate a loop or a sequence of statement in a switch statement. A break statement enforces immediate termination. In a loop when a break statement is encountered, the loop is terminated and the program control moves to the next statement following the loop. It is simply written as break; For example, main ( ) { int i; for (i = 1; i <= 100; i + +) {

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if (i = = 10) break; cout<<\n<<i; } cout<<\nOut of the loop; } Goto statement The goto statement is used to alter the normal sequence of program execution by transferring the control to some other part of the program. The control may be transferred to any part of the program. The goto statement is written as goto label; where label is the identifier used as the target where the control is to be transferred. For example, main ( ) { int i; cout<<enter the no. of times Pakistan has won against India:; cin>>I; if (i<10) goto change; cout<<India is the best team in Asia; goto end; change: cout<<change the Indian Team; end: } In this program change is the identifier that is used to target at the other statement where the control is transferred. After the first cout statement is written again a goto statement is used to make the control jump after the second cout function call. If this had not been done after executing first cout statement the control would come to next cout statement and the message, Change the Indian Team would also be printed.

Q. What are functions? How do you declare, define and call a function in C++?
Ans. A function groups a number of program statements into a unit and give it a name. The most important reason to use functions is to aid in the conceptual organization of a program. Dividing a program into functions is as one of the major principles of structured programming. Another reason to use functions is to reduce program size. Any sequence of instructions that appears in a program more than once is a candidate for being made into a function. The functions code is stored in only one place in memory, even though the function is executed many times in the course of the program. Thus functions serve as subprograms and procedures in C++. The components to execute functions in C++ are: Function declaration Calling the function Function definition Function declaration The most common approach is to declare the function at the beginning of the program. The syntax for declaring a function is Data-type function-name(argument list); Here data type can be int, float, char E.g. void starline(); The declaration tells the compiler that at some point we plan to present a function called starline. The keyword void specifies that the function has no return value, and the parenthesis indicate that it take no arguments. The function declarations are terminated with a semi-colon. It is a complete statement in itself. Function declarations are also called prototypes since they provide a model for the function. They tell the compiler a function that looks like this is coming up later in the program, so its all right if you see references to it before you the function itself. Calling the function The function is called when the function name is given. E.g.

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starline(); This is all we need to call the function: the function name followed by parentheses. The syntax of the call is very similar to that of the declaration, except that the return type is not used. The call is terminated by a semicolon. Executing the call statement causes the function to execute; that is control is transferred to the function, the statements in the function definition are executed and then control returns to the statement following the function call. Function definition Finally we come to the function itself, which is referred to as the function definition. The definition contains the actual code fro the function. Eg void starline() // declarator { for (int =0;j<45;j++) // function body cout<< * ; cout<< endl; } The definition consists of a line called the declarator, followed by the function body. The function body is composed of the statements that make up the function, delimited by braces. The declarator must agree with the declaration. It must have the same function name, have the same argument types in the same order and have the same return type. Notice that the declarator is not terminated by a semicolon. As with loops the entire function definition including the declarator, opening brace, the function body, and the closing brace is considered to be one program statement. The following shows the syntax of the function declaration, function call and function definition void main() { void func1(); Return Semi-colon type FUNCTION DECLARATION func1(); Semi-colon .. FUNCTION CALL .. .. } void func1() No Semi-colon { Return FUNCTION FUNCTION DEFINITION type BODY } No Semi-colon Thus in short we can term the working of functions as following: Component Declaration (Prototype) Call Definition Purpose Specifies function name, argument types, and return values. Alerts compiler and programmer that function is coming up later Causes the function to be executed The function itself. Contains the lines of code that constitute the function Example void func();

Declarator

First line of definition

func(); void func() { // lines of code } void func()

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Q. How do you pass value between functions?

Ans. While declaring functions you can pass some arguments to it. These arguments are also called parameters . Arguments represent information being passed between the functions. Any number of arguments can be passed to a function. Arguments passed to function from the called function are just name of the variable that the calling function have. These are called actual arguments .To receive the values passed by the caller function, the called function must be declare same types of variable in the brackets just after the function name. In this context the variables are known as formals arguments. The variable names between the actual and the formal arguments may differ, but the type and /or order in which they are displayed and the number of actual and formal arguments must always be the same. If they differ, the program will display an error while compiled. For e.g. , to create an add function, that performs the addition operation the function could be written as below: void main (void) { int add(int a, int b); int a,b,res; cout<<enter two integers:; cin>>a>>b; res=add(a,b); cout<<the addition of<<a<<and<<b<<is<<res; } add(int x,int y) { int sum; sum= x+y; return(sum); } In the above example, you can see that function has declared as to return an integer value by mentioning its data type before its name while declaring. To parameters or arguments of data type integer with variable names a & b are passed. While defining the functions add, again the same data types as parameter are passed. In this a & b are actual arguments where x & y are formal arguments. The value of a gets assigned to x and the value of b to y. This also makes clears that the order of parameters does matter i.e., first variable while declaring, assigns the value to the first variable while defining. Thus, if we have written add (int y, int x) while defining, the value of a would had been assigned to y and not to x. It is also necessary that value being passed back must be of the same type as specified in the declaration.

Q. What are Storage Classes? Classify them.

Ans. Both data type and storage class can classify variables. The storage class specifies the portion of the program within which the variables are recognized. Thus, storage class identifies the scope of the variable. All variables have certain default storage classes even though it is not mentioned. All the variables are stored basically in two location of the computer: memory and CPU registers. It is the storage class that determines in which of these two locations is the value of the variable to be stored. The functions of storage class are: 1) It identifies the place for storage of variable, whether it is local or global. 2) It identifies so to how long the variable would exist. This means when the called function returns, the variables declared in that function may or may not lose their values. 3) Whenever a variable is declared but not initialized it is the storage class that does the initialization of the variable i.e. it gives a default initial value to the variable. In C++ storage classes are classified into four types: (a) Automatic storage class The variables defined in automatic storage class are always declared within a function and have a local scope i.e. can be used only within that function where they are declared. Thus, variables defined as automatic storage class are independent of one another so they can be of same name within different

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functions. By default, any variable defined in a function is interpreted as an automatic storage class unless it is specified. The features of automatic storage class variables are as under: i. It is stored in memory. ii. Any value can be assigned to a variable when declared and this value is called a garbage value. This is done only when the user does not initialize the variable with some specific value. iii. The scope of these variables is local to the block in which they are defined. iv. The life of a variable is till the control is in the block. As soon as the control is out of the block, the value of the variable is lost. (b) Static storage class The variables defined in static storage class have the same scope as that of automatic storage class i.e. they are local to the function in which it is defined. They cannot be accessed outside the function where they arte declared. These variables are defined in the same manner as automatic except that the variable declaration must begin within the key word static. The features of static storage class variables are as under: i. These variables are stored in memory. ii. The variable declared is initialized by a default value 0, if not initialized by the user. iii. The scope of the variable is local to the block in which it is defined. iv. Unlike automatic variables, static variables retain their value throughout the life of their program. Thus, if a function is existed and reentered later, static variable retain their value. (c) Register storage class The variables defined in register storage class are also local to the function in which they are declared i.e. they have local scope. These cannot be used in another function if declared in some specific function. These are also declared in the same way as automatic or static but are declared by using the keyword register. The feature of register storage class variables are as: i. These variables are stored in CPU registers. A value stored in CPU registers can be accesses faster than that stored in memory. ii. These variables are assigned any garbage value when declared. iii. These variables cannot be accessed out of the function in which they arte defined. This means that they have local scope. iv. These variables persist the value until the control remains in the block where they are defined. As soon as the control is out, life of the value is ended. Loop variables are the most frequently used as register storage class variables. When we declare a variable as register, this means that these are stored directly into the register, which performs operations. Unlike, memory there is no need to fetch the variables from register, as they are stored there it self. In spite of this advantage a limit of storing variables as register is that if the CPU register are busy performing some other operations, then the variable stored in the register would not get priority but will be treated as an automatic storage class variable. Another disadvantage is that it does not support all types of variables like float, double etc. As they require a large storing capacity. (d) External storage class The variables defined in external storage class do not have a local scope but a global scope. These variables persist the same value from functions to functions. They can be accessed in any of the function. These variables are declared outside of all functions, and can be made available to all functions that need to use them. The features of external storage class are as follows: i. These variables are stored in the memory of computer. ii. By default, the initial value of the variable is set to zero when declared, if the user does not initialize it. iii. The scope of the variable is global. These variables are also called External variables as they can be accessed in any of the function. a variable declared globally as an advantage as if a value is assigned to it in one function, this value can be used within another function that access it. iv. These are available, till the programs execution does not end.

