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W.B. Saunders Company
An Imprint of Elsevier Inc.
11830 Westline Industrial Drive
St. Louis, Missouri 63146

EQUINE GERIATRIC MEDICINE AND SURGERY ISBN-10: 0-7216-0163-4

© 2006 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. ISBN-13: 978-0-7216-0163-2
Back cover photos © 2006 Katie Barrett

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“Obtaining Permissions.”

Notice

Veterinary Medicine is an ever-changing field. Standard safety precautions must be followed but as new research
and clinical experience broaden our knowledge, changes in treatment and drug therapy may become necessary or
appropriate. Readers are advised to check the most current product information provided by the manufacturer of
each drug to be administered to verify the recommended dose, the method and duration of administration, and
contraindications. It is the responsibility of the treating veterinarian, relying on experience and knowledge of the
patient, to determine dosages and the best treatment for each individual patient. Neither the Publisher nor the
author assumes any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from this publication.
The Publisher

ISBN-10: 0-7216-0163-4
ISBN-13: 978-0-7216-0163-2

Publishing Director: Linda Duncan

Senior Editor: Liz Fathman
Managing Editor: Jolynn Gower
Editorial Assistant: Stacy Beane
Publishing Services Manager: Melissa Lastarria
Project Manager: Andrea Campbell
Designer: Julia Dummitt

Printed in the United States of America

Last digit is the print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

I would like to dedicate this work to Tina
and John Bertone, Mel,Tina, Peter, Linda
and Carmine, Jennifer, John, Jeb
and Olivia.

I would also like to dedicate this

to all the great old horses.

h
W0613-FM.qxd 11/16/05 5:06 PM Page vii

Contributors
Gordon J. Baker, BVSc, PhD, MRCVS, DACVS Noah D. Cohen,VMD, MPH, PhD,
Professor and Head (Retired) DACVIM
Equine Medicine and Surgery Associate Professor
College of Veterinary Medicine Large Animal Medicine & Surgery
University of Illinois, College of Veterinary Medicine
Urbana, Illinois Texas A&M University
Dentistry in the Geriatric Horse College Station,Texas
Gastrointestinal Medicine
Joseph J. Bertone, DVM, MS, DACVIM
Professor, Equine Medicine Elizabeth G. Davis, DVM, DACVIM
College of Veterinary Medicine Clinical Instructor
Western University of Health Sciences Clinical Sciences
Pomona, California Kansas State University
What Is an “Old Horse” and Its Recent Impact? Manhattan, Kansas
Neurologic Disease in Geriatric Horses Respiratory Disease in the Geriatric Equine Patient

Mark Bowen, BVetMed Thomas J. Divers, DVM, DACVIM,

Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences DACVECC
Royal Veterinary College Professor of Medicine
University of London Clinical Science
Hatfield Cornell University
Hertfordshire, United Kingdom Ithaca, New York
Cardiac Disease in the Geriatric Horse Urinary Tract Disorders in Geriatric Horses

Carolyn L. Butler, MS Lydia L. Donaldson,VMD, PhD, DACVA

Lincoln, Nebraska Assistant Professor
Euthanasia and Grief Support Techniques in an Equine Marion duPont Scott Equine Medical Center
Bond-Centered Practice Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary
Medicine
Elaine M. Carnevale, DVM, PhD Leesburg,Virginia
Equine Reproduction Lab Anesthetic Considerations for the Geriatric Equine
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado Daniel Q. Estep, PhD, CAAB
Reproductive Disorders Vice President
Animal Behavior Associates, Inc.
Julie A. Cary, DVM, MS, DACVS Littleton, Colorado
New River, Arizona Interactions with Horses and the Human-Animal Bond
Geriatric Musculoskeletal Disorders of the Horse
A.T. Fischer, DVM, DACVS
Keith J. Chandler BVMS, CertEP, MRCVS Chino Valley Equine Hospital
Lecturer in Equine Medicine Chino, California
Veterinary Clinical Studies Abdominal Surgery in the Geriatric Equine
University of Edinburgh
Roslin Robert E. Holland Jr.,
Midlothian, Scotland Holland Management Services, Inc.
Dentistry in the Geriatric Horse Lexington, Kentucky
Eye Disease in Geriatric Horses Conditions, Diseases and Injuries of the Older Horses
for Horse Owners
vii
W0613-FM.qxd 11/16/05 5:06 PM Page viii

