09/10/2013

THEME 1_4
Sensors:
Overview and Presentation

A sensor (also called detector)

is a converter that measures a
physical quantity and converts
it into a signal which can be
read by an observer or by an
electronic controller.

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A good sensor obeys the following

rules:
• Is sensitive to the measured
property only
• Is insensitive to any other property
likely to be encountered in its
application
• Does not influence the measured
property

Control State
Variables Variables

ACTUATORS PLANT SENSORS

PRE‐ACTUATORS CONTROL

Commands

• The control receives information about the state of the plant through sensors.

• On the plant or process, it acts drives or actuators.

• The actuators are transducers of energy (mechanical, electrical, pneumatic,

hydraulic, etc.)

• The pre‐actuators will govern with electrical signals and acts the actuators.

• The sensors are useful only in closed loop.

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Types
• Automotive, transportation
• Chemical
• Electric current, electric potential, magnetic, radio
• Environment, weather, moisture, humidity
• Flow, fluid velocity
• Ionizing radiation, subatomic particles
• Navigation instruments
• Position, angle, displacement, distance, speed, acceleration
• Optical, light, imaging, photon
• Pressure
• Force, density, level
• Thermal, heat, temperature
• Proximity, presence
• Sensor technology
.
.
• Other

Sub types related with subject

POSITION: Presence (ON/OFF. Switches)

Position Encoders incremental
(Rules or Discs) absolute

PROXIMITY : Classification
Inductive
Capacitive
Optics

TEMPERATURE : Temperature switch

Thermocouples

PRESSURE: Pressure switch

LEVEL : Probes
FLOW : Flow meters

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• Generally the signal given by the sensors must be

conditioned before entering it in control. This is the signal
processing.

Signal
Physic Capture processing (Supply)
magnitude

Output

Sensor Filter Amplifier

• A transducer includes a sensor (or sensor or sensitive part) and

some type of signal conditioner that gives this sensor back to an
electrical signal codified analogue or digital.

• The words transducer and sensor used with the same meaning, but
is more extensive broad term "transducer“.

• Not always the transducer provides an electrical magnitude, as the

case a bimetal thermometer based on acting on a needle
indicator.

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Classification according to the output signal

• ANALOG: give a value of voltage or current time within the range of
measurement. Usually operating in current ranges of 4-20 mA or
voltage 0  5V, 0  10V, -5V  +5V, +10V  -10V. Are normalized
values.

• DIGITAL output give a coded pulses or a binary coded digital word,

BCD, Gray, etc. The output voltage is usually normalized as analog
ones.

• ON/OFF: They just indicate when the magnitude exceeds observed a

certain limit or threshold. Digital encoders are only returned ends of the
interval in which digital sensors operate.

ANALOG DIGITAL ON / OFF

Classification according to the power supply

• PASIVES : They are based on modifying the geometry , magnetic or

electrical impedance under certain physical or chemical conditions . If

they are connected to power supplies, causing changes in the voltage

or current the circuit in which they operate.

• ACTIVES: Are electric generators generally weak signal. Can carry a

external power or not.

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CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING
TO THE PHYSICAL MAGNITUDE TO DETECT

Magnitude Transducer Characteristics

Potenciòmetre Analog
Encoders Digital
Linear or angular position
Synchros and resolvers Analog
Switches On/Off
Small displacements or LVDT Analog
deformations
Strain gauge Analog
Encoders Digital
Linear or angular speed Inductive or optic detector Digital
Tachometric dynamo Analog
Accelerometer Analog
Acceleration
Speed detector + calculator Digital
Indirect measure with
Force and torque Analog
gauges or LVDT
Diaphragm + sliding detector
Analog
Pressure
Pressure switch On/Off

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING
TO THE PHYSICAL MAGNITUDE TO DETECT

Magnitude Transducer Characteristics

Turbine Analog
Flow
Magnetic Analog
Thermocouple Analog
Pt100 Resistors Analog
Temperature NTC Resistors Analog
PTC Resistors On/Off
Bimetal On/Off
Inductive Analog / On/Off
Capacitive On/Off
Presence or proximity Optics Analog / On/Off
Ultrasounds Analog
Switches On/Off
Time Timers On/Off
Counting Counters On/Off

Others…
Vision, touch, etc.

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GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

An ideal transducer is one in which the relationship between the

magnitude physical input and output is given:

Purely proportional
Instant response
Reply identical, provided

Unfortunately the reality is that input-output relationships are given

often be expressed in terms of the family of curves is not quite linear
and delay is presented, when it replaced a transducer to another, often
behave alike. When a transducer aging, changes its response, etc..