Q. Why is the purpose of Return statement in C++? How does the return statement work with functions?
Ans. Return statement is the last statement of a function. The main reason for executing the return statement is that when it is executed the control moves to the calling statement. Whether a function send back any value to the calling function or not but there must be the use of the return statement with or without the return value. Thus the return statement communicates the result of the operation of the called function to the place where the call is

17

made. It transfers the execution control to the location where the function was accessed. The general syntax for return statement is: return; or return variable; or return(expression); or return(variable); The return statement gives either a single value or a number or a character. It can be empty also. E.g.: void main() { int x, y, z, mul(int, int); cout<<Enter the value of x and y:<<endl; cin>>x>>y; z=mul(x, y); cout<<Product is:<<z; getche(); } int mul(int p, int q) { int s; s=p*q; return(s); } Functions and Return Statement Sometimes a function program takes value from the main program and sometimes it does not. On the basis of this concept we categorize the function programs in three types: (a) Function with no argument and no return values In this category main program will not send any argument and also function subprogram will not send any return value. Function1() void function2() No argument { { statement; statement; statement; statement; No return function2(); return; statement; } statement; } (b) Function with argument and no return value Here main program will send actual argument value, but called program will not return any value to the main program or the calling program. Function1() void function2() With argument { { statement; statement; statement; statement; No return function2(); return; statement; } statement; } (c) Function with argument and with return value In this case main program or the calling program will send actual arguments and then on verifying the values the called program or the function will send back the return value. Function1() With argument { int p, r, t, si; int function2(arg, list); int function2(int a, int b, int c) { statement; statement;

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statement; si=function2(p, r, t); statement; }

With return

statement; return(z); }

Q. What are Unions?

Unions, like structures store within them different data types. The only difference between the two is that members within a union share the same storage area within the computers memory, whereas each member within the structure has its own unique storage area. Thus, unions conserve memory. The syntax for unions is identical to that for structures, except that the keyword struct is replaced with keyword union. The general format of defining Unions is : Union Unions-name { datatype-1 member-element-1; ..; datatype-n member-element-n; } v1, v2, ,vn; Or the other method of declaring an union is: Union union-name { datatype-1 member-element-1; ; datatype-n member-element-n; }; union-name v1, v2,, vn; where union is the keyword, union-name is the name that identifies the union and members are the variables that may be of different data types. A union can contain as many members as desired, of any type, but it allocates only enough memory to hold the largest member. The size of the union can be determined by using the size of the operator either on the type of the union or the union variable. If union is used within the structure, then the size of the union will be the combination of structure and union both. The union can be declared either outside the main program or within the main program. The difference between the structure and union is viewed in the memory allocation.

Q. Give the difference between Structures and Unions

Structures 1. It is composed of members where each member is assigned its own unique storage area. 2. Every member has its memory. 3. All members may be initialized. 4. Different interpretations of the same memory location are not possible 5. Consumes more space in the memory 6. the keyword used is struct 7. eg: struct date { int day; int month; int year; }; Unions 1. It is composed of members where all members share the same storage area within computers memory. 2. All members use the same memory. 3. Only its member may be initialized. 4. Different interpretations of the same memory location are possible. 5. conservation of memory is possible 6. The keyword used is union 7. eg: union date { int day; int month; int year; };

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Q. Differentiate between arrays and structures.

There are two important distinctions between arrays and structures. To start with, the elements of an array must all have the same type. In the structure, the components or fields may have different data types. Next, a component of an array is referred to by its position in the array whereas each component of a structure has a unique name. Structure and arrays are similar in that both must be defined with a finite number of components. Array Structure 1. An array is a collection of data items of the same 1. A structure is a collection of data items of different data type. data types. 2. it can be only declared. 2. It can declared and defined. 3. There is no keyword used. 3. The keyword used is struct 4. An array name represents the address of the starting 4. It is a short hand notation of the declaration. element. 5. An array cannot have bit fields. 5. A structure may contain bit fields.

Q. What are Structures? Explain the declaration of Structures.

In C++, collection of different types of data can be grouped to form a structure. When this is done, the entire collection can be referred to by a structure name. In addition, the individual components which are called fields or members can be accessed and processed separately. A structure is declared in the following way: struct < structure-name> { structure element 1; structure element 2; structure element 3; .. .. }; Memory allocated is according to the structure elements, like, if you have one structure element as int, other as char and third as float, 7 bytes would be fixed in memory for such structure i.e. 2 for int, 1 for char, and 4 for float, which equals 7 bytes. These bytes are always in adjacent memory locations. For example, we can make a structure of employee, which consists of name, address, and salary of the employee in one group. main( ) { struct employee { char name[10]; char address[25]; float salary; }; } We define structure by starting with keyword struct, then giving the structure-name. This is followed by the body of the structure within, which we define the members of the structure. Each member of its structure though must have its own unique name. Accessing structure elements: The members of the structure are not assigned any place in memory. On declaring a variable, the members of the structure represent locations in the memory. Thus, you need to declare a variable after you complete your structure declaration. Thus, the above program can be rewritten as: struct employee { char name[10]; char address[25]; float salary; }e1; Else, we can declare a variable like we did with inbuilt data types as: Struct employee e1;

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As arrays are accessed by their index number, the dot operator accesses the members of the structures i.e. Structure-variable.member-varaible Thus, to access the three members of structure employee, we say: e1.name e1.address e1.salary To assign value we write as follows: Strcpy(e1.name,Tom); Strcpy(e1.address,12/2 New York); e1.salary = 500215;

Q. How can an entire structure be passed to a function?

We can pass an individual structure element or the entire structure to function by illustrating the following example: void main( ) { struct employee { char name[10]; char address[25]; float salary; }; void emp(char s, char *, float); struct employee e1 = {Tom,15/2 New York, 500215}; emp(e1.name, e1.salary); } void emp(char s, char *, int u) { cout<< s<<t<<u; } The output of the above program would be Tom 15/2 New York 500215 In the above program, we have declared name and address as arrys in the structure employee. Therefore, we call the function emp( ) by the statement : emp(e1.name, e1.address, e1.salary) The example is passing the address of the variable name and address but not passing the value of salary. Thus, there is a mixed call i.e. call by reference as well as a call by value. To pass an individual element would become a tedious task as the number of variables in a structure is increased. So the method to pass the whole structure in a function would be the best way to solve this problem. But before you pass structure in a function it is necessary to declare the structure before main as the function emp( ) would not know the structure. Thus, the structure is declared before the main function. for example, the above program can be done in this way: Struct employee { char name[10]; char address[25]; float salary; }; main( ) { void emp(struct employee); struct employee e1 = {Tom, 15/2 New York, 500215}; emp(e1); } void emp(struct employee e1)

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{ cout<< e1.name<<e1.address<< e1.salary); } In other words, structure is declared global so that it becomes known to all functions in the program. Thus the relationship of structure with functions can be viewed as: (a) Passing structure to a function Here the structures can be passed to the functions as arguments. (b) Function returning structure All he values can be computed in the function programs and return a combined value of whole structure back (c) Passing array of structure to function A complicated passing of an array of structures to the function is a difficult job, but the passing of array becomes very easy by using the passing of array as an individual element.

Q. What do you understand by pointers? Give the uses of Pointers.

A pointer is a variable which holds the memory address of another variable. Sometimes, only with the pointer the complex data type can be declared and accessed in an easy way. The pointer has the following advantages: i. It provides functions which can be modify their calling arguments. ii. It supports dynamic allocation routines. iii. It improves the efficiency by certain routines. A pointer contains a memory address. Most commonly, this address is the location of another variable where it has been stored in memory. If one variable contains the address of another variable, then the first variable is said to point to the second. Sometimes, the pointer is the only technique to represent and to access the complex data structure in an easy way. In C++, the pointers are distinct such as integer pointer, floating point number pointer, character pointer etc. The pointer variable consists of two parts such as pointer operator and address operator. The main reasons to use pointers are: i. To return more than value from a function. ii. To pass arrays and strings more conveniently from one function to another. iii. To manipulate arrays more easily by moving pointers to them, instead of moving the arrays themselves. iv. To create complex data structures. v. To communicate information about the memory.

The advantages or uses of pointers are as follows: i. The pointer enables the variables which is used outside the function or used in the another subprogram. ii. Pointer increases the execution speed of the C++ programming. iii. Pointer reduces the length and complexity of the program. iv. Pointers are more efficient in handling the data table i.e. two-dimensional arrays. v. Use of pointer to the character array or the string saves the storage space in the memory. vi. Pointer gives accurate result. vii. We can make C++ programming easier by the use of the pointer. viii. Pointers have a direct link with structure and union. ix. By using pointer, we can declare less number of variables in the memory.