viii ● Contributors

James D. Kenney DVM University of Edinburgh

Clarksburg, New Jersey Honorary Lecturer
Manual Therapy,Acupuncture, and Chinese Herbal Medicine Weipers Centre for Equine Welfare
in the Geriatric Equine University of Glasgow
Kilmarnock
Laurel Lagoni, MS Ayrshire, Scotland
Director and Co-Owner Eye Disease in Geriatric Horses
Emotional Support Resource Center
Fort Collins, Colorado William H. McCormick,VMD
Euthanasia and Grief Support Techniques in an Equine President, CEO
Bond-Centered Practice Middleburg Equine Clinic, Inc.
Middleburg,Virginia
Katharina L. Lohmann, Med Vet, DACVIM Manual Therapy,Acupuncture, and Chinese Herbal Medicine
Graduate Assistant in the Geriatric Equine
Department of Large Animal Medicine
College of Veterinary Medicine Kenneth Harrington McKeever, PhD,
University of Georgia FACSM
Athens, Georgia Department of Animal Science
Gastrointestinal Medicine Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey
New Brunswick, New Jersey
Maureen T. Long, DVM, PhD, DACVIM Aging and How It Affects the Response to Exercise in the
Assistant Professor Horse
Large Animal Medicine
College of Veterinary Medicine Nicola J. Menzies-Gow, MA,VetMB, PhD,
University of Florida DECEIM, MRCVS
Gainesville, Florida Lecturer in Equine Medicine
West Nile Virus and the Geriatric Horse Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences
Royal Veterinary College
Rachel E. Long, BS North Mymms
Equine Medicine Research Associate Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
Department of Clinical Sciences Liver Disease in the Geriatric Horse
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado Nat T. Messer IV, DVM, DABVP
What Is an “Old Horse” and Its Recent Impact? Associate Professor
Veterinary Medicine and Surgery
Nancy S. Loving, DVM University of Missouri
Loving Equine Clinic Columbia, Missouri
Boulder, Colorado Endocrine Dysfunction in the Aged Horse
Field Approach and Wellness Management of Geriatric Horses
Gillian A. Perkins, DVM, DACVIM
Celia M. Marr, BVMS, MVM, PhD, DEIM, Lecturer
MRCVS Department of Clinical Sciences
Senior Lecturer and Head of Equine Medicine and College of Veterinary Medicine
Surgery Group Cornell University
Veterinary Clinical Sciences Ithaca, New York
Royal Veterinary College Urinary Tract Disorders in Geriatric Horses
North Mymms
Hertfordshire, United Kingdom Sarah L. Ralston,VMD, PhD, DACVN
Cardiac Disease in the Geriatric Horse Associate Professor
Animal Science
Andrew G. Matthews, BVM & S (Distinction), Cook College
PhD, FRCVS Rutgers,The State University of New Jersey
Honorary Fellow New Brunswick, New Jersey
Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences Nutrition of the Geriatric Horse
W0613-FM.qxd 11/16/05 5:06 PM Page ix

Contributors ● ix

Bonnie R. Rush, DVM, MS, DACVIM Tracy A.Turner, DVM, MS, DACVS
Professor Anoka Equine Veterinary Services
Clinical Sciences Elk River, Minnesota
Kansas State University Geriatric Musculoskeletal Disorders of the Horse
Manhattan, Kansas
Respiratory Disease in the Geriatric Equine Patient Beth A.Valentine, DVM, PhD, DACVP
Associate Professor
Donna L. Shettko, DVM Department of Biomedical Sciences
Assistant Professor College of Veterinary Medicine
College of Veterinary Medicine Oregon State Universitiy
Western University of Health Sciences Corvallis, Oregon
Pomona, California Neoplasia
The Equine Geriatric Foot

Josie L.Traub-Dargatz, DVM, MS

Professor of Equine Medicine
Clinical Science
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado
What Is an “Old Horse” and Its Recent Impact?
W0613-FM.qxd 11/16/05 5:06 PM Page xi

Preface
greater value these individuals can have outside the
T here was a time, not too long ago, that it seemed
that a 16-year-old horse was past its prime and
horses over 20 years old were “old horses” rarely being
show ring, or as active campaigners, or as child care
givers.They bring comfort to many owners that just like
treated with anything more than deworming medica- to know that the pasture isn’t empty and that an old
tions and vaccinations.Almost all were on a short list to friend is putting the space to good use.
euthanasia, or relegated to renderers, pet food, or the Geriatric medicine and surgery is not glamorous
human food supply abroad. Well clearly that has work.The Geritol Derby and the Barren Mare’s Cup are
changed. In polling audiences, this author and editor has having trouble finding sponsorship. However, many vet-
found that the majority of veterinarians (with a few erinarians know that working with older horses and the
years experience) are convinced they manage many clients who care for them can be very satisfying.These
more old horses now than they did in the 1980s or horses may not be campaigners or trophy winners, but
before. Society seems far less comfortable with euthana- often they are part of a family.They may be a tradition in
sia of healthy horses, even if they happen to have some the barn like old boots or a comfortable old saddle.They
years on them.This trend is clearly evident in the publi- may be a child’s (or an adult’s) best friend, a challenged
cation of the American Association of Equine individual’s best chance for therapy, or a troubled youth’s
Practitioners’, Care Guidelines for Equine Rescue and best shot at rehabilitation. Let’s continue to service these
Retirement Facilities, 2004. Search the web and in horses and owners in the best way we can. Both are a
excess of 30 retirement homes for horses are available. little different from what we normally do. Both need
That is supply trying to meet demand. some special care.
Horse owners and trainers have discovered, many of
them a long time ago, that the older horses get, the

