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(Un)Civil Society and Political Change
in Indonesia

(Un)Civil Society and Political Change in Indonesia provides a critical ana-

lysis of Indonesia’s civil society and its impact on the country’s democratiza-
tion efforts that not only takes the classical, pro-democratic actors of civil
society into account but also portrays uncivil groups and their growing influ-
ence on political processes.
Beittinger-Lee offers a revised categorization of civil society, including a
model to define the sphere of ‘uncivil society’ more closely and to identify
several subcategories of uncivil society. This is the first book to portray various
uncivil groups in Indonesia, ranging from vigilantes, militias, paramilitaries,
youth groups, civil security task forces and militant Islamic (and other reli-
gious) groups, ethnonationalist groups to terrorist organizations and groups
belonging to organized crime. Moreover, it provides the reader with an over-
view of Indonesia’s history, its political developments after the democratic
opening, main improvements under the various presidents since Suharto’s fall,
constitutional amendments and key reforms in human rights legislation.
This book will be of interest to upper-level undergraduates, postgraduates
and academics in political science and Southeast Asian studies.

Verena Beittinger-Lee obtained her PhD from the Department of Southeast

Asian Studies at the Alexander von Humboldt University in Berlin in 2007
and now works at a law firm in New York.
Routledge Studies on Civil Society in Asia
Series Editor: Mark Sidel, University of Iowa, USA.

Routledge Studies on Civil Society in Asia addresses the role of civil society,
nonprofit, philanthropic, NGO, religious and other organizations in their
social context both in individual countries and in comparative perspective
across East, Southeast, and South Asia. Themes include defining the role and
scope of civil society; relations between civil society and the state; NGOs in
regional and country contexts; governance and accountability in civil society;
civil society and religion; the political role of civil society; the role of founda-
tions, religious philanthropy, and other philanthropic organizations; business,
philanthropy and civil society; ethnography of particular civil society, NGO,
community-based or other organizations; transnational civil society organizations
in Asia; the legal regulation of civil society; self-regulation and accountability;
Asian diasporas and civil society; and resources and fundraising for civil
society.
The series is edited by Mark Sidel, Professor of Law and Faculty Scholar at
the University of Iowa, who has served in program positions with the Ford
Foundation in Beijing, Hanoi, Bangkok and New Delhi working on strength-
ening the nonprofit sector, philanthropy, and civil society and has consulted
widely in the region.

1 Local Organizations and Urban Governance in East and Southeast Asia

Straddling state and society
Edited by Benjamin L. Read with Robert Pekkanen

2 (Un)Civil Society and Political Change in Indonesia

A Contested Arena
Verena Beittinger-Lee
(Un)Civil Society and Political
Change in Indonesia
A contested arena

Verena Beittinger-Lee
First published 2009 by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2010 Verena Beittinger-Lee
Typeset in Times New Roman by
Taylor & Francis Books
Printed and bound in Great Britain by
CPI Antony Rowe, Chippenham, Wiltshire
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Beittinger-Lee, Verena.
(Un) civil society and political change in Indonesia : a contested arena /
Verena Beittinger-Lee.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
1. Civil society–Indonesia. 2. Democracy–Indonesia. 3. Indonesia–Politics
and government–1998- I. Title.
JQ776.B45 2009
320.9598–dc22
2009014487

ISBN: 978-0-415-54741-3 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-203-86879-9 (ebk)
For Herta, Raimund, Hyun and Gila
Contents

List of illustrations viii

Foreword by Goenawan Mohamad ix
Acknowledgements x
List of abbreviations xi

1 Introduction 1

2 An uneasy correlation: (un)civil society and democracy 10

3 Historical and political framework for civil society formation in

Indonesia 35

4 Walking a tightrope: civil society under Suharto 57

5 Between reform and regression: post-Suharto state and politics 71

6 A contested arena: civil society in post-Suharto Indonesia 115

7 The rise of uncivil society 158

8 Summary and conclusion: (un)civil society and the future of

democracy in Indonesia 208

Appendix 218
Notes 236
Bibliography 266
Index 294
Illustrations

Figure
6.1 Increase in selected civil society organizations from the New
Order to post-Suharto 117