Q. How do you declare a pointer variable?

A variable is declared as a pointer by accomplishing it with an asterisk (*). For example, int *a; This indicates that a variable a has been declared as a pointer, which will hold the address of an integer type of data. Pointer variables are named in the same way as any other variable. When a variable is declared as a pointer, it does not contain any value.

Q. Explain the working of dereferencing operators (& and *).

The operator & is used to specify address of the variable. The operator * is used for retrieving the value stored at a particular address. Whenever you declare a variable int a = 10; the computer automatically assigns memory for

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this data item. This data item can be accessed if you know the address of the memory cell where the value of this data item is stored. Therefore, when you say &a this would return the address of the variable a and if we simply say a this would return the value of the variable a. Now, when we want to access the value of a particular variable by calling its address, we write the expression *(&a), this means the value of a variable a. For example, main( ) { int a = 10; cout<<Address of a = << &a; cout<<Value of a = <<*a; cout<<Value of a =<< a; The output of the above program would be: Address of a = 4002 Value of a = 10 Value of a = 10 Thus we can use the pointer in different ways as: &*(variable) address of the value stored *&(variable) value of the pointer *&*(variable) value of the variable through pointer

Q. How can one assign value to pointers?

The & operator when used as a prefix returns the address of the variable. When you need to assign this address to some other variable you need to write variable name = &(another variable name) i.e., b = &a; This expression assigns address of a variable a to variable b. This variable b would be kept at some other memory location example and should be defined as a pointer like : int *b; Variable name Values Memory location a 10 4002 b 4002 6008

Thus, you can see that the address of a is stored in b which itself is stored at another location i.e. 6008. You need to declare the variable b before you use it. But, as this would not be an ordinary variable but a variable containing the address of some other variable so this would be declared as a pointer, which points to some others variable address. As, int *b; Thus, this expression means that if printed, it would display the value of the address of the variable it points i.e., 4002 because it points to location 4002 which consists of value 10.

Q. Show how pointers are related to arrays.

Arrays are internally stored as pointers. The elements of an array can be accessed efficiently by using a pointer. For example, main( ) { int arr[5] = {10,20,30,40,50}; int i, *p; p = &arr[0]; for(i = 0; i < 5; i + +) {

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cout<< p<< <<*p; p+ +; } } The output of the above program will be: 4000 10 4002 20 4004 30 4006 40 4008 50 Thus, the address of the first array element can be expressed as either &arr[0] or simply arr. Pointers are linked with arrays having two types: (a) One Dimensional Array Pointer - The address of an one dimensional array element through pointers can be computed as: Address of x(element no.) = base address + element no. * scale factor of data type (b) Two Dimensional Array Pointer Pointer with two dimensional array varies according their addresses. The syntax for this is: data-type(*array-name)[column-size];

Q. Explain how pointers are passed to functions.

Pointers are often passed to a function as arguments. This allows data item within the calling portion of the program to be accessed by the information. It can be altered within the function and returned in the altered form to the calling program. The process used for printing the address of a variable can also be used to access the address of a function. For example, void main( ) { int message( ); cout<<Address of the function message is<< message; message( ) { cout<<how are you; } This program would display the address where the function is stored. If we want this address to be pointed, we could have declared a pointer. Suppose int(*a)( ); and then by writing a = &display or a =display where display is a function name, we can make a pointer to point it to a function. Therefore, instead of calling a function by its name you can call the function through this function also as: (*a)( ); Call by reference When we pass pointers to functions we say that functions are called by reference rather than value. in call by reference, addresses of the arguments are supplied rather than their value. these addresses are then used by the called function to access the argument variable. Steps involved for using pointers in a function are: 1. Pass address of the variable using the ampersand (&). 2. Declare the variables as pointer within function. 3. Refer to the values contained in memory location by asterisk (*). For example, void fun(int *); main( ) { int i = 10; cout<<\n<< i ; /* i will be 10 here */ fun(&i);

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cout<<\n<< i ; /* i will be 30 here */ } void fun(int *p) { *p = 30; } Here, we can see the address of variable i is passed to the function named fun using ampersand. While receiving the variable, p is declared as pointer to int in fun. In fun, the value of i is accessed using asterisk(*). Thus, after function call the value of i printed will be 30. Functions returning pointers The way functions return data type, similarly, a function can return a pointer. To make this possible we had to declare the function as a pointer, example, int display( ); /* function declaration as returning pointer */ For example, to find the greater of 2 nos. void main( ) { int a,b, *c; int *greater(int, int); cout<<enter two nos; cin>>a>>b; c = greater(a,b); cout<<greater number is << *c; } int *greater(int i, int j) { int *p,*q; p = &i; q = &j; if(*p >= *q) return (p); else return(q); } In the above program, when you pass the values of a and b to i and j, we assign their address to p and q and then check for the greater by using pointers. The function returns the pointer i.e., the address of the greater number and then display its value.

Q. Explain how pointers can function with another pointer.

A pointer contains the address of the data item pointed to and by it. This data item that is pointed to may be a pointer itself i.e., it can contain the address of another data item. Thus, a pointer can point to another pointer, which in turn points to a data item. Accessing data item from the given pointer requires two levels of indirection i.e.(* *). For example, int *b; int **c; a b c

10

4002

6008

4002 6008 7024 What happens is that b stores the address of a. Thus, if we print *b it would give the value of a i.e. 10, whereas c contains the address of b which itself is a pointer to a. This is what is called pointer to pointer. Thus we say cout<< **c;

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Output will again be 10. Pointer to pointer is also used to write multi-dimensional array pointers to objects. The pointer to a pointer is form of multiple of indirection or a class of pointer. It contains the address of the second pointer i.e. it points to the variable that contains the value desired. The general syntax used for the pointer to pointer is: Data-type **pointer-name ; Where data-type can be integer or float and pointer-name is the name of the pointer. The sign ** signifies the pointer to pointer. E.g. int **p; Where p=pointer which holds the address of another pointer.

Q. How can a pointer operate with an array of strings?

Ans. A string is an array of character data type. Every string ends with a null \0 character. We can declare and print a string as: char city[ ] = amritsar; for(int i=0; city[i] != \0; i++) { cout<<city[i]; } thus pointers are useful in processing of text or line of text. As string is in sequential order and a pointer can handle a string very easily. So pointers with strings perform many string operations. Pointers also give the following benefits to the string operations: 1. When character variables are exchange or assign one character string to another character type variable, then pointers with characters are more efficient as all pointers are of the same size. This will involve less time of execution. 2. A character array with pointers will occupy memory depending upon the size of the string. Pointers behave with small and small string in the equal way, so pointers with strings leads to a better memory management. Thus we cannot set fixed block of memory depending on the size of the array. 3. A numerical pointer array cannot be initialized directly. But we can initialize character type variable by using the array of character. 4. Usage of library string functions is not required in the case of pointer variable. 5. An array of pointers makes manipulations of the strings much easier. We can easily exchange the positions of strings in the array using pointers without actually changing their memory locations. We can declare and use the string with pointers as: char city[ ] = amritsar; char *cp; // a character pointer is declared for(cp=city; *cp != \0; cp++) { cout<<*cp; }

Q. What are Classes?

Ans. A class is a way to bind the data describing an entity and its associated function together. In C++ class makes a data type that is used to create object of this type. The definition of a class should be a data type definition. It describes what kind of values the variable can hold and what are the various member functions linked within a structure that helps to the group all the data elements and the functions linked with the class structure help to organize program that perform a particular task. Thus a class is a data type whose variables are objects. Objects as variables, has member functions and can hold data values. The keyword specified for a class is class. The body of the class is enclosed with curly braces and terminated by a colon. There are basically two types of classes, viz. private class where we can hide data and it will be accessed by functions defined within the class and on the other hand we have a public class which are also specified within the class but are accessible by any function even from outside the class. Generally data is private and functions are public. The syntax for declaring a class is: Class class-name

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{ private: data-type1 data-member1 ; ---------------------------------data-type n data-member n; member-function( ) ; operations ; list of functions ; public: data-types data-members ; member-function( ); operations ; protected: data-type n data-member n; operations ; list of functions ; }; class class-name v1, v2, v3,, vn where class keyword private, public, protected three levels of a class data-member arguments v1, v2, ..vn list of variables or objects So a class is an operation which is used to name a class, to declare its data variables and data functions or methods or interface operations of the class. In a class at least one of the following items is necessary: Data, function, classes (sub-classes), enumerations, bit fields, friends, data-type name