xi
W0613-01.qxd 06/12/05 1:04 PM Page 1

C H A P T E R
1

What Is an “Old Horse”

and Its Recent Impact?
Josie L. Traub-Dargatz,

Rachel E. Long,

Joseph J. Bertone

the individuals of that generation of a species have died

W e do not know for sure if the population of older
horses is growing relative to all horses, or not at
all, due to lack of trend data for the equine population.
from accident or disease. Hence, the optimum course is to
invest fewer resources in the maintenance of somatic
However, it seems that society is more inclined to avoid tissues than are necessary for indefinite survival. The result
euthanasia of older horses when the horses are physically is that aging occurs through the gradual accumulation of
comfortable. We can also be safe to assume that older unrepaired somatic defects, but the level of maintenance
horses are receiving more medical and surgical attention will be set so that the deleterious effects are not apparent
than they may have received 15 or more years in until an age when survivorship in the wild environment
the past.Therefore, it seems logical to try to identify the would be extremely unlikely.1
special needs and management considerations in these
horses.
WHAT IS AN OLD HORSE?
WHAT IS AGING AND THE The most common question from the authors asked to
participate in the writing of this textbook was “How
DISPOSABLE SOMA THEORY? do you define an old horse?” This is a very good ques-
Horses, like humans, are not programmed to die. Aging tion with almost no definitive answer. And the answer
occurs because in the evolutionary past, when life may not be simply an identified chronological age.
expectancy was much shorter, natural selection placed a Age can be defined in horses in 3 ways, largely by
limited priority on long-term maintenance of the body. what is used to define age in humans. The usual age
Aging is caused by an accumulation of cell and tissue characterizations include: the chronological age, or how
damage that occur secondary to normal biochemical many years has the horse been alive; the physiologic
responses and actions. age, or how well the animal is functioning versus a
The disposable soma theory explains aging by organ younger animal; and the demographic age, or how the
selection and choice processes. In other words, how best animal compares chronologically with other animals of
should an organism allocate its metabolic resources, pri- the same species. However, all three of these fall short in
marily energy,between keeping alive and progeny produc- terms of equine health compared with human and
tion? One way to think of this theory is that the other companion animal health. The reason for the
conservation of energy dictates how long an organism short fall is the reality of horse use, or functional age.
lives.No species is immune to the hazards of life.To be suc- Functional age, as defined herein, always takes into
cessful procreators, all an individual needs to do is acquire account the horse’s use. So a horse is not simply an
the tools to stay alive and in good condition until most of older horse. Broodmares may be defined in terms of

1
W0613-01.qxd 06/12/05 1:04 PM Page 2

2 ● Equine Geriatric Medicine and Surgery

reproductive capability, which, from data presented in hyperventilation by the animal to maintain arterial
this text, may be any horse over 16 years old. However, PaO2.3
16 years old is prime of life in what is often their second There are hematologic differences between younger
career as hunters, barrel racers, stock, and polo horses. and older horses. Hemoglobin is increased4,5 and total
The horse’s actual, chronological age must be modified lymphocytes are decreased in older horses.4 Specifically,
by the horse’s use. It is an older racehorse, broodmare, or B and T cell and CD4 and CD8 counts were decreased.
barrel horse. One should become even more specific in However, an increase of the CD4:CD8 ratio, which is
determining functional age by adding if the horse is an interpreted as a nonspecific indicator of inflammation or
older Thoroughbred or Standardbred racehorse, know- immunodeficiency, was also noted.6 Immunoglobulin
ing that Standardbreds may have more longevity in levels, total and specific levels of IgG, IgG (T), IgM, or
the profession. And then, let us look at the older IgA do not seem different.5 However, there was a
Thoroughbred race horse that then becomes the young decreased gross response to vaccination with equine
hunter. Therefore, not only does functional age take influenza.5 Exercise, physiological, musculoskeletal, and
into account what the horse does, but it also can be a other system deficiencies are presented throughout the
fountain of youth as the horse changes profession. text.
Clearly, as the horse becomes chronologically older,
functional age begins to lose relevance.This concept is
not new because horseowners, trainers, and veterinary HOW OLD DO HORSES GET?
practitioners have recognized the importance of the What is the age of the oldest horse? What is the back-
functional age of the horse for some time. ground of this horse? Using the key words “oldest” and
Functionality is far more relevant to a horse’s age than “horse” on Internet search systems or in library data-
mortality. Hence, the demographic age, as defined in bases, we found some interesting citations. Most revolve
human gerontology, has almost no relevance to the pop- around one of the oldest horse trainers (Charlie
ulation of horses. In human gerontology, demographic Whittingham) or one of the oldest jockeys (Pincay or
age is related to survivorship relative to the rest of the Shoemaker) rather than information on the oldest
population. As defined, the age at which one becomes horse. Another citation that comes up is about an
demographically old is when there is only 25 percent ancient clay horse found in Syria by Dr. Thomas
survivorship at or above that specific age.2 In real terms, Holland. This clay statue, estimated to be 4300 years old,
the demographic age has almost no relevance to the life is a likeness of the modern horse, evidence that the type
of a horse, unless one looks at the demographic age of of horse we have today dates back much longer than
broodmares, for example, and defines age by functional- originally thought.7
ity. Therefore, an old broodmare may be defined as a A short news item in the Journal of Equine
mare that surpasses the point at which only 25 percent Veterinary Practice from 1994 entitled “America’s
—or some other number—of mares are expected to be Oldest Horses” describes a nationwide search con-
fertile.As yet, we have little data to identify this or other ducted by Purina Mills as part of the company’s 100th
specific age characterizations. anniversary.8 In the search, more than 2000 equine
owners submitted information about their beloved
senior horses. The winner was Theodore Edward
PHYSIOLOGIC AGE (Teddy) Bear a Shetland pony that was 52 years old in
Some physiologic and functional characteristics are dif- 1994. According to Dr. Scott King of Purina Mills
ferent between older and younger horses. Senior Feed Division, “Teddy” just received a birthday
We know that the older horse population does have card at his home in Virgina Beach,Virginia from Purina
some differences from younger animals. Arterial blood Mills to celebrate his 60th birthday. Runners-up in the
gases of horses more than 20 years of age had a reduced Purina Mills survey were two standard-sized horses that
partial pressure of arterial oxygen (PaO2) and partial were both 46 years of age in 1994. One was a Florida
pressure of arterial carbon dioxide (PaCO2) compared Cracker horse and the other a Morgan. In addition to
with horses 3 to 8 years of age. While on the other the three oldest equids, 6 other horses were honored
hand, the alveolar-to-arterial pressure gradient of oxy- for their interesting stories of activity and companion-
gen and pH were increased in the older horses. This ship. These equids ranged in age from the late 20s to
indicated that there was a reduction in transfer of oxy- early 30s.
gen from alveoli to capillaries in the older horse. The According the Guinness Book of World Records, the
lower PaCO2 and increased pH seem to represent oldest horse on record was “Old Billy,” an English draft
W0613-01.qxd 06/12/05 1:04 PM Page 3

