82 TH EMES IN I N D IA N H IS T ORY

THEM T hin k e
T HEEME T WO
r s, B e l ie f s a n d B ui l di n g s
FOUR C u l t u r a l D e v e l o pme n t s
(c . 6 0 0 B C E - 6 0 0 C E)

I n t h is c h a p te r w e s h a ll go o n a lo n g jo u r n ey a c ross a

d
t h o u s a n d y e a r s t o r e a d a b o u t p h i l oso p h e r s a n d t h e i r

e
a tte m p ts to u n derst a n d t h e world t h ey i n h a bited. We will
also see h ow t h eir ideas were co m piled as or al a n d w ritte n

h
tex ts as well as ex p ressed i n a rc h itect u re a n d sc u lp t u re.
T h ese a r e i n d ic a t ive of t h e e n d u r i n g i n fl u e n ce t h ese

T i s
t h i n k e r s h a d o n p eo p l e . W h i l e w e w i l l b e foc u s i n g o n

l
B u d d h is m , it is i m port a n t to re m e m ber t h a t t h is tr a ditio n

R
d i d n o t d evelo p i n isol a t io n – t h e r e w e r e seve r a l o t h e r

b
t r a d i t io n s, e a c h e n gage d i n d e b a tes a n d d i a log u es w i t h

E
t h e ot h ers.

u
T h e so u r ce s t h a t h i s t o r i a n s u se t o r eco n s t r u c t t h i s

C
exciti n g worl d of i de a s a n d beliefs i n cl u de B u d d h ist, J a i n a

p
F ig. 4.1 a n d B r a h m a n ic a l tex ts, a s well a s a l a rge a n d i m p ressive

N re
A sculpture from S a nchi bod y of m a te r i a l re m a i n s i n cl u d i n g m o n u m e n ts a n d
i n sc r i p t io n s . A m o n g t h e b es t p r ese r ve d m o n u m e n t s of
t h e ti m e is t h e st u p a a t S a n c h i w h ic h is a m a jor foc u s i n

© e
t h is c h a p te r .

b
1. A G l imps e o f S a n c hi
F ig. 4.2
S h a hje h a n B egu m

t o Sanchi in the nineteenth century

t
The most wonderful ancient buildings in the state of Bhopal
are at Sanchi Kanakhera, a small village under the brow

o
of a hill some 20 miles north-east of Bhopal which we
visited yesterday. We inspected the stone sculptures and

n
statues of the Buddha and an ancient gateway … The ruins
appear to be the object of great interest to European
gentlemen. Major Alexander Cunningham … stayed several
weeks in this neighbourhood and examined these ruins
most carefully. He took drawings of the place, deciphered
the inscription, and bored shafts down these domes. The
results of his investigations were described by him in an
English work …
F ROM SHAHJEHAN BEGUM, NAWAB OF BHOPAL (ruled 1868-1901),
Taj- ul Iqbal Tarikh Bhopal (A History of Bhopal), translated by
H.D. Barstow, 1876.
T H I N K E RS , B E L I E F S AND B UI L DI N GS 83

N i n etee n t h -ce n t u r y E u rope a n s were ver y i n terested

i n t h e st u p a a t S a n c h i. I n fact, t h e F re n c h so u gh t
S h a h je h a n B eg u m ’s p e r m i ss io n t o t a k e a w a y t h e
e a ster n ga tew a y, w h ic h w a s t h e best p reserved , to
b e d is p l a ye d i n a m u se u m i n F r a n ce. F or a w h ile
so m e E nglis h m e n a lso w a n ted to do t h e s a m e, b u t
for t u n a tely bot h t h e F r e n c h a n d t h e E n glis h we r e
sa tisfied wit h ca ref u lly p rep a red pl aster-cast copies

d
a n d t h e o r igi n a l r e m a i n e d a t t h e si t e, p a r t of t h e
B h op a l st a te.

e
T h e r u lers of B h op a l, S h a h je h a n B eg u m a n d h er

h
s u ccessor S u lt a n J e h a n B eg u m , p rovi ded m o n ey for
t h e p reserv a tio n of t h e a n cie n t site. No wo n der t h e n