Q. Write notes on:

Private Private classes are used to hide data. In nature of C++ programming private classes encapsulate data. A data member can be accessed and processed by the member function and the friend function of this class. These can be used to read or write private data members. These data members cannot be accessed by the outer class or out of this class. The syntax is as follows: private: data-type1 data-member1 ; ---------------------------------data-type n data-member n; member-function( ) ; operations ; list of functions ; Public In the public class, data members can be accessed and processed by all the member function and the friend function by the other classes or out of this class. It is also called a member function operations or methods or interfaces which are used out of the class. So any member function or friend function can send messages to an object of this class through these methods or interface function. The public data member can always be read and written outside the class from any location. The syntax is: public: data-types data-members ; member-function( ); operations ; Protected In the protected class, the data members can be accessed and processed by the member function and the friend function of this class. These functions can be accessed by the member functions and friend function derived from the class. The protected data member and member function is not accessible to the outer class. The syntax is: protected:

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data-type n data-member n; operations ; list of functions ; The working of protected is similar to that of the private class. Global Class A class is said to be global class if its definition is outside the bodies of all function in a program. It means that an object of a global class can be declared from anywhere in the program. Local Class A class is said to be local class if its definition occur inside a function body. It means the object of this class type can be declared only within the function in which class is declared. Global Object An object is said to be a global object if it is declared outside all the functions bodies and it is available to all functions in the program. It means global object can be used anywhere. A global object can only be declared in a global class type. Local Object An object is said to be a local object if it is declared within a functions. It means local object is available only to the function in which it is declared so it cannot be used the function declaring it. A local object can be created from both global as well as local class type. Inline function The inline functions are designed to speed up the programs in C++. All the functions are defined in the class and are default. The inline functions tell the compiler to replace the function code where the function is called in the program. User can make a function inline by typing the keyword inline before the start of the function. (Why is inline function used in C++?) Mostly a function is used to reduce the size of the program. Whenever a function is called, control is transferred to the function. If a function is called from the calling function number of times, then the control has to be transferred to the function every time and so there be lot of overheads used. To call a function many times space has to be used to pass parameters to it by allocating storage for its local variables etc. So it is beneficial to declare a function inline. Inline function is a compact function calls. These functions are recommended only for functions having few statements. An inline function should be placed above all the function that call it. Inline functions run faster than the normal functions because its calling overhead consumes less memory space. If a function is called five times then five copies of the function are inserted into the code. The syntax for inline function is: Inline data-type function-name(argument list) { body of inline function ; } The other advantages of inline functions are: a) It reduces the size of the object code. b) It increases the execution speed of the program. c) It will compact the function calls. Friend function (Q. Why do we use friend functions?)A friend function is a non-member function that can access private and protected members of the class. A friend class can also access classs private and protected members. The prototype declaration of the friend function requires use of keyword friend before it. When two or more than two classes relate with each other in a program, very closely then a friend function interlinks these by sharing the private and protected data member and member function t make the full use of resources. The syntax of friend class is: Friend data-type function-name(argument list) ; The advantages of a friend function is as follows: a) Friend function can be declared anywhere in the class. b) A function may be declared as friend to more than one class. c) A friend class can access the members of another private and protected classes. d) By using the keyword friend member classes can be related to each other one-directionally e) Friend attribute depends only upon its original declaration and definition. f) It can be called like any other normal function.

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g) Friend function cannot access the member of the class directly and these can be accessed through object name and dot operator ( . ) which is also called membership operator. h) A member function of the class operates on the members of the objects used to call it, while a friend function operates upon the objects passed to it as arguments. i) Friend functions can access both private and public members of the class while non-members can access only public members of the class. j) The keyword friend will appear with declaration of the function inside the class definition and not with the definition of function outside the class definition. Constant function A constant function is a member function that can modify the data. The keyword const is used to access this function. The syntax of the constant function is: Const data-type function-name(argument list) ; Nested function A nest member function is any member function which can call another member function in the same class. The syntax for nested function is as follows: Data-type classname : : function-name(argument list) { member function( ) ; } Static function A static function that type of function which can access only the static members of the class. A static member is always associated with the class rather than any instance of the class. The keyword static is used to precede the member function to make a member function static. It uses only the static data member of the class. The static member function acts as global for members of its class without affecting the remaining program. The main purpose of static member is to reduce the need for global variables by providing alternative that are local to a class. The syntax for static function is as: Static data-type function-name(argument list) ; Virtual function These are used to handle some specific tasks related to classes and objects. A virtual function is linked with concept of polymorphism. The keyword for virtual function is virtual. A virtual function is basically used when a pointer calls it and the class of the object pointed to determine which function definition is used.

Q. Give the difference between Structure and Classes.

Ans. Structure 1. A structure is a collection of related fields having different data types 2. The keyword used for structures is struct 3. In a structure the data member and member function are public by default 4. Variables are used in structures 5. Structures are used to group the heterogeneous data Classes 1. A class ia a way to bind the data describing an entiy and its associated function together. 2. The keyword used for classes is class 3. In a class the data member and the member function are private by default. 4. Objects are used in classes. 5. Classes are used to group the heterogeneous data and functions both. 6. Structures do not have the property of data hiding 6. Data hiding concept is used in Classes. 7. Structures are procedure oriented 7. Classes are object oriented 8. Structures deal with variables only 8. Classes deal with real world objects 9. Structure members can be directly accessed by the 9. Class members cannot be accessed directly, but structure variables by any function anywhere either through member function. local or global. 10. Syntax 10. Syntax struct tagname class tagname { {

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data-type member1; data-type member2; data-type membern; }; struct tagname v1, v2, ., vn;

private: data members; member function; public: data members; member functions; protected: data members; member functions; }; class tagname obj1, obj2,, objn;

Q. What are the methods of defining a member function in the class?

Ans. User can specify the code for the member function in two ways: a) Inside the class definition and b) Outside the class definition Inside the class definition When a member is defined inside the class, then it processes all the operations just as in a simple function declaration. It means that it is necessary o put membership label along with the function name. e.g. class accounts { private: int accno; char name[20]; float balance; public: void read( ) { cout<<\n Enter the account number, name and balance ; cin>>accno>>name>>balance; } void write( ) { cout<<Enter the account number, name and balance ; cout<<accno ; cout<<Name of Customer is:<<name ; cout<<Balance is:<<balance<<endl ; } }; Only small functions are defined inside the class definition. Member functions defined inside the class are inline function by default with all its limitations. Functions defined in a class specification are automatically inline. In the example, read( ), write( ) member functions are inline function. Inline functions tell the compiler to insert the code for the body of the function at the place where it is called, so it saves the overheads of a function call i.e. time spent in loading and unloading of the function called. Outside the class definition Due to inherent drawbacks of inline function, we define member function outside the class definition. The definition of member function outside the class is similar to the normal function definition. The syntax of such type of class is: Class-name :: function-name Here :: is called the scope resolution operator. It specifies that the scope of the function is restricted to the classname. the general syntax of defining member functions outside the class definition is as: Return-type class-name::function-name(declaration of argument) { function body ; }

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Here the return-type be either int or float or char or void etc. By using the scope resolution operator, several different classes can use the same function name. When a member function calls another function of the same class then there is no need of membership label. The membership label will resolve their identity and scope.

Q. How do we can access a member of a class?

Ans. The members of the class are referred using object of the class. The private data of a class can be accessed only through the member function of that class. The public data can be accessed by the objects directly. The member functions of a class are called using the objects. In other words calling a member function of an object is also called sending message to the object. The general format for calling data member and member function is as: Object-name.public-data-member; Object-name.function.name(argument list); The following statements are valid in the case of classes: Class abc { int a; //private by default int b; public: int c; int add(int x, int y) { int z; z = x + y; return z; } int sub(int x, int y) { int z; x = x y; return z; } }; class abc m1, m2; //declaration of objects m1 and m2

Q. What are Constructors? Why are Constructors used in C++? What are the properties of Constructors?
Ans. A constructor is a special member function used for automatic initialization of an object. They are used for initializing values to the member data element of a class. In C++ a constructor is a member of class and has the same name. C++ defines a constructor by default if it is not defined by the user. A member data can be initialized in a class using a constructor and modified outside the class provided the member data are declared in public. The syntax for defining a constructor is: Class class-name { private : data-type data members; public : class-name( ); // constructor defined } For example class Player { int health; int strength;

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int agility; Player(); Player(int s, int a); void move(); void attackMonster(); void getTreasure(); }; // constructor - no return type // alternate constructor takes two parameters

Use of Constructors Constructors in C++ are used to initialize the value of object for the compiler. When an object is created for a program then it is only the programmer who knows what type of object is used and how it is initialized. IN case where the programmer fails to call assign( ) public member function during the program then the object will be full of garbage and it will provide compilations to the program. This will cause the program to halt or interrupt it. The solution to this problem is to let the compiler initialize the value the object as the compiler knows when the object was created. Every time an object is created, the compiler will automatically initialize it by involving the initializing function. Thus it becomes the compilers responsibility if and only if the initialization function bears the same name as that of the class and so it is a constructor. In other words, a constructor for a class is needed so that the compiler automatically initializes an object as soon it is created. A class constructor can be called of its defined whenever a program creates an object of that class. Properties of Constructors 1. A constructor has no return value. 2. The void type cannot be used. 3. Constructors can neither be virtual or static function 4. Constructors are called automatically when the objects are called. 5. Initialization of objects are performed under classes using constructors 6. If no constructor is defined, the compiler will provide default and copy constructor automatically 7. Member function can be accessed within a constructor function 8. A constructor can have default argument 9. Private and protected constructors are operated only with a friend function while a public constructor works with member functions only 10. Commonly constructors are public 11. It is not possible to copy the address of a constructor 12. Constructors cannot be a member of unions. 13. Constructors cannot be inherited 14. Memory is provided to the constructors by using call functions such as new( ) and delete( ) operators. 15. Member functions can be called from a constructor 16. The name of construct is the same of its class.