1 What Is an “Old Horse” and Its Recent Impact? ● 3

horse who lived to the grand old age of 62 years. Perhaps unless the study is repeated. The American Veterinary
more remarkable is that Old Billy did not retire from Medical Association (AVMA) Center for Information
pulling barges until the age of 59.9 Management published a U.S. Pet Ownership and
Based on a response to our request for information on Demographics Sourcebook in which information about
the oldest reproductively sound Thoroughbred mare and population of pets, breeds of pets, demographics of pet
stallion, the Jockey Club’s public relations department ownership, and use of and expenditure for veterinary
responded that, according to their records, the oldest medicine services were reported. Horse ownership is
Thoroughbred mare to have a foal was “Betsy Ross,” one of the categories included by the AVMA in this
who was 30 years old in 1937 when she had her last foal; report.They published reports in 1987, 1991, and 1996.
and the oldest Thoroughbred stallion to sire a foal was Their estimates are separated by age with the oldest
McGee, who was 31 years old when he sired his last foal category including horses of 11 years and older. The
crop in 1931. percentage of horses in their report that are in this
The National Animal Health Monitoring Systems oldest age category (11 years of age or older) was 27.5
(NAHMS) Equine ‘98 Study estimated that approxi- percent, 34.7 percent, and 31.0 percent, respectively, for
mately 8 percent of the equine population is 20 years of 1987, 1991, and 1996.The methods used to estimate the
age or older.10 Based on data from the initial phase of the number of horses in the United States and the percent-
NAHMS Equine ‘98 study, the leading cause of death age by age group were similar across the three periods
among equids 30 years of age or older was “old age.” Old reported. The data do not include estimates for horses
age accounted for approximately 30 percent of the equine on farms, at racetracks, or at boarding facilities (e.g.,
deaths in 1997, followed by colic (17.5% of deaths) and horses not at households.) It would appear from these
injury/wounds/trauma (10.5% of deaths). The overall data that the percent of older horses in 1991 and 1996
death rate for all ages of equids in 1997 was 2.5 percent. was slightly higher than in 1987, perhaps indicating that
The death rate (death due to natural causes or euthanasia) horses residing at households are living longer in the
in equids 20 years of age or more was 11 percent, and that 1990s.5,11
death rate in equids between 30 days and 20 years of age Certainly from a clinician’s point of view there
was approximately 1.3 percent. appear to be more equine owners committed to care of
The following information is based on data from their older horses.The care of older horses has been the
the final phase of the NAHMS Equine ‘98 Study col- focus of many recent articles for both horse owners and
lected in the spring of 1999 for horses residing on veterinarians. Realizing that geriatric horses, like
operations with 3 or more horses on January 1, 1998. geriatric humans, have unique health and nutritional
The percent of resident horses that died or were euth- needs has resulted in an ever-growing market for prod-
anized in the previous 12 months was 2 percent, close ucts that address these needs. For example there are
to the estimate for 1997 from the NAHMS Equine ‘98 nutritional products designed specifically for the older
Study.The death rate in horses 20 years and older was horse, advancement in equine dental equipment
approximately 8 percent, somewhat lower than the has improved the dental health in older horses, and
estimate for 1997. However, the populations in the diagnostic testing and drugs to treat Cushing’s syndrome
1997 estimate included all kinds of equids and those on have been developed.
small and large operations. The data from 1998 The first commercially available specialty feed for
included only horses on operations with 3 or more older horses was introduced in the late 1980s in
horses or horse foals on January 1, 1998. The leading response to requests from the equine industry for a
causes of death in 1997 and 1998 were the same, lend- feed that would better meet the needs of the older
ing more credibility to these observations.9 More horse than those already on the market.The feed was
detailed data were collected in the spring of 1999 Golden Times, which was distributed in a local market
regarding the “old age” death category during 1998. area in Colorado (personal communication from
Approximately 64 percent of the horses that were Ginger Rich, Memphis, TN). Following a favorable
reported dead due to old age had been euthanized.The reception of this feed, a national distributor intro-
common specific causes of death in the 20 years of age duced a geriatric horse feed in 1991 called Equine
or older were weight loss and inability to ambulate. Senior (personal communication, Les Brewer, St.
There are only limited data on the ages of the equine Louis, MO). Since that time most of the major equine
population over time. The NAHMS study mentioned feed companies now market an equine geriatric feed
previously was only conducted throughout a 1-year to meet the needs of the equine industry (Ginger
period, therefore trends over time cannot be compared Rich, Memphis,TN).
W0613-01.qxd 06/12/05 1:04 PM Page 4