T s
t h a t J o h n M a rs h a ll ded ic a ted h is i m por t a n t vol u m es

i
o n S a n c h i to S u lt a n J e h a n . S h e f u n ded t h e m u se u m

R l
t h a t w a s b u ilt t h ere a s well a s t h e g u est h o u se w h ere
F ig. 4.3

b
h e live d a n d w r ot e t h e vol u m es. S h e a lso f u n d e d

E
T h e G re a t Stu p a a t S a nchi
t h e p u b l i c a t i o n of t h e v o l u m e s . S o i f t h e s t u p a If yo u t r avel fro m D el h i to B h op a l

u
co m p l e x h a s s u r v i ve d , i t i s i n n o s m a l l m e a s u r e b y t r a i n , yo u will see t h e m a jestic

C
d u e to wise decisio n s, a n d to good l u c k i n esc a p i n g st u p a co m plex o n top of a h ill,

p
t h e eyes of r a ilw a y co n t r a ctors, b u il ders, a n d t h ose crow n i ng it as it were. If yo u

N re
loo k i n g for fi n d s to c a r r y a w a y to t h e m u se u m s of req u est t h e g u a r d h e will stop t h e
t r a i n a t t h e little st a tio n of S a n c h i
E u rope. O n e of t h e m ost i m por t a n t B u d d h ist for two m i n u tes – e n o u gh ti m e for
ce n t res, t h e discover y of S a n c h i h a s v a stly yo u to get dow n . As yo u cli m b u p

© e
t r a n sfor m ed o u r u n derst a n d i n g of e a rly B u d d h is m . t h e h ill yo u ca n see t h e co m plex of
Tod a y it st a n ds testi mon y to t h e s u ccessf u l st r u ct u res: a l a rge m o u n d a n d
restor a tio n a n d p reserv a tio n of a k ey a rc h a eologic a l ot h er m o n u m e n ts i n cl u d i n g a

b
site b y t h e A rc h a eologic a l S u rvey of I n d i a . te m ple b u ilt i n t h e fift h ce n t u ry.

t o
o t
n
84 TH EMES IN I N D IA N H IS T ORY

B u t w h a t is t h e sig n ific a n ce of t h is m o n u m e n t?
D isc u ss... W h y w as t h e m o u n d b u ilt a n d w h a t did it co n t a i n?
C o m p a re w h a t S h a h je h a n W h y is t h e re a sto n e r a ili n g a ro u n d it? W h o b u ilt
B eg u m described wit h w h a t t h e co m plex or p aid for its co n str u ctio n? W h e n w as
yo u see i n F ig. 4.3. W h a t it “discovered”? T h ere is a fasci n a ti ng story t h a t we
si m il a rities a n d d iffere n ces do ca n u n cover a t S a n c h i for w h ic h we m u st co m bi n e
yo u n otice? i n for m a tio n fro m tex ts, sc u lp t u re, a rc h itect u re a n d
i n scr i p tio n s. Let u s b egi n b y ex p lor i n g t h e

d
b ac kgro u n d of t h e ea rly B u d d h ist tr a ditio n .

e
2. T h e B a c kg r o u n d:

h
S a c r i f ic es a n d D eb a t es

T s
Sou rce 1 T h e m id-first m ille n n i u m B C E is ofte n rega r ded as a

i
t u r n i ng poi n t i n world h istory: it sa w t h e e m erge n ce

l
A prayer to Agni

R
of t h i n k ers s u c h as Z a r a t h u str a i n Ir a n , K o ng Z i i n
C h i n a , Socr a tes, Pl a to a n d A ristotle i n G reece, a n d

b
Here are two verses from the

E
M a h avira a n d G a u ta m a B u dd h a, a mong m a n y
Rigveda invoking Agni, the god
ot h ers, i n In dia. T h ey tried to u n derst a n d t h e

u
of fire, often identified with the

C
sacrificial fire, into which m ysteries of existe n ce a n d t h e rela tio n s h ip betwee n

p
offerings were made so as to h u m a n bei ngs a n d t h e cos m ic or der. T h is w as also

N re
reach the other deities: t he ti me w hen new k i ngdom s a n d cities were
developi ng a n d social a n d eco n o m ic life w as c h a ngi ng
Bring, O strong one, this i n a va riety of w a ys i n t h e G a nga valley (C h a p ters 2
sacrifice of ours to the gods,