Q. What are Destructors? Why are Destructors used in C++? What are the properties of Destructors?
Ans. Destructors are used to destroy the objects created or initialized by constructor when they are no longer required. Destructors are used for redefining the objects which were created by the constructors. A destructor function also has the same name as that of its class but it is preceded by ~ symbol. The syntax for defining a destructor is as: ~ constructor-name ( ); or ~ class-name( ); For example Player::~Player() { strength = 0; agility = 0; health = 0; }

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Like the constructors, the destructors also do not have any return type and arguments. Destructors are important in classes when dynamic memory allocation is used. In dynamic memory allocation technique, the memory space is created by new( ) and is removed by the delete( ), which is defined in destructor as: ~class-name(void) { delete variable-name; }; Use of Destructors The main purpose of destructor is to free the memory space when objects of the constructors are not used. These objects occupy unnecessary space and it is a good aim to free the memory for the allocation of other objects. Thus destructors are used. This can explained with an example. If a constructor is to open a file and a memory area is provide to it, the constructor will also allocate memory space to other objects that are linked with it. When the constructor is not required, there is a need to reallocate the memory space before the objects are destroyed. The destructor plays its role here by closing the file first and then releasing the memory area from the constructor. Thus destructor and constructor goes side by side. Properties of Destructors 1. Destructors are called automatically when objects are destroyed. 2. They may not be static 3. Destructors cannot be inherited 4. Destructors do not have any arguments and not also have any return type value 5. Destructors cannot be the members of unions. 6. Member function can be called or accessed within a class 7. Address of destructors cannot be copied. 8. No arguments can be provided to destructors. 9. Destructors can be accessed in public, private or protected. 10. If a class has a destructor, each object of that class will be initialized again before the object goes out of scope. Q. What are the types of Constructors? Explain them. Ans. Default Constructor A constructor that accepts no arguments is called the default constructor. Default constructors create objects like the variables of other data types. E.g. Class abc m1; Default constructors are further categorized in three ways: a) Default construct by the compiler When a user-defined class does not contain a properly defined constructor, the compiler automatically gives a default constructor that has no arguments. Class abc { int a; public: void read(); void write(); // member function }; main( ) { class abc m1; // uses default constructor m1.read(); // object m1 m1 write(); b) Default construct by the programmer without default argument When a default constructor is provide by the programmer without any argument or with or without any initial value. Any type of constructor can be defined inside the class definition as inline function or outside the class definition. Class abc :: abc( )

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{ a = 0; b = 0.0; } c) Default constructor by the programmer with default argument Here default constructor is provided by the programmer with at least one argument and the value in the argument is initialized. Class abc { private: int rn; float fees; public: abc (int a=20, float b=1200.25); void write(void); }; abc :: abc(int a, float b) { rn = a; fees = b; } void main() { class abc m1(32); m1.write( ); abc m2 (54, 320.23) m2.write( ); } Parameterized Constructor The constructor which may take arguments is called parameterized constructor. This type of constructor allows the programmer to initialize the various data elements of different value when they are created. This is done by passing different values as arguments to the constructor function when the objects are created. The syntax used for this declaration is as: Class class-name { private: .. ; .. ; public: class-name(argument list) { ; .. ; ; } // parameterized constructor }; In a parameterized constructor, the compiler will display an error if initial values as arguments are not provided. Thus with a parameterized constructor, the initial values must be passed as the time of object creation. This can be done by two methods a) Implicit Call and b) Explicit Call Implicit Call is calling a constructor when the constructor name is not given in the statement. This is an easy way to use the initialization of values to parameter. e.g. abc m1(20, 534.56, A) // implicit call Explicit Call is done by calling a constructor with its name with the arguments and objects. It is a temporary call as it is removed immediately when it is not required.

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e.g. abc m1 = abc(20, 534.56, A)

//explicit call

Copy Constructor A copy constructor is a constructor which is used to initialize the value of an object by copying value of an object by copying values of another object of the same class. It is a constructor of the form (classname &). The syntax to use a copy construct is: Class-name (class-name or constructor-name &object-name); or Constructor-name (class-name or constructor-name &object-name); If a copy constructor is not defined, then compiler will automatically create it and place it in public. A copy constructor takes reference to an object of the same class an argument. The process of initializing through a copy constructor is known as copy initialization and it is done under the following two conditions: a) When an object is passed by value A pass-by value method requires a copy of passed argument to be created for the function to perform on it. So to create a copy of the passed object, copy constructor is called. e.g. void write(abc) // abc is a class then for the following function call write(m1) ; // m1 is an object of the abc type So the copy constructor would invoked to create a copy of the m1 object for use by the write( ) function. If no copy is created in case of pass-by reference, then copy constructor is called. b) When a function returns an object, then the copy constructor is called by using the following prototype as: abc write( ); // abc is a class called by the function m1 = write( ); The copy construct would be invoked to create a copy of the value returned by the write( ) and so ssign to the object m1. These are used when the compiler has to create a temporary object of a class object. So copy constructor can also be used only under the circumstances when objects are stated as value parameter of a function. The syntax of the copy constructor is as: Class-name :: class-name(class-name &ptr) or x :: x (x &ptr) where x is the user defined class name and ptr is the pointer to anoher class object. Dynamic Constructor Allocation of memory to objects at the time of their creation i.e. value provided at run time I called a dynamic constructor. The dynamic initialization is very useful to change the value without changing the program. The memory in the dynamic constructor can be allocated with the help of new operator and be destruct with the help of delete operator. The programmer can read new and delete operator in the dynamic allocation later on. By using these dynamic operators, the programmer can dynamically initialize the objects. This also helps in dynamic initialization of the copy constructor.

Q. What is Operator Overloading? Give advantages of operator overloading.

Ans. Operator overloading is a powerful feature of object oriented programming language. It inherits the properties of operators and gives an extension for the usability of C++ operator to the different user defined data types. C++ has 45 operators which are defined automatically for all fundamentals data type like int, float, double, etc. Some operators of C++ can be overloaded to create a new class. E.g. D3.addobj(d1, d2); can be changed to the much more readable format such as D3 = d1 + d2; In other words we can say that operator overloading refers to giving the normal C++ operators such as +, *, <= and += additional meaning when they are applied to user-defined data types. Operator overloading can be defined as to do additional job to an operator, a special function with that operator is called operator overloading. Operator overloading is special technique used for redefining the meaning of C++ operator. The syntax for operator overloading function is: Return-type operator op(argument list) ; or Data-type operator op(argument list) ; or Data-type operator op(arguments) { body of functions; }

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where return-type is the data type like int, float, char void etc. The keyword used for operator is op. Another format for declaration of operator overloading is: return-type or data-type class-name :: operator op (argument list) { body of function; } here operator op is called operator function. Operator function should be either member function or friend function. In operator overloading a friend function will have only one argument for the unary operators and two arguments for binary operators whereas a member function will have no arguments in the case of unary operator and one argument in the case of binary operators. Operator overloading can be done by creating a class that defines the data type that is to be used in the overloading operations then declare the operator function operator op in the public access level of the class. At the end we define the operator function for the implementation of the operations according to the users requirement. There are basically two types of pre-defined operator Unary Operator Overloading and Binary Operator Overloading. Advantages of operator overloading 1) Operator overloading gives new meaning to existing operators. 2) It works with objects 3) Major string operations can be done by operator overloading. 4) Coding becomes transparent 5) Makes codes more understandable. 6) Data conversion can be done by using operator overloading. 7) Operator overloading extends the meaning of various normal operators like +, * , = etc. 8) It can be applied to user-defined data 9) It can make statements very simple and easy to understand. 10) It decreases the size of a complex program 11) All the comparison and string operations like concatenation etc can be solved by using operator overloading.