4 ● Equine Geriatric Medicine and Surgery

In a review of the medical records database at

TA B L E 1 - 1
Colorado State University Veterinary Teaching Hospital
Percent of Older Equids Compared to All to determine the percentages of patients 15 years of age
Equids Seen at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital or older that were examined, we found a steady increase
in the percentage of older equine patients over time
1973-1976 210/6584 or 3.19% from 1973 to 2000 (Table 1-1 and Fig. 1-1). It is clear
1977-1980 371/7008 or 5.29% from this information that geriatric horses make up an
1981-1984 549/8416 or 6.52% ever-increasing percentage of the equine population.
1985-1988 543/7598 or 7.15%
1989-1992 686/7492 or 9.16%
Subsequent chapters will deal with specific conditions
1993-1996 851/7907 or 10.76% of these geriatric horses.
1997-2000 1005/8431 or 11.92%

Lifespan of Equids Over Time

14.00%
% of old horses (15 yrs or greater)

12.00%

10.00%
in all VTH cases

8.00%
Series 1
6.00%

4.00%

2.00%

0.00%
1973- 1977- 1981- 1985- 1989- 1993- 1997-
1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000
Time in 4 year increments
Figure1-1 Percent of older equids compared with all equids seen at the veterinary teaching hospital.

REFERENCES 6. McFarlane D, Sellon DC, Gibbs SA: Age-related quantitative alterations

in lymphocyte subsets and immunoglobulin isotypes in healthy horses.
1. Kirkwood TBL: Evolution theory and the mechanisms of aging. In Tallis Am J Vet Res 62:1413-7, 2001.
RC, Fillit HM, eds. Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology, ed 6. London, 7. Wilford JN: Ancient clay horse is found in Syria, New York Times,
Churchill Livingstone, p 31-35. January 3, 1993.
2. Grundy EMD:The epidemiology of aging. In Tallis RC, Fillit HM, eds. 8. America’s oldest horses. J Equine Vet Pract, 1994.
Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology, ed 6. London, Churchill 9. Mary Scott Book of Horses: A complete medical reference guide for
Livingstone, p 3-20. horses and foals, Siegal M, Barlough J, Blankenship V, eds, Harper-Collins
3. Aguilera-Tejero E, Estepa JC, Lopez R, et al:Arterial blood gases and acid- Publishers, 1996, p 350.
base balance in healthy young and aged horses. Equine Vet J 30:352-4, 10. Part I: Baseline Reference of 1998 Equine Health and Management,
1998. USDA: APHIS:VS, Centers for Epidemiology and Animal Health,
4. McFarlane D, Sellon DC, Gaffney D, et al: Hematologic and serum bio- N280.898.
chemical variables and plasma corticotropin concentration in healthy 11. U.S. Pet Ownership and Demographics Sourcebook, American
aged horses.Am J Vet Res 59:1247-51, 1998. Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) Center for Information
5. Ralston SL, Nockels CF, Squires EL: Differences in diagnostic test results Management, 1987, 1991, 1996.
and hematologic data between aged and young horses. Am J Vet Res
49:1387-92, 1988.
W0613-02.qxd 11/16/05 01:06 PM Page 5