Tables
6.1 New civil society model 118
7.1 Categorization of uncivil society groups in Indonesia 162
A.1 Subjective well-being rankings of 82 societies 221
A.2 Indonesia on the Failed States Index 222
A.3 Types of international human rights instruments 223
A.4 Indonesia’s commitment to UN conventions 224
A.5 Pro-integration militias in East Timor 225
A.6 USOs in Indonesia 227
A.7 Sub-categories of uncivil society 234
Foreword

To identify is to risk misapprehension. Concepts are slippery and “civil society”

is notoriously so. Since the 1980s the phrase has been used to denote every-
thing from erratic social activists’ associations to well-organized foundations.
Hegel would find it baffling to learn that his “bürgerliche Gesellschaft” is no
longer a single entity; today’s capitalism has generated diverse social identities
and conflicts. In countries where the notion of “middle class” occupies no
distinct economic and cultural space, “civil society” is less a social formation
than an articulation of engagements in which the social betrays the force of
the political.
Verena Beittinger-Lee’s is a laudable attempt to go through this irregular
terrain and find patterns in the shifting paths and hedges of democratization,
using Indonesia as a case study.
Needless to say that the story is far from over. Living through different
stages of Indonesian history, I am persuaded to view democracy not as a
political format but as the sound and fury of the practice of politics itself —
especially when it is marked by the taking-part of those who have no part.
It is about time for an introduction to this often-confusing chronicle of
Indonesia. Beittinger-Lee’s work is one of the few readings on this largest
Muslim country in the world, with its desire and drive to meet the perpetual
demand for adil dan merdeka, or what a political thinker calls “egaliberté”.
Goenawan Mohamad
Acknowledgements

This book is dedicated to the Indonesian people and those who ignited my
passion for this country in the first place. Only the ceaseless support and love
of many allowed me to conduct my research and write this study.
I gratefully acknowledge Ronald Inglehart and the Fund for Peace for
permission to reproduce their copyrighted material.
I would like to thank all my interview partners, friends, and colleagues in
Indonesia for sharing their insights and information so generously. Without
you, this book could not have been written. I am particularly indebted to
Goenawan Mohamad for his extensive support of my research, as well as
Nike Rompas from Tempo Magazine, and the staff at ISAI Jakarta. I also
want to express my gratitude to my supervisors, Prof. Ingrid Wessel and Prof.
Vincent Houben, for their continuous helpfulness and patience.
Furthermore, I would like to thank Rainer Adam, David Bourchier, Steffen
Möritz, and Andreas Ufen for their comments and suggestions, which greatly
helped me in finishing this study. Finally, I am deeply indebted to my native-
speaker friends all around the world, who helped proofreading this book:
Belinda Cassidy, Adam Groves, Jon Elliott, Don and Sarah Jones, Jerry
Kragt, Yann Ledu, and Peter Snowdon.
Last but not least, I would like to thank my family and friends for never
losing faith in me and for all the love, support, and encouragement offered
throughout this project, above all my parents Herta and Raimund Beittinger
and my beloved husband Hyun Lee.
Abbreviations