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

It has two types of features that allow characterize transducers:

STATIC: describe the behavior of the sensor under permanent or

very slow changes of the variable to be measured.

DYNAMIC: describe the behavior of the sensor under temporary

basis in response to the temporary address certain standard
stimuli, indicating constant longer relevant.

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STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Measurement range: range of values of the input size.

Resolution: the ability to discern between two sensor values very

equal to the magnitude of input.

Accuracy: maximum deviation of the output relative to a pattern.

Repeatability: Maximum output deviation when measured repeatedly

Sometimes the entrance, in the same conditions.

Linearity: deviation from a straight base that relates input-output.

Sensitivity: amount of variation in the amount of out party

variation of the input.

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Noise: Any perturbation of output due to the transducer itself

or measurement system.

Hysteresis: amount that varies the output for the same amount
input, depending on whether the input magnitude increases or
decreases. May not be equal across the measurement range.

NOTE THAT ALL THESE FEATURES ARE DIFFERENT,

BUT VERY LITERATURE THEM CONFUSED.

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DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

The transducers are similar to 1st and 2nd order systems by respect to its
dynamic behavior. Should be of 2nd order always are under damped.

Response speed: transducer's ability to follow in his output

any variations in the magnitude of input.
Parameters:
• Delay time: time between a step input is applied to the
input until the output reaches 10% of final value
or steady state.
• Rise time : idem, but between 10% and 90%.
• Settling time : time between a step input is applied to the
input until the output reaches 99% (1% tolerance).
• Constant of time : (1st order) from step application to 63%
of steady state in the output.

DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

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DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

Frequency response: relationship between sensibility and frequency

for a sinusoidal input. (Bode Plan).

Stability and drifts: sensor output deviation due to external variations

unrelated to the input magnitude.

PRESENCE SWITCHES

Switches: Mobile metallic plate mechanically driven.

F

F
F
Micro-switches

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PRESENCE SWITCHES

PRESENCE SWITCHES

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ABSOLUTE OPTIC ENCODERS

Opaque

Movement
Transparent
Head

VDD Absolute
Vss
code disc
Absolute code rule

GRAY
CODE

ABSOLUTE OPTIC ENCODERS

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INCREMENTAL OPTIC ENCODERS

(Discs or Rules) Optocoupler

x A
Optocoupler B

Optocoupler
x
A
x
A B

A A A

X/4 t 3X/4 t
x x
t B B

x t t
Turn Right Turn Left

INCREMENTAL OPTIC ENCODERS

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INCREMENTAL OPTIC ENCODERS

OPTIC ENCODERS: TYPES

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PROXIMITY: CLASSIFICATION

Static switches
AC tiristors or triacs
On / Off
PNP transistor
DC
According NPN transistor
output type Namur Inductive specifically designed for atmospheres
DIN 19234 explosives; his output is generally a contact free

Analog Give a proportional current with the distance

from object to head. Optics and ultrasounds.

2 wires In series with load

According
connection 3 wires Common, Supply, Load PNP
NPN
type
4 or 5 wires Common, Supply, 2-Load, 3-Switched load

PROXIMITY: CONNECTION

+ +
DC DC
2 wires _ 4 wires _

~ +
AC DC
2 wires ~ 5 wires _

DC + A
3 wires out NAMUR _
_
NPN

DC + +
3 wires out Analog out
_ _
PNP

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PROXIMITY: INDUCTIVE SENSORS

Detect metal parts in a range between 1mm and 30mm.

Mechanical and electrical are standardized at European level to

CENELEC (EN 50032, EN 50036, EN 50037 and EN 50038.

This standard defines mechanical two ways:

Shape A: - Cylindrical threaded M8, M12, M18 and M30
- Cylindrical with or without threading 4mm and 5mm

Shape C: - parallelepipeds with swivel head

- generally large distances

PROXIMITY: INDUCTIVE SENSORS

Oscillator Amplitude
Output
L-C detector

Zone Toroidal
Coil magnetic core
sensible

+
+

power power

_ _

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PROXIMITY: INDUCTIVE SENSORS

Oscillator Amplitude
Output
L-C detector

The LC oscillator has a high resonance frequency

The magnetic circuit is closed by the front

The presence of metal in front of the sensitive area, alters the reluctance
the magnetic circuit, reduces the amplitude of the oscillator, which is detected

The detection of change, allows for a signal all or nothing

As analog detector distance is not accurate

Better than to mechanical limit switches

(not bouncing, long life, harsh environments, etc.).

