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THE PALGRAVE HANDBOOK
OF APPLIED LINGUISTICS
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Edited by Aek Phakiti, Peter De Costa,
Luke Plonsky and Sue Starfield
The Palgrave Handbook of Applied Linguistics
Research Methodology
 Aek Phakiti • Peter De Costa
Luke Plonsky • Sue Starfield
Editors

The Palgrave
Handbook of Applied
Linguistics Research
Methodology
Editors
Aek Phakiti Peter De Costa
Sydney School of Education and Social Work Department of Linguistics, Germanic, Slavic,
University of Sydney Asian and African Languages
Sydney, NSW, Australia Michigan State University
East Lansing, MI, USA
Luke Plonsky
Applied Linguistics Sue Starfield
Northern Arizona University School of Education
Flagstaff, AZ, USA UNSW Sydney
Sydney, NSW, Australia

ISBN 978-1-137-59899-8    ISBN 978-1-137-59900-1 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-59900-1

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018955931

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

The author(s) has/have asserted their right(s) to be identified as the author(s) of this work in accordance with
the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the
whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or informa-
tion storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does
not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective
laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are
believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors
give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions
that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps
and institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration: © Aek Phakiti

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Limited.
The registered company address is: The Campus, 4 Crinan Street, London, N1 9XW, United Kingdom
 Preface

Applied linguistics is a broad, evolving interdisciplinary field of study, which

examines language use with relevance to real-world problems across a range of
social contexts using a diverse set of methodologies. This Handbook aims to
provide a comprehensive, yet accessible treatment of basic and more advanced
research methodologies in applied linguistics as well as to offer a state-of-the-­
art view of various substantive domains within the field. The Handbook covers
a range of research approaches, presents current perspectives, and addresses
important considerations in different research methods, such as designing and
implementing research instruments and techniques and analyzing different
types of applied linguistics data. Innovations, challenges, and trends in applied
linguistics research are addressed throughout the Handbook.
This Handbook has brought together a range of authors in various areas of
research into one volume. The authors work with a variety of languages in a
host of research contexts, ensuring both breadth and depth. As the
Handbook editors, we have curated themes and ideas that are aligned with the
current research climate as well as areas that help applied linguists better
understand social and educational phenomena and the nature of language,
language learning, and language use.

Readership
As we anticipate that many readers of this Handbook may be junior scholars
seeking guidance on research methods, and taking into account the many
options and pathways on offer, we have striven to ensure that the Handbook pro-
vides an up-to-date entry point into both approaches that have stood the test

v
vi Preface

of time and approaches that may be less well known, but offer interesting
possibilities and perspectives. This Handbook is suitable for use by advanced
undergraduate and postgraduate students as well as beginning and well-­
established applied linguists who would like both a broad and in-depth under-
standing of contemporary applied linguistics research methods and topics.
Specifically, this Handbook can be used in applied linguistics, second language
studies, and TESOL graduate programs around the world. Libraries, univer-
sity departments, and organizations dealing with applied linguistics issues will
also find this Handbook to be an invaluable resource.

Comments or Suggestions
The editors would be grateful to hear comments and suggestions regarding
this Handbook. Please contact Aek Phakiti at [email protected],
Peter De Costa at [email protected], Luke Plonsky at lukeplonsky@
gmail.com, or Sue Starfield at [email protected].

Sydney, NSW, Australia Aek Phakiti

East Lansing, MI, USA  Peter De Costa
Flagstaff, AZ, USA  Luke Plonsky
Sydney, NSW, Australia  Sue Starfield
 Acknowledgments

We wish to express our heartfelt thanks to the contributors of this Handbook

who worked hard to produce great chapters and promptly responded to our
requests and comments on earlier drafts. You are all truly amazing. We would
also like to thank the many researchers, authors, and methodologists who
published research articles, book chapters, and books not only in applied lin-
guistics but across various disciplines. Their contributions have helped us
deepen our understanding of numerous issues and methods relevant to applied
linguistics. Next, we are very grateful to Palgrave for their kind support
throughout the completion of this Handbook.
We would like to thank our colleagues and friends at Georgetown University,
Michigan State University, Northern Arizona University, the University of
New South Wales, and the University of Sydney who discussed with us essen-
tial ideas and issues to be included in this Handbook and read and commented
on several chapter drafts, in particular: Janette Bobis, Jesse Egbert, Mia Jun,
Amy Kim, Wendy Li, Alison Mackey, Guy Middleton, Lourdes Ortega, Brian
Paltridge, Jack C. Richards, Fran Waugh, and Yiran Xu.
Finally, we would like to thank our partners who supported us throughout
the process of putting together this Handbook, including weekend Skype time
when our schedules—sometimes across four distinct time zones—would
align.

vii
 Contents

Part I Research Approaches and Methodology    1

1 Applied Linguistics Research: Current Issues, Methods, and

Trends  5
Aek Phakiti, Peter De Costa, Luke Plonsky, and Sue Starfield

2 Habits of Mind: How Do We Know What We Know? 31

Richard F. Young

3 Quantitative Methodology 55
Luke K. Fryer, Jenifer Larson-Hall, and Jeffrey Stewart

4 Qualitative Methodology 79
Shim Lew, Anna Her Yang, and Linda Harklau

5 Mixed Methodology103
Alison Mackey and Lara Bryfonski

6 Traditional Literature Review and Research Synthesis123

Shaofeng Li and Hong Wang

7 Research Replication145
Rebekha Abbuhl

ix
x Contents

8 Ethical Applied Linguistics Research163

Scott Sterling and Peter De Costa

9 Writing a Research Proposal183

Sue Starfield

10 Writing a Research Article199

Betty Samraj

Part II Research Instruments, Techniques, and Data Sources 221

11 Interviews and Focus Groups225

Matthew T. Prior

12 Observation and Fieldnotes249

Fiona Copland

13 Online Questionnaires269
Jean-Marc Dewaele

14 Psycholinguistic Methods287
Sarah Grey and Kaitlyn M. Tagarelli

15 SLA Elicitation Tasks313

Susan Gass

16 Introspective Verbal Reports: Think-Alouds and Stimulated

Recall339
Melissa A. Bowles

17 Corpus Research Methods for Language Teaching and

Learning359
Magali Paquot

18 Digital Discourses Research and Methods375

Christoph A. Hafner
 Contents xi

Part III Data Analysis 391

19 Correlation and Simple Linear Regression in Applied

Linguistics395
Reza Norouzian and Luke Plonsky

20 Exploratory Factor Analysis423

Aek Phakiti

21 Confirmatory Factor Analysis and Structural Equation

Modeling459
Aek Phakiti

22 Analyzing Group Differences501

Luke Wander Amoroso

23 Statistics for Categorical, Nonparametric, and Distribution-­

Free Data523
Jesse Egbert and Geoffrey T. LaFlair

24 Reliability Analysis of Instruments and Data Coding541

Kirby C. Grabowski and Saerhim Oh

25 Analyzing Spoken and Written Discourse: A Role for Natural

Language Processing Tools567
Scott A. Crossley and Kristopher Kyle

26 Narrative Analysis595
Phil Benson

27 Interaction Analysis615
Elizabeth R. Miller

28 Multimodal Analysis639
Jesse Pirini, Tui Matelau-Doherty, and Sigrid Norris
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