C H A P T E R
2

Interactions with Horses

and the Human-Animal Bond
Daniel Q. Estep

others,such as a horse that kicks a person or a veterinarian

T his chapter describes the ways that people interact
with horses and the attachments that form between
horses and humans. These patterns of attachment and
that examines a horse’s teeth. Relationships are made up
of a series of interactions over time.The series of interac-
interaction can affect the ways that horses behave around tions between a mare and her foal would define the mare-
their owners and the veterinary staff.They can also affect foal relationship.The interactions that a veterinarian has
the kinds of services that owners request of veterinarians with a horse define the horse-veterinarian relationship.
for their horses.All of this ultimately affects the ways that Social structure emerges from the nature, quality, and pat-
veterinarians and their staff deal with horses and their terning of all the relationships among all of the individuals
owners and the kinds and nature of services offered to in the system.All of the relationships that horses have with
horse owners. As you will see in the following chapters, other horses describe the social structure of horses.All of
older horses sometimes require special care and services. the relationships that horses have with people describe
Whether you choose to offer these services and whether the social structure of humans and horses.
owners choose to accept them will depend in part on the Although the system is hierarchical (social structures
kinds of relationships horses and owners have had in the are built on relationships, relationships are built on inter-
past and the kind of relationships they have currently. actions),it is dynamic and there is interaction across levels.
Relationships can change over time as interactions
INTERACTIONS change. For example, the relationship between a mare and
her foal changes as the foal matures and the interactions
AND RELATIONSHIPS change between them. Past relationships can influence
There is considerable diversity in the ways that people current interactions. A horse that has had painful and
use the terms relationship and interaction.To avoid confu- frightening relationships with veterinarians in the past
sion, these terms and their relationships to each other will likely have a fearful and troublesome interaction with
need explanation. One view of social relationships is a veterinarian trying to treat her. Being aware of past rela-
that of Hinde.1 In this theory, social structures are made tionships can help to predict future behavior, whether it is
up of social relationships, and social relationships are interactions with other horses or with people.
composed of social interactions. Although this system
was developed to describe relationships within species, it HUMAN–ANIMAL BONDS
can also be applied to interspecific relationships such as
those between people and horses. AND ATTACHMENT
Interactions are the building blocks of relationships. Interest in the relationships between people and com-
They consist of the individual behaviors directed toward panion animals was greatly stimulated in the late 1960s

5
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6 ● Equine Geriatric Medicine and Surgery

and early 1970s by the work of two psychologists, that owning or interacting with an animal can improve
Samuel Corson and Boris Levinson. Both found that the quality of life for people under some conditions.2,5
animals could be beneficial in the psychological therapy What has been assumed but rarely examined is that the
of children and adults. This work stimulated others to relationship is also good for the animal. Despite the rosy
investigate the relationship between people and pets that claims about the value of the bond to people, we know
became known as the “human–companion animal that relationships with animals are not always beneficial.
bond.” Since it was coined, this term has rarely been Animals can injure or kill people, destroy property, or cre-
defined. It seems to mean different things at different ate legal problems for people. It is also likely that having
times, and there are a number of assumptions associated relationships with people can produce negative conse-
with it.2 It is generally assumed that the bond is a type of quences for animals as well. Injuries, fears, stress-related
mutual relationship that has the same meaning for both problems, and even death can result from relationships
participants. Its existence seems to preclude the exis- with people, even when the intentions of the people are
tence of other kinds of interactions or relationships that to do no harm to the animal.
may exist between people and their pets.That is, it seems It has never been clear whether there are different
to oversimplify the complexity of most human-animal kinds of attachments that can form between animals and
interactions and relationships.The bond is also assumed people (and vice-versa) or whether there are only differ-
to be a good thing, meaning that it results in positive ent degrees of attachment that form between different
consequences for both people and animals. Finally, there people and animals. Does the groom who looks after a
seems to be an assumption that there is only one kind of racehorse have a different kind of attachment to this
bond that can form between animal and human, as horse than the little girl who rides her pleasure horse on
reflected in the commonly seen phrase “The Bond.” weekends, or is it only a matter of degree?
These assumptions are not always true.
In the human and animal behavior literature, the HOW ANIMALS AND PEOPLE
terms bond and attachment are often used interchangeably
and often have different meanings, depending on the
PERCEIVE EACH OTHER
author. Attachment can refer to an emotional feeling, The kinds of interactions and relationships that can
a process, or a specific behavior.3,4 As it is used here, the develop between animals and people are highly diverse.
term attachment or bond refers to an internal process that When two animals or a person and an animal interact,
motivates behaviors to keep an individual in close prox- there is almost always communication between them;
imity to the object of attachment and behaviors that that is, the actions of one confer information that causes
reflect emotional distress when there is involuntary sep- a change in the behavior of the other.When both part-
aration from the object of attachment. ners are members of the same species and share the same
Attachments are not always mutual. A young owner communication system, communication is likely to be
may be very attached to her horse, but the horse may effective because both partners share the same percep-
not be similarly attached to the owner. Similarly, an old tion of the signals sent. If the communication partners
mare may be very attached to her owner, but the owner are of different species, such as people and horses, the
may no longer be attached to her and thus sells her to communication systems will not be shared, and mis-
another person. communication and misinterpretation can occur. Each
A bond or attachment implies a relationship or group partner may perceive an interaction differently. Thus, a
of relationships between an animal and a person. The young rider may perceive her hug of the neck of her
interactions upon which the relationship and attachment horse as being friendly while the horse may perceive it
are based may not always be positive or friendly. Even in as threatening.
the closest and most positive of human relationships, The Swiss zoologist Heini Hediger has pointed out
there are occasional negative interactions, such as con- that animals and people have a tendency to perceive and
flicts involving threats and punishment between parents treat other animals as if they were members of their own
and children. Similarly, conflicts, threats, aggression, and species, if they sense a familiarity in the others.6 In
fear can occur in human-animal relationships character- humans, this leads to anthropomorphism, the attribution
ized by strong attachments. Owners who are very of human characteristics to animals, and in animals it
attached to their horses may still use fear-provoking and leads to zoomorphism, an analogous attribution of ani-
painful techniques to train them. Having strong attach- mal characteristics to animals of different species or to
ments to an animal does not always seem to deter humans. In both animals and people, it leads individuals
neglect, harsh treatment, or even cruelty. to direct species-typical behavior toward other species
It has often been assumed that the human–companion and to the expectation that the others will behave
animal bond was a good thing.Certainly there is evidence appropriately. This is not always the case and can lead to
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2 Interactions with Horses and the Human-Animal Bond ● 7