PROXIMITY: INDUCTIVE SENSORS

Inductive
sensor

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PROXIMITY: INDUCTIVE SENSORS

Inductive
sensor

PROXIMITY: CAPACITIVE SENSORS

Detect metal parts or not in the range between 1mm and 30mm.

Mechanical and electrical, as the inductive sensors

Specially designed to detect glass, paper, liquid, plastic, wood, etc..

Very sensitive to environmental conditions (humidity, temperature) and

the type of material

Can have a sensitivity adjustment

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PROXIMITY: CAPACITIVE SENSORS

Oscillator Amplitude
Output
L-C detector

Armatures
Zone
sensible Dielectric

When an object approaches the sensitive area, the ability to modify

the LC oscillator, thereby changing the amplitude, which is
detected and converted into a signal all or nothing.

PROXIMITY: CAPACITIVE SENSORS

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PROXIMITY: OPTIC SENSORS

Reflective
Emitter

Receiver
Reflection
Object
to detect

Emitter Receiver

Barrier

PROXIMITY: OPTIC SENSORS

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PROXIMITY: OPTIC SENSORS

PROXIMITY: OPTIC SENSORS

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PROXIMITY: OPTIC SENSORS

PROXIMITY: OPTIC SENSORS

• They usually operate in the range of IR

• Detection distances (can reach 500 m in 5m barrier and reflection)
• High immunity to EMI
• High response speed and switching frequency
• Can identify colors
• Can detect objects of tenths of millimeters
• Ambience is very illuminated with polarized light patterns
• Using fiber optics can be put in distant places or very small
Distances from 3mm to 10m
Brands can detect objects that move 1mm to 30 m/s
Can detect static objects of 20 m of Ø

• The analogue models are not very reliable (dust, variation of ambient lighting, etc.).

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TEMPERATURE: TEMPERATURE SWITCHES

Sensors with switching output all or nothing at a certain temperature.

They can be simple bimetal.
Probes can be one or more analog comparators with hysteresis.

TEMPERATURE: THERMOCOUPLES

Active sensors, analog, based on the Seebeck effect

Appearance of a potential difference between two

RL different materials or parts welded together
on one end, when the union is subjected to a
Unió
calenta temperature higher than the free ends
Tc Unió
freda
Tf

TEMPERATURE: THERMOCOUPLES

Fe-Constantan 57 V/ºC 0 - 600 ºC Robustness

NiCr-Ni 41 V/ºC 0 - 1000 ºC Robustness
PtRh-Pt 12 V/ºC 0 - 1600 ºC Stability
NiCr-Constantan 75 V/ºC 0 - 600 ºC Sensitivity
Constantan : 58% Cu + 42% Ni

Need to be connected to amplifiers with low noise gain.

Can be connected in series to increase the sensitivity.

They are cheap.

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TEMPERATURE: THERMOCOUPLES

PRESURE: PRESSURE SWITCH

Sensors with switching output On / Off at a certain pressure

Usually based on the deformation of a membrane or diaphragm

Have a considerable hysteresis

ON

OFF
P

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PRESURE: PRESSURE SWITCH

PRESURE: PRESSURE ANALOG SENSOR

Different constructions and technologies; for example, a diaphragm

acting a LVDT

diaphragm

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TIMERS

The function of a timer is

counting time. The timers
allow the user to select an
amount of time ranging
from seconds to hours,
usually.
They are a special type of
sensor that is time
sensitive.

TIMERS: how to connect

Example: Take the next GRAFCET as an example; we don't know what it is, but is
only for to see how to use a timer.

M·P L1
L2
L3 PIA
0
N
230Vac
SW1 AC

Motor 1 DC
1 _
ON 24V= +

SW2 Power

2 Motor 2 Timer Command

ON ON
t/2s CONTROLLER

3
Controller is formed, always, with schematics of command and power.

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TIMERS: how to connect

Example:
+24V=
M·P COMMAND
P
0

SW1
Motor 1 K0 K3 K0 K1 K1 K2 K2 K3
1
ON M
SW2
SW1 SW2 TIM1
2 Motor 2 Timer
ON ON
K1 K2 K3 K1
t/2s
K2
3
K1 K2 TIM1 K3
K3

K0 As can you see both in the GRAFCET and in the

schematics, the timer is used as a detector,
because is used in transitions; in the action
associated to the stage is only for timer enable.