Q. Explain binary and unary operator overloading with their examples.

(Difference between unary and binary operator overloading)
Ans. Binary operator overloading are those operators that act on two operands while unary operator overloading act on only one operand. If an operator is unary then it cannot be made binary by overloading. If the operator is binary by default then it cannot be made to act as unary by overloading. Binary overloading must explicitly return a value but unary overloading does not return any value. Unary operator does not take any argument whereas binary operator takes minimum one argument. The argument is a constant reference to an object of the same type. In binary operator overloading member functions take one formal argument which is the value to the right of the operator. The syntax for declaration of binary operator is: Data-type operator op(argument list) ; Where op maybe +, - , =, <= etc. The unary operator overloading can be declared by using incrementing (++) or decrementing (- -) symbols such as void operator++( ); Example for Overloading Unary Operator #include<iostream.h> class counter { private: unsigned int count; public: count( ) { count = 0; } // constructor int get_count( ){ return count; } // return count void operator ++() { count++; } // increment count }; void main( ) {

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count c1, c2; cout << \n c1 = << c1.get_count( ); cout << \n c2 = << c2.get_count( ); c1++; c2++; ++c2; cout << \n c1 = << c1.get_count( ); cout << \n c2 = << c2.get_count( ); }

// define and initialize // display // increment c1 // increment c2 (postfix) // increment c2 (prefix) // display again

Example for Overloading Binary Operator #include<iostream.h> class abc { private: int a; public: abc( ) // constructor { a = 0; } abc(int b) // overloading constructor { a = b; } abc operator + (abc obj1) { abc add; // binary operator overloading add.a = a + obj1.a; return (add); } void display( ); ~ abc ( ) { } }; void abc :: display( ) { cout<<Final values are<<a; } void main( ) { abc x(30); abc y(20); abc sum; sum = x + y; x.display( ); y. display( ); sum.display( ); getch( ); }

Q. What is Data Conversion in C++? What are different types of data conversion?
Ans. Data conversation Is another type of operation used in C++ which is closely related to operator overloading. C++ handles the conversion of simple data types like int and float automatically but conversions involving user-

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defined types require some work on the programmers part so data conversion is used for this purpose. The assignment operator = is used to assign a value of one user-defined object to another object of the same type. When both the user-defined object are of the same type and we assign the value of one object to another object using assignment operator, then the values of all the member data items are simply copied into a new object. Such type of operation is called data conversion. During data conversion operation, compiler does not need any special instructions for assigning user-defined object having the same data type. There are three type of data conversion: 1) Conversion between basic types This type of conversion is used when two objects or two variables are of different types. For example if x and y are two variables of int and float type respectively then the expression to assign a value from y variable to x variable is: x=y; We can also convert one type of data type to another type by suing the cast operation. For this purpose cast operator is used. The syntax for cast operation is : v1 = (data type) v2; e.g. x = (float)y ; 2) Conversion between objects of same class and basic type Conversion from built in type like int, float, char, double, etc to object (class type) and vice versa can be done if variable and class are of different type. The conversion from basic type to class type is an easy task. This can be done by using a constructor. If we create a constructor to build an object from int type array, then such type of constructor perform a default type conversion from the arguments type to the constructors class type. e.g. date (float d) { day = (int) d/24; // d in hours month = (int) d/30; // d in days year = (int) d/12; // d in months } void main( ) { date today; flaot p=3600.00; today = p; } The above example will convert basic data type (float d) to the class type object today (integer) Another type of conversion is class to basic type for which the casting operator is used. The general form of an overloaded casting operator function is as: Operator type-name( ) { function statements; } 3) Conversion between objects of different classes In this type of conversion data types of one object class is converted into the data types of another class by using constructor functions. Suppose if we have two object classes x and y then the conversion is done in the following manner: destination class object x = object y of same class ; where object x is an object of class x and object y is an object of class y. When we do conversion from one class to another class, then one class is called the source class and the other class is destination class. Here y is the source class and x is the destination class.

Q. What are the disadvantages of Operator overloading and Conversion? (Operator overloading and Data Conversion dont go hand in hand. Give reasons.)
Ans. The disadvantages are as follows:

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1) Both have same semantics the operator + is very much similar to the arithmetic + which is used to add a certain number variables. Similarly it is also used to concatenate strings, thus in certain cases this can create problems. 2) Both have same syntax Overloaded operators are used in same way as we use operators for some basic types. So an operator having the same symbol in a particular class can create a problem. If a and b are two different basic types then arithmetic assignment operator having addition operation can be used as: a + = b; the above statement can also be written as a = a + b; It means + operator is overloaded. So though syntax is different but the operation is same. Similarly we cannot overload a binary operator to unary operator and vice versa 3) Show restriction Sometimes operator overloading can create number of restrictions on using the same operator for different purposes. E.g. c = a + b ; will become meaningless if the number of overloaded operator grows too large and used in unstable manner. 4) Create Doubt Sometimes operations done by overloading becomes doubtful. E.g. If we us a overloading constructor and a overloading function having the same operator then for the compiler it becomes difficult to what to do. Thus operator should be in a well-defined way. 5) All operators cannot be overloaded Operators are either unary or binary or some are comparison, assignment and arithmetic operator. Thus it will create a problem if many operators are used for overloading. E.g. dot operator (.), scope resolution operator (::), pointer operator () etc are not used for operator overloading and data conversion.

Q. What is Inheritance? Why is it required? What are the types of Inheritance?

Ans. Inheritance is another most important feature of object oriented programming. Inheritance is the process of creating new classes called the derived class from existing or base class. The derived class inherits all the capabilities of the base class but can add add-ons and refinements of its own. The base class is unchanged by this process. The inheritance relationship can be shown as:
Defined in derived class

Feature A

Feature D

Derived from
Feature B Feature A Defined in base class but accessible from derived class

Feature B Feature C Feature C

BASE CLASS DERIVED CLASS

The arrow in this figure goes in the opposite direction. This is inheritance. Inheritance has important advantages. It permits reusability. Once a base class is written and debugged, it need not be touched again. Reusing existing code saves time and money and increases program reliability. Inheritance can also help in the original conceptualization of programming problem, and in the overall design of the program. One result of reusability is the ease of distributing class libraries. A programmer can use a class created by another person or company and without modifying it, derive other classes from it that are suited to particular situations. Reasons for using inheritance (Requirements) 1) Inheritance has the capability to express the inheritance relationship, which ensures the closeness with the real world models.

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2) Reusability is another powerful reason for the need of inheritance. User can add some additional features in sub-class and so can derive a new class from the existing class. 3)It has the transitive nature of inheritance. This means if A is the friend of B and B is the friend of C then C is the friend of A. In other words, if a class A inherits the properties of another class B, which further inherits the properties of B and the so on. Types of Inheritance There are five different types of inheritance: 1) Single Inheritance When a sub-class inherits only from one base class 2) Multiple Inheritances When a sub-class inherits from multiple base classes 3) Hierarchical Inheritance When many sub classes inherits from a single base class 4) Multi-level Inheritance When a sub class inherits from a class that itself inherits from another class. It has a transitive nature. 5) Hybrid Inheritance When a sub class inherits from multiple base classes and all of its base classes inherit from a single base class.

Q. Explain Derived base class in terms of single inheritance.

Ans. In single inheritance only one derived class is created. It is the process of creating a new class from an existing base class. The existing base class is also known as derived class. Any class or main class can be called as base class i.e. it can serve as a base class. When we derive another class from the base class, then that class is called derived class. Further a base class can be classified into two categories: Direct Base Class and Indirect base Class. The syntax used for the declaration of direct base class is as: Derived class : Base class Class A { s1; s2; sn; }; Class B : Public A { st1; st2: stn; }; Here B is the derived class and A is the direct base class. Syntax for defining a derived class in single inheritance is: Class derived-class-name : visibility-mode base-class-name { data members and member function of the derived class; }; Here the visibility mode controls the visibility and availability of the inherited base class members in the derived class. The visibility mode can be either private or public or protected and if no visibility mode is defined then by default the visibility-mode is considered as private. When a derived class is declared as a base of another class, the newly derived class inherits the properties of its base classes including its data member and member functions so an indirect base class does not work as direct base class. The syntax for indirect base class is: Class A { body of functions; }; Class B : public A // B is indirect base class for class C {

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body of functions; }; Class C : public B // Class C is indirect derived class { body of functions; }; Here A and B classes work as base class. C is a derived class. Also class B work as direct derived class for the A base class. So a class which is a derived class at one time and work as base class other times is called as indirect base class.