serious problems. For example, it can result in people and consume other animals. Horses may perceive people
who lecture their horses on why they should not kick as socially insignificant parts of the environment. Horses
their stalls and in horses that lay back their ears as a that are well socialized to people, that are around them
threat to people who threaten them. frequently, and for whom the people have little meaning
Anthropomorphism can lead to other problems as probably think of people as insignificant and just ignore
well. People who do not know much about the biology them. People that pass by horses at work, at pasture, or in
or species-typical behavior of other animals and how stalls and who do not interact with the horses and pro-
they learn may assume that animals are motivated to vide no rewards or punishments are socially insignificant
behave for the same reasons as people.The attribution of and will likely be ignored.
the human motives of stubbornness, guilt, spite, and A caretaker approaching a horse with food or a per-
revenge to animals is quite common and can lead to son stopping to pet a horse will not be socially insignifi-
inappropriate and cruel treatment of the animals. cant and could be considered a symbiont. Symbiosis
Beating a stubborn horse is unlikely to motivate him to involves the living together of members of different
do what the person wants him to do. species to their mutual benefit.There is communication
To understand the interactions and relationships that between the two individuals, but in general they do not
arise between animals and people, it is important to respond to each other as predator, prey, or conspecific.
understand how all the participants perceive each other. Communication signals between them may be modifi-
Hediger has made important contributions to our cations of species-typical signals or new signals that have
understanding of the ways that animals can perceive specifically arisen between the two.A person approach-
humans and vice versa.6 He has stated that to humans, ing with a bucket of grain may lead to a friendly
animals can take on innumerable roles,“from dead mer- approach by the horse.The person approaching with the
chandise up to a deity.”6 Humans can be perceived by grain bucket is a new signal for the horse that had no
animals in a variety of ways as well. Hediger describes meaning before it happened the first time.The friendly
five major perceptions or roles that humans can take on approach is a species-typical signal by the horse that is
for animals.These are as predator, prey, a part of the envi- easily interpreted by the person. It is likely that most
ronment without social significance, a symbiont, and a horses that are well socialized to people and have had
member of the animal’s own species. It is unlikely that mostly good experiences with them perceive people as
any mammal or bird perceives humans as belonging symbionts—foreign creatures that provide some rewards
exclusively to only one of these categories.These cate- and some punishments.This is also the kind of percep-
gories probably form a continuum, and an animal prob- tion most favored by most people interacting with
ably perceives any given human somewhere along the horses, whether they recognize it or not.
continuum or as belonging to a combination of cate- Perhaps the most interesting kind of perception that
gories.These categories are useful as reference points to animals can develop toward people is to view them as
help describe how animals perceive humans and why conspecifics. Some animals clearly do this, directing
they interact with them the way that they do. species-typical behaviors such as courtship, play, and
threats toward people.Why this happens is not thoroughly
How Horses Perceive People understood, but it is thought that early socialization of the
Horses can perceive people in several of the ways animal with people may predispose it. If the young animal
described by Hediger. How they perceive any particular is reared in the absence of conspecifics but in the presence
person depends on a number of factors influencing the of people, such perceptions are even more likely.6,7 Young
horse, including genetic predispositions, experiences horses will sometimes direct play toward humans and,
early in life, and later experiences. Some horses may rarely, adult horses will threaten people in dominance
view people as predators and react to them with interactions.8 Since such behavior by horses can be dan-
extreme fear, flight responses, and defensive aggression. gerous to people, it is seldom tolerated and frequently
This is most likely with horses that have been farther punished.The behavior often declines or disappears, but it
removed from domestication, such as feral horses, those is unclear if the perception of the person changes from
that have not been socialized to people from an early conspecific to something else.
age, and those that have had consistently aversive experi-
ences with people. Anyone who has tried to interact How People Perceive Horses
with “wild” mustangs from feral groups knows how dif- As quoted earlier, human perceptions of animals vary
ficult and dangerous these animals can be and can appre- dramatically “from dead merchandise up to a deity.”The
ciate how the animals might perceive them as a predator. history of human interactions with horses reflects this
It is unlikely that horses ever perceive people as prey. diversity. Many cultures throughout history have owed
As large herbivores, horses are not known to stalk, kill, much to the horse.As Clutton-Brock puts it,“It may be
W0613-02.qxd 11/16/05 01:06 PM Page 8