AAM Anti Apostasy Movement

ABG Aliansi Bubarkan Golkar, Alliance to Disband Golkar
ABRI Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia, Armed Forces of the
Republic of Indonesia
adat traditional law and customs
AGAP Aliansi Gerakan Anti Pemurtadan, Anti-Apostasy Movement
AGG Artha Graha Group
AJI Aliansi Jurnalis Independen, Independent Journalist Alliance
Aldera Aliansi Demokrasi Rakyat, People’s Democracy Alliance
AMD ABRI Masuk Desa, ABRI Enters the Village
AMP Aliansi Mahasiswa Papua, Alliance of Papuan Students
AMPI Angkatan Muda Pembaharuan Indonesia, Indonesian Renewal
Youth Organization
ANO Anshoru Nahdlatul Oelama
Ansor /Anshor Ans(h)or’s Youth Movement, NU’s youth wing
APM Aliansi Perempuan Menggugat, Women’s Claim Alliance
APP-GMTPS Angkatan Penerus Pejuang Gerakan Mandau Talawang
Pancasila, Generation of Warriors to Continue the
Pro-Pancasila Movement of the Cutlass and Shield
arisan a savings and credit group
Babinsa Badan Pembina Desa, Military Command on Village Level
BABINSA Bintara Pembina Desa, non-commissioned officer for village
guidance
BAIS Badan Inteljin Strategis, (the military’s) Strategic Intelligence
Agency
BAKIN Badan Koordinasi Intelijen Negara, State Intelligence
Coordinating Board
BAKORSTANAS Badan Koordinasi Bantuan Pemantapan Stabilitas Nasional,
Agency for the Coordination of National
Stability
banjar part of a Balinese village, equivalent to Rukun Warga,
community unit
banpol bantuan polisi, civilian police assistants
xii Abbreviations
Banser Barisan Serbaguna Ansor, security task force of Nahdlatul
Ulama’s youth wing, Ansor
BAPPENAS Badan Perencanaan dan Pembangunan Nasional, National
Development Planning Agency
BBM bahan bakar minyak (domestic energy products: motor
gasoline, kerosene, diesel oil, fuels oils as well as electricity)
BEM Badan Eksekutif Mahasiswa, Student Executive Council
beras perelek traditional funeral insurance group
BKPRMI Badan Kontak Pemuda dan Remaja Masjid Indonesia,
Contact Organ of Indonesian Mosque Youth
BKSPM Badan Kerja Sama Pemuda Militer, Military Youth
Cooperation Agency
BKUI Badan Koordinasi Ummat Islam, Coordinating Board of the
Islamic Nation
BMI Banteng Muda Indonesia, Indonesian Young Bulls
BMP Besi Merah Putih, Red and White Iron
BOB Barisan Oposisi Bersatu, United Opposition Front
BOKMM Barisan Oposisi Kaum Muda Mahasiswa, Youth and Student
Opposition Front
BPUPKI Badan Penyelidik Usaha Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia,
Investigating Committee for Preparatory Work for Indonesian
Independence
Brigass Brigade Siaga Satu, Alert One Brigade
Brimob Brigade Mobil, Mobile Brigades
BSY Bina Swadaya Yogyakarta, Yogyakarta Community Self
Reliance Development Agency
Buistu Barisan Umat Islam Bersatu, United Front of the Islamic
Nation
Bujak Pemburu Jejak, Tracker
CEIA Center for East Indonesian Affairs
CGMI Central Gerakan Mahasiswa Indonesia, Indonesian Central
Student Movement
CIA Central Intelligence Agency
CIDA Canadian International Development Agency
CIDES Centre for Information and Development Studies
CIVICUS World Alliance for Citizen Participation
CNRT Conselho Nacional de Resistência Timorense, National
Council for Timorese Resistance
Coker Cowok-cowok Kristen/Cowok-Cowok Keren, Christian Boys/
Handsome Boys
CPSM Center for Participatory Social Management
CSIS Centre for Strategic and International Studies
CSO Civil Society Organization
dakwah spreading the message of Islam
dalang mastermind, lit. puppeteer
 Abbreviations xiii
Daulah Islamiyah
Nusantara Pan Southeast Asian Islamic State
DDII Dewan Dakwah Islamiyah Indonesia, Indonesian Council of
Islamic Propagation
DEMOS Center for Democracy and Human Rights Studies
DI Darul Islam, house/abode of Islam