Q. Write short notes on:

Derived Class Constructor Derived Class Constructors are those types of constructors that are used when an object cannot be initialized to a value. This is because either no argument or only one argument is used in the statement to initialize the object. Thus to make a constructor directly linked with the object and at least use one argument is used, a new set of constructor must be written for the derived class. An example for derived class constructor is: #include <iostraem.h> class counter { protected : // no private is used unsigned int count ; public : counter( ) { count = 0; } // constructor with no arguments counter(int c) { count = c; } // constructor with one argument int get_count( ) { return count; } // return count counter operator ++( ) // increment count { count ++ ; // increment count, return return counter(count) ; // a temporary object } // initialized to this count }; class countdn : public counter { public : countdn( ) : counter( ) // constructor with no arguments { } countdn(int c) : counter(c) // constructor with one argument { } countdn operator ( ) // decrement count { count ; // decrement count, return return countdn(count) ; // a temporary object } // initialized to this count }; void main( ) { countdn c1 ; // class countdn countdn c2(100); cout << \n c1 = << c1.get_count(); // display cout << \n c2 = << c2.get_count(); // display c1++; c1++, c1++; // increment c1 cout << \n c1 = << c1.get_count(); // display c1

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c2- -; c2- -; c2- -; // decrement c2 cout << \n c2 = << c2.get_count(); // display c2 countdn c3 = c2- -; // create c3 from c2 cout << \n c3 = << c3.get_count(); // display c3 } This program uses two new constructors in the countdn class. Here is one argument constructor: Countdn( ) : counter( ) { } This constructor has an unfamiliar feature that is the colon (:) followed by a function name. This constructor causes the countdn( ) constructor to call the counter( ) constructor in the base class. In main( ), when we say Countdn c1 ; The compiler will create an object of type countdn and then call the countdn constructor to initialize it. This constructor will in turn call the counter( ) constructor which carries out the work. The countdn( ) constructor could add additional statements of its own but in this case it doesnt need to, so the function body between the braces is empty. The statement countdn c2(100) in main( ) uses the one argument constructor in countdn. This constructor also calls the corresponding constructor in the base class as in Countdn(int c) : counter(c) { } This construction causes the argument c to be passed from countdn( ) to counter( ), where it is used to initialize the object. In main( ) after initializing the c1 and c2 objects we increment one and decrement the other and then print the results. The one argument constructor is also used in the assignment statement as: Countdn c3 = c2- - ; Overriding member function If we apply a operation to insert more data items in an array or a list or a stack then the program will exceed because data is placed beyond the data range or the size of the array, list or a stack. Similarly if we try to delete or remove too many data item or elements from an array or stack or list beyond its lower limit then it will display the list as empty. So to avoid this problem, overriding member function is used. This involves the use of a new class which derived from the base class. Objects of derived class and the base class are same. The objects of the overriding member function warns the programmer when insertion of data elements is beyond its limit or deletion of data elements is beyond its lower limit. An example of overriding member function is: #include <iostream.h> #include <process.h> const int max=100; // maximum size of stack class stack { protected : int st[max] ; // stack : array of integers int top ; // index to top of stack public : stack( ) // constructor { top = 0; } void push(int var) // put number on satck { st[++top] = var; } int pop( ) // take number off stack { return st[top- -] ; } }; class stack2 : public stack { public : void push(int var) // put number on stack { if (top < max) // if stack is not full

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stack : : push(var); // call push( ) in stack class else { cout<< \n Error! The Stack is Full ; exit (1) ; }} int pop( ) // take number off stack { if (top > 0) // if the stack is not empty return stack : : pop( ); // call pop( ) in stack class else { cout<< \n Error! The Stack is Empty ; exit (1) ; }} }; void main( ) { stack2 s1; s1. push(11) ; // push values onto stack s1. push(22) ; s1. push(33) ; cout<< endl << s1.pop( ); // pop values from stack cout<< endl << s1.pop( ); cout<< endl << s1.pop( ); cout<< endl << s1.pop( ); } Class Hierarchies (Hierarchical Inheritance) When we set one class as main class and other classes as subclasses and thus the procedure continues then a hierarchy or a tree having one node as parent (root) and other child node (branches) will be represented. Such type of representation of classes is called class hierarchy. Thus in hierarchical inheritance the objects of higher class share the data with the certain number of lower classes. Diagrammatically it can be represented as: MAIN CLASS

SUB-CLASS 1

SUB-CLASS 2

SUB-CLASS 3

SUB-CLASS N

Public and Private Inheritance C++ provides many ways to fine-tune access to class members. One such access control mechanism is the way derived classes are declared for example Class manager : public employee Here the keyword public specifies that objects of the derived class are able to access public member functions of the base class. The alternative keyword is private which is used when the objects of the derived class cannot access public member functions of the base class. Since objects can never access private or protected members of a class, the result is that no member of the base class is accessible to objects of the derived class. The syntax for public inheritance is

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Class base-class-name { public : data-member ; } class derived-class-name : public base-class-name { statements ; statements ; } for example class A { public : int x ; private : int y ; }; class B : public A { private : int p ; } where A is the base class and B is the derived class. The class B is derived from the base class A and it will access the public. The syntax for private inheritance is as follows: Class base-class-name { private : statement1 ; statement2 ; statementn ; }; class derived-class-name : private base-class-name { x1 ; x2 ; xn ; }; An example for private inheritance is: Class A { private : int x ; public : int y ; }; Class B : private A { int p ; }; The class B is derived from the base class A and it will access all the public member. Multilevel Inheritance In multi-level inheritance, there are different types of level occurring according to the inherited classes. These levels are 1st level of inheritance, 2nd level of inheritance and so on until nth level of

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inheritance reaches. So classes can be derived from classes that are derived themselves. The syntax to declare the levels is as following: Class A { body of statements; }; Class B : class A // 1st level of inheritance { body of statements ; }; Class C : class B // 2nd level of inheritance { body of statements; }; Here B is a derived class and A is the base class of B and similarly we also define class C which is the derived class of the base class B. Each relationship between the base class and the derived class make the level of inheritance. The procedure continues till the end of the nth derived class or the last derived class. Multiple Inheritances Multiple inheritances is used to remove the limitations that occur in single inheritance. Multiple inheritances has relation or links with number of classes. So a class can be derived from more than one base class, then such type of inheritance that occurs is called multiple inheritance. In other words if there are three classes A, B, C from which class A and class B are the base classes and C is the derived class, then we can say that C is multiple inherited from the class A and B. in other words, multiple inheritance is the process of creating a new class from more than one base class. The syntax for multiple inheritance is: Class A // base class A { statements ; }; Class B // base class B { statements ; }; Class C : public A, public B { statements ; // derived class C which is derived from base class A and B }; Diagrammatically we can explain multiple inheritance as:

BASE CLASS A

BASE CLASS B

DERIVED CLASS C

Function Overloading (Overloaded Function) Function Overloading is an extremely useful feature provided in C++. A function is said to be overloaded when a single function performs many times and thus saves number of comparisons and makes the program more efficient. When two or more functions can share the same name as long as their parameter declaration are different then such situation is overloaded function. This means that we

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can use the same function name to create functions that perform a variety of different tasks. Function overloading performs one operation on one kind of data but another operation on a different kind. Actually function overloading is a logical method of calling several functions with different arguments and data types that perform basically identical things by the same name. So here each time a function is redefined it use different types of parameters or different sequence of parameters. The number, type or sequence of parameters is called function signature. Function overloading is important because it can help to manage complexity. Advantages of Function Overloading 1) it removes duplicate and repetitive use of function in a program 2) concept classes are easily understood with function overloading 3) errors can be easily debugged 4) source code can be easily manipulated 5) it can create a relationship between the program and the real world Polymorphism Polymorphism is the process of defining a number of objects of different classes into a group and then calling a method to carry out operation of the objects using different function calls. Thus polymorphism means to carry out different processing steps by function having same messages. Actually it treats objects of related classes in a generic manner. In other form when a base class member function can be overridden by defining a derived class member function with the same name as that of the base class member function, then such a concept is polymorphism. The compiler decides which class is to be executed. Polymorphism allows many different types of objects to perform the same operation by responding to the same message. It is the ability to take many shapes and forms. It also helps the programmer to call different functions with a single statement. It has the ability to take more than one form i.e. an operation may exhibit different behavior in different instances. It plays an important role in allowing objects having different internal structure to share the same external interface. Polymorphism is used in implementing inheritance. Polymorphism is sub-divided into two categories as:

POLYMORPHISM

OVERLOADING (Compile-time Polymorphism)

VIRTUAL (Run-time Polymorphism)