8 ● Equine Geriatric Medicine and Surgery

argued that without the horse human history would People and animals form attachments to what is familiar,
have been entirely different . . . There would have been and the more time spent together, the more familiar
no Crusades and no foreign empires for, without fast each becomes to the other.With all other things being
transport and fast movement of goods, weapons and equal, the more time that two individuals spend
food, invaders are powerless.”9 Some societies have hon- together, the less likely they are to perceive each other as
ored the horse and even treated them as sacred. Others predator and prey or to ignore each other. This factor
have abused, neglected, and even eaten them. Such dif- can influence attachments to inanimate objects and
ferent perceptions exist even within the same societies, places as well. Horses may become attached to a specific
such as modern America, where famous racehorses are activity ball or even a specific pasture, so that when they
honored and revered while other horses are slaughtered are gone, the animal becomes distressed. The longer a
for food.“In their attitudes to their animals humans have person has a given horse, the more likely it is that both
always been as confused as they are in any other relation- horse and owner will form strong attachments to each
ship, mixing compassion with cruelty and altruism with other. Older horses may be owned longer and both
commercial greed.”9 Despite this confusion, most owner and horse may be strongly attached.
people in Western societies probably perceive horses as For most species of mammals and birds, conspecific
symbionts or even as conspecifics. People provide food, perceptions and attachments are most easily established
shelter, and medical care to the horse, and the horse early in life, during a sensitive period for socialization.As
provides work, sport, recreation, and/or companionship. a general rule, the younger the individual is when
exposed to others, the more likely the individual is to
FACTORS INFLUENCING form conspecific perceptions and attachments and the
PERCEPTIONS, INTERACTIONS, less likely she is to develop perceptions of the other as
predator, prey, or socially insignificant. Symbiotic and
RELATIONSHIPS, AND BONDS conspecific perceptions and attachments can be formed
There are a number of factors that seem to influence at later ages, but it generally requires more time and
how animals and people will perceive each other and effort to form these perceptions and attachments. The
that influence the kinds of interactions and relationships exact time of the sensitive period for socialization in
that develop between them. This ultimately influences horses is unknown and is the subject of some debate;
the development of attachments.4 The first of these is however, it appears that exposures to people during the
similarities in communication systems.The more similar first few days of life can be beneficial in developing more
two species are in their communication, the more likely positive perceptions and attachments to people.11 There
they are to influence each other, to behave as symbionts is a common belief, but no scientific evidence, that chil-
or conspecifics, and to form social attachments.The less dren exposed to horses are more likely to have positive
the overlap in communication, the more likely the indi- feelings about horses as adults.
viduals are to perceive and respond to each other as Physical contact, feeding, and other positive rein-
predator and prey or not to respond at all. Although forcers and the absence of punishment seem to facilitate
horses and people do not have many similarities in their symbiotic and conspecific perceptions and attachments
communication systems, both species heavily depend on in most species. In general, punishment tends to pro-
visual signals for communication and are more likely to mote predator–prey perceptions. Punishment is thought
attend to the visual cues given by others.This may facil- to diminish positive social perceptions by increasing the
itate communication between them. Horses, like peo- distance between the individual and the punishing
ple, have a complex social organization that probably object. Punishment can also produce fear that can also
predisposes them to living in complex social groups inhibit positive perceptions and attachments. Feeding
with people.10 When left to themselves, horses form sta- and brushing horses can increase positive perceptions of
ble, long-term groups composed of mares with their people by horses and to the extent that it is rewarding to
foals and a stallion attached to the group.The individuals people, it may also increase perceptions and attachments
in the groups form attachments to each other, there are to horses in people as well. Hitting a horse, performing a
dominance relationships among them, and they cooper- painful veterinary procedure, or frightening a horse
ate and coordinate their activities with each other.These with sudden movements or unusual objects can pro-
are all things that would facilitate living with people. mote prey-like reactions such as flight, struggle, and
Perhaps the most important factor in developing defensive aggression. Horses that nuzzle people, follow
symbiotic and conspecific relationships and attachments them around, and approach them probably also elicit
between animals and people is sensory contact or famil- symbiotic or conspecifics perceptions from people.
iarity. The more time a person and animal spend Some experts have suggested that people have selec-
together, the more likely they are to form attachments. tively bred companion animals for those traits that make
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