TIMERS: how to connect POWER

Example:
L1
L2
L3 PIA
N
230Vac
AC
DC
M·P 24V= _ + K1 K2
0

SW1 Controller
1
Motor 1 command
ON
SW2

2 Motor 2 Timer
ON ON
t/2s
M1 M2
 
3

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COUNTERS: how to connect

Example: Take the next GRAFCET as an example; we don't know what it is, but is
only for to see how to use a counter.

M·P
L1
L2
0 C=10 L3 PIA
N
230Vac
SW1 AC
DC
1 C=C-1 24V= _ +

SW2 Power
4
2 Motor 1 Command
ON C<10
CONTROLLER
C=0
3 C=10

Controller is formed, always, with schematics of command and power.

COUNTERS : how to connect

Example:
+24V=
COMMAND
M·P
P

0 C=10
K0 K0 K3 K4 K1 K1 K2 K2 K3 K2 K4
SW1 M
SW1 SW2 C C
1 C=C-1

SW2
4 K1…k4 K2 K3 K1 K1

2 Motor K4
1 ON C<10
K0 K1 K3 K4
C=0 K2
3 C=10
As can you see both in the GRAFCET and in the
schematics, the COUNTER is used as a detector,
because is used in transitions; in the action
associated to the stage is used as actuator.

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COUNTERS : how to connect POWER

Example:
L1
L2
L3 PIA
N
230Vac
M·P AC
DC Command
0 C=10 24V= _ + K2

SW1

1
K0
C=C-1 Preset
SW2
4 C
Reset
2 Motor C
1 ON C<10
UP M1
C=0
K1 
3 C=10 DOWN

PASSIVE SENSORS: how to connect

Example:
Passive sensors are used in command schematic. Are only 2 wires, and this is, sometimes,
a problem that can be solved in the power schematic. Suppose SW1 and SW2, passive.
Take next case: we can not connect SW1 at two different potentials in the circuit, but can
connect SW2, because appears only one time in the GRAFCET. So SW1 must be indirect
contact, performed from power schematic through specific relay. SW2 is connected
directly to the schematic.

M·P P COMMAND
0

SW1 K0 K3 K0 K1 K1 K2 K2 K3
1
Motor 1 M
ON
SW1a SW2 SW1b
SW2 K1
2 Motor 2
ON K2 K2 K3 K1
SW1 K3
K1 K2 K3
3
K0

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PASSIVE SENSORS: how to connect

Example:
For all passive sensors used more than one time in the same GRAFCET, will install a relay
in the power schematic, actioned by this sensor, because the contacts of this relay can
be used in the command schematic rather the sensor (for lack of possibilities for
connecting to more than one point at time).

L1
L2
L3 PIA
M·P N
230Vac
0 AC
DC K1 K2
SW1
24V= _ +
Motor 1
1
ON Command
SW2

2 Motor 2 SW1 (physical sensor)

ON M2
M1
SW1  
3
SW1a SW1c Power
SW1b SW1d

ACTIVE SENSORS: how to connect

Example:
Active sensors are used in command schematic. Normally uses 3 wires, 2 for supply and
one for output (only 1!, it’s impossible to connect to command schematic!). Again, this
problem that can be solved in the power schematic. Suppose SW1 and SW2, active.
Take next case: we can not connect SW1 at two different potentials in the circuit, but can
connect SW2, because appears only one time in the GRAFCET. So SW1 and SW2 must be
ALWAYS indirect contact, performed from power schematic through specific relay.

M·P P COMMAND
0

SW1 K0 K3 K0 K1 K1 K2 K2 K3
1
Motor 1 M
ON
SW2 SW1a SW2a SW1b
K1
2 Motor 2
ON K2 K2 K3 K1
SW1 K3
K1 K2 K3
3
K0

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ACTIVE SENSORS: how to connect

Example:
For all active sensors, will install a relay in the power schematic, actioned by every
sensor, because the contacts of this relay can be used in the command schematic rather
the sensor (for lack of possibilities of connecting it to more than one point at time and
because is not possible connect the output of sensor to any part of command
schematic –remember: has only 1 wire as output…! –)
L1
L2
L3 PIA
N
230Vac
AC
DC Command K1 K2
24V= _ +

SW1
SW2
M1 M2
 

SW1a SW1c Power

SW2a SW2c SW1b SW1d
SW2b SW2d

Counters Push buttons

Timers Pressure
Passives Switches
Temperature
Thermocouples
Sensors Inductive
Direct
Optic
Actives Reflective
Capacitive
Absolute
Encoders
Incremental

Static
Characteristics
Dynamic

IP, protection degree

Connection to controllers

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