DPD Dewan Pewakilan Daerah, Regional Representatives Council
DPR Dewan Permusyawaratan Rakyat, House of
Representatives
DSMPPT Dewan Solidaritas Mahasiswa Pemuda dan Pelajar Timor
Timur, East Timorese Youth and Student Solidarity Council
DSPM-TT Dewan Solidaritas Pemuda Pelajar dan Mahasiswa Timor Timur,
East Timorese Student and Youth Solidarity Organization
ELSAM Institute for Policy Research and Advocacy
FAMI Indonesian Students Action Front
FAMRED Front Aksi Mahasiwa untuk Reformasi Damai, Student Action
Front for Peaceful Reform
FAM-UI Front Aksi Mahasiswa Universitas Indonesia, Student Action
Front of the University of Indonesia
FBR Forum Betawi Rempug, Betawi Brotherhood Forum
FKAWJ Forum Komunikasi Ahlus Sunnah wal Jama’ah, Sunni
Communication Forum
FKPM Forum Kommunikasi Pemuda Melayu, Malay Youth
Communication Forum
FKPPI Forum Komunikasi Putra-Putri Purnawirawan ABRI,
Communication Forum of the Sons and Daughters of Retired
Military
FKSMJ Forum Komunikasi Senat Mahasiswa Jakarta, Jakarta
Student Senate Communication Forum
FMN Front Mahasiswa Nasional, National Student Front
FMY Front Mahasiswa Yogya, Yogyakarta Student Front
FND Forum Nasional Demokrat, Democratic National Forum
FNPBI Front National Perjuangan Buruh Indonesia,
Indonesian National Front for Labor Struggle
Forbes Forum Bersama, Joint Forum
Forkot Forum Kota, City Forum
Forsa-repetil Forum Sarjana Pro-referendum dan Pengembangan Timor
Leste, Forum of Timorese Academics for Referendum and
Development
Fosko Forum Studi dan Komunikasi
FPB Front Penyelamat Bangsa, Saviors of the Nation Front
FPDRA Front Perlawanan Demokratik Rakyat Aceh, Democratic
Opposition Front of the People of Aceh
FPI Front Pembela Islam, Front of the Defenders of Islam
FPJ Front Pelajar Jabotabek, Jabotabek Student Front
xiv Abbreviations
FPPI Front Perjuangan Pemuda Indonesia, Indonesian Youth
Struggle Front
FPPI Front Perjuangan Pelajar Indonesia, Indonesian Student
Struggle Front
FRAROB Front Rakyat Anti Rezim Orde Baru, Anti New Order
People’s Front
FRETILIN Front Revolusioner Timor Timur Independen,
Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor
FUIB Forum Umat Islam Bersama
FUNGSI Muslim Supporters of the Constitutional Forum
Furkon Forum Ummat Islam Penegak Keadilan dan
Konstitusi, Forum of the Islamic Ummat of the Upholders of
Justice and the Constitution
FUUI Forum Ulama Umat Indonesia, Religious Scholars Forum of
the Indonesian Muslim Community
GAM Gerakan Aceh Merdeka, Free Aceh Movement
GAM Gerakan Anti Maksiat, Anti-Vice Movement
Garap Gerakan Rakyat Anti-Premanisme, Anti-Thuggery Peoples
Movement
Garda Bangsa Gerakan Pemuda Kebangkitan Bangsa, National Guard
gardu security posts
GAZA Gerakan Anti-Zionisme dan Anti-Israel, Anti-Zionism and
Anti-Israel Movement
Gerdu Taksin Gerakan Terpadu Pengentasan Kemiskinan, Integrated
Movement on the Eradication of Poverty
GMIB Gerakan Mahasiswa Indonesia Bersatu, United Indonesian
Student Movement
GMKI Gerakan Mahasiswa Kristen Indonesia, Indonesian Christian
Student Movement
GMNI Gerakan Mahasiswa Nasional Indonesia, Indonesian National
Student Movement
GMNK Gerakan Mahasiswa National Kemerdekaan, National Student
Movement of Independence
GPI Gerakan Pemuda Islam, Islamic Youth Movement
GPII Gerakan Pemuda Islam Indonesia, Indonesian Islamic Youth
Movement
GPK Gerakan Pemuda Ka’bah, Ka’bah Youth Movement
GPK Gerakan Pengacau Keamanan, Security threatening
movements
GPK Gerakan Pemuda Kerakyatan, Popular Youth Movement
GRMS Gerakan Rakyat dan Mahasiswa Surakarta, Surakarta People
and Students Movement
GSBI Gabungan Serikat Buruh Indonesia, Federation of
Independent Unions
Hansip Pertahanan Sipil, Civil Defense
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