OPERATOR

FUNCTION

FUNCTION

CLASS

Virtual Function and its characteristics A virtual function is used to handle some specific tasks related to class objects. When programmer uses the same function name in both the base and derived classes, then the function in base class is declared virtual by using the keyword virtual before the function name. In virtual function object oriented programming determines which function to use at run time based on the type of object pointed to by the base pointer, rather than the type of the pointer. When a virtual function are used in a C++ program, then that program which calls a function of one class actually can call the function of different class also. A virtual function is a function that is declared as virtual in a base class. We use pointer to base class to refer to all the derived objects. When we use the same function in both the base and the derived classes, the function in the base class is declared as virtual using the keyword virtual, along with its normal declaration. Thus after the declaration of virtual function it is the compilers job to find which function to use at the run time based on the type of object pointed by

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the base pointer. The base pointer executes the different versions of the virtual function and it is accessed in public. The syntax for virtual function is: Class class-name { private : data member ; member function ; public : data member ; virtual return-type function-name(argument list) ; }; here the return-type can be a data type like int, float, void etc. Characteristics of Virtual Functions 1. Should be declared in the base class. 2. Should be the member of some class else an error is declared. 3. Cannot be a static function. 4. Can be a fiend of another class. 5. Can be accessed by using object pointer. 6. In virtual function process, derived class pointer cannot be used to access an object of the base class. 7. Virtual function can be applied on destructor. 8. The virtual function cannot be stand alone. 9. The prototypes of virtual base class and the derived class cannot be same. 10. When virtual function is called through a pointer to a base class, the derived class is activated. 11. Base pointer can point to any object of derived class. 12. Decrement and increment operation on pointers to derived class object is not allowed. 13. The keyword virtual should not be repeated in the definition outside the class declaration. 14. The declaration of virtual destructor function does not take any argument and no return type and no void also. Pure Virtual Function A pure virtual function is a virtual function with no body. So the body of the virtual function in the base class can be removed. It has only a function declaration. Here the base class becomes abstract class. A pure virtual function can be declared by equating it to zero thats why it is also called empty virtual function. The syntax fro declaring a pure virtual function is Virtual return-type function name ( ) = 0; The pure virtual function is declared in a base class where it has no definition relative to the base class. In such cases, the complier requires each derived class to either define the function or again declare it as a pure virtual function. Thus it cannot declare any objects of its own. In base class, a pure virtual function serves no purpose but it acts as a polymeric interface for the derived class. After declaring the pure virtual function, there is no need to create an object of base class because it is meaningless to call a function with no body. So if a pure virtual function is to be defined in the base class, then either it is declared in the derived class or that function becomes a virtual function. Abstract Classes An abstract class is often defined as one that will not be used to create any objects but exists only to act as a base class of other classes. A class that declares a pure virtual function is called an abstract class. Abstract class can declare pointers for manipulating the objects of the derived classes. An abstract class is used as a base class for deriving. It can contain one or more functions for which there is no definition and no objects can be created using an abstract class however only pointers to an abstract class can be created. A derived class should not become an abstract class because as an abstract class cannot create objects. Binding Binding is a concept that is linked with polymorphism and helps in creating virtual function. Binding in object oriented programming is of two types: Dynamic Binding and Static Binding Dynamic Binding It is implemented in C++ through the use of virtual array having pointers or virtual functions. It is compiled by compilers of each class. It helps to modify and extend the function of a program. Dynamic binding

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can provide a library of classes which can be used by other programmer without source code. When a function is selected during execution time then such type of link is called dynamic linkage. In dynamic binding an object of a class must be declared either as pointer to a class or a reference to a class. Static Binding When a function is selected during compile time in the normal processing, then such type of linkage is called static binding. By default the compiler of C++ uses the static binding to get efficient results. Function calling also becomes faster in static binding. Virtual Classes The virtual class is used to achieve run-time polymorphism. When a derived class inherits two functions of the same name from two different base classes, a problem arises have to select the function as two copies of the same function are available. A virtual class is a class ensures that only one copy of the function is available. The main difference between the normal base class and the virtual base class is when an object inherits the base more than once. If virtual base classes are used then only one base class is present in the object otherwise multiple copies are found. Virtual Destructors Destructors are used to free the memory space covered by the constructors. The destructor member function of the derived class is not called to the free up the memory space that was allocated by the constructor of the derived class. It is due to the non-virtual relationship of destructor and the message will not reach the destructor under the execution time or static binding. Thus the use of destructor is necessary. An example of virtual destructor is below: #include<iostream.h> class abc { public : abc( ) ; // constructor without virtual class virtual ~ abc( ) ; }; class xyz : public abc { } class abc : : ~abc // virtual destructor { delete [ ]p ; } void main( ) { abc *p = new xyz ; delete p ; } Here a new operator is used to call a constructor automatically and delete operator is used to run the destructor automatically. Object I/O Since C++ is an object oriented language, its reasonable to wonder how objects can be written to and read from disk. The following are the examples that illustrate this: Writing an object to disk The following program shows thw listing of OPERS which asks the user fro information about an object to the disk file person.dat #include <fstream.h> // for file stream class person // class of person { protected : char name[40] ; // persons name int age ; // persons age public : void getdata(void) // get persons data { cout << Enter name: ;

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cin >> name ; cout << Enter age: ; cin >>age ; }; void main(void) { person pers; // create a person pers.getdata( ); // get persons data ofstream outfile (person.dat) ; // create ofstream object outfile.write((char *)&pers, sizeof(pers)) ; // write to it } The getdata( ) member function of person is called to prompt the user for information which it places in the pers object. The contents of the pers object are then written to disk using write( ) function. The write( ) function takes two arguments: the address of the object to be written and the length of the object in bytes. We use sizeof( ) oprator to find the length of the pers object. The address of the object must be cast to type pointer to char. Reading from the disk Reading an object back from the person.dat file requires the read( ) member function. An example for this is: #include <fstream.h> // for file streams class person // class of person { protected : char name[40] ; // persons name int age; // persons age public : void showdata(void) // display persons data { cout<< \n Name: << name ; cout<< \n Age: << age ; } }; void main(void) { person pers ; // create person ifstream infile(person.dat) ; // create file infile.read ( (char *) &pers, sizeof(pers) ) ; // read file pers.showdata( ); // display person } Character I/O The put and get( ) functions which are member of ostream and istraem respectively, are used to output and input a single character at a time. The following program OCHAR that outputs a string and one character at a time: #include<fstream.h> // for file functions #include<string.h> // for strlen( ) void main( ) { char str[ ] = Time is a great teacher. ofstream outfile(Test.txt) ; // create file for output for(int j = 0; j < strlen(str); j++) // for each character outfile.put(str[ j ] ) ; // write it to file } In this program an ofstream object is created. The length f the string is found using strlen() function and the characters are output using put() in for loop. The string is written to the file test.txt. We can read this file back in and display it using the ICHAR program #include<fstream.h> // for file functions

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void main( ) { char ch; // character to read ifstream infile(Test.txt) ; // create file for input while(infile) // read until EOF { infile.get(ch) ; // read character cout << ch ; // display it } } The program uses the get() function and continues reading until the EOF is reached. Each character read from the file is displayed using cout, so the entire text is displayed on the screen. String I/O Strings can be written and read in the following ways: Writing Strings The following program give the output of a string to a file #include<fstream.h> // for file functions void main( ) { ofstream outfile(test.txt) ; // create file for output and send text to file outfile << Twinkle Twinkle little star, \n ; outfile << How I wonder what you are! \n ; outfile << Up above the world so high, \n ; outfile << Like a diamond in the sky! \n ; } Here we define an object called outfile to be a member of the ofstream class. At the same time, we initialize it to the file name test.txt. This initialization sets aside the various resources for the file and accesses the file of that name on the disk. Since the insertion operator << is overloaded in ostream, we can use it to output text to the file. When the program terminates the outfile object goes out of scope. This calls the destructor which closes the file. When we run the program the lines of text are written to the file. Ther is no output to the screen. Reading Strings To read the same file we must create an object class ifstream. We do this in the ILINE example #include<fstream.h> // for file functions void main( ) { const int max = 80 ; // size of buffer char buffer[max]; // character buffer ifstream infile(test.txt) ; // create file for input while(infile) // until EOF { infile.getline(buffer, max); // read a line of text cout << buffer ; // display it } } Here the insertion operator doesnot work. Instead we read the text from the file one line at a time using the getline() function which is a member of istream. This function reads characters until it encounters the \n character and places the resulting string in the buffer supplied as an argument. The maximum size of the buffer is given as the second argument. The contents of the buffer are displayed after each line. The output of the ILINE will be the same data written to the TEST.TXT file by OLINE.

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