© e
a n d 3). T h ese t h i n k e r s a t t e m p t e d to u n d e r s t a n d
O wise one, as a liberal giver. t h ese develop m e n ts a s well.
Bestow on us, O priest,
2.1 The sacrificial tradition

b
abundant food. Agni, obtain,
by sacrificing, mighty wealth T h ere were sever al p re-existi ng tr a ditio n s of t h o u gh t,
for us. religio u s belief a n d p r actice, i n cl u di ng t h e ea rly Vedic

o
tr a ditio n , k n ow n fro m t h e Rigve d a , com piled betwee n

t
Procure, O Agni, for ever c .1 5 0 0 a n d 1 0 0 0 B C E . T h e Rigve d a co n sists of h y m n s
to him who prays to you (the
i n p r aise of a va riety of deities, especially Agn i, I n d r a

t
gift of) nourishment, the
a n d So m a. M a n y of t h ese h y m n s were c h a n ted w h e n
wonderful cow. May a son be
s a crifices were perfor m ed , w h ere peop le p r a yed for

o
ours, offspring that continues
our line … ca ttle, so n s, good h ea lt h , lo ng life, etc.

n
A t f i r s t , s a c r if i c e s w e r e p e r fo r m e d col l e c t i v e l y .
Verses such as these were L a t e r (c . 1 0 0 0 B C E - 5 0 0 B C E o n w a r d s) s o m e w e r e
composed in a special kind of perfor m ed b y t h e h ea ds of h o u se h olds for t h e well-
Sanskrit, known as Vedic bei ng of t h e do m estic u n it. More ela bor a te sacrifices,
Sanskrit. They were taught s uch as t he raja su y a a n d a shv a med h a , were
orally to men belonging to p e r fo r m e d b y c h iefs a n d k i n gs w h o d e p e n d e d o n
priestly families. B r a h m a n a p riests to co n d u ct t h e rit u a l.
2.2 New questions
List t h e objectives of M a n y ideas fo u n d i n t h e U p a n is h a ds (c. six t h ce n t u ry
t he sacrifice. B C E o n w a r ds) s h ow t h a t people were c u rio u s a bo u t
t h e m ea n i ng of life, t h e possibility of life after dea t h ,
T H I N K E RS , B E L I E F S AND B UI L DI N GS 85

a n d rebirt h . W as rebirt h d u e to p ast actio n s? S u c h

iss u es were h otly deb a ted. T h i n k ers were co n cer n ed
w i t h u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d e x p r essi n g t h e n a t u r e of
t h e u lti m a te re a lit y. A n d ot h ers, o u tsi de t h e V e d ic
t r a d i t io n , a s k e d w h e t h e r o r n ot t h e r e eve n w a s a
si ngle u lti m a te reality. People also bega n spec u la ti ng
o n t h e sign ifica n ce of t h e s acrifici a l t r a ditio n .
2.3 Debates and discussions

d
We get a gli m pse of lively d isc u ssio n s a n d deb a tes

e
fro m B u d d h ist texts, w h ic h m e n tio n as m a n y as 6 4
sects or sc h ools of t h o u gh t. Teac h ers tr avelled fro m

h
p l a ce to p l a ce, t r y i n g to co n vi n ce o n e a n ot h e r a s

T s
well a s l a y p erso n s, a bo u t t h e v a li d it y of t h ei r

i
p h ilosop h y or t h e w a y t h ey u n d er stood t h e wor l d .

l
D eb a tes too k pl ace i n t h e k ut a g a r a s h a l a – liter a lly,

R
a h u t w i t h a poi n te d roof – or i n groves w h e r e

E b
t r a velli n g m e n d ic a n ts h a lted . If a p h ilosop h er
s u ccee d e d i n co n vi n ci n g o n e of h is r iv a ls, t h e

u
followers of t h e la tter a lso beca m e h is disciples. So

C p
s u p port for a n y p a rtic u la r sect co u ld grow a n d s h ri n k
over ti m e.

N re
M a n y of t h ese te a c h ers, i n cl u d i ng M a h a vir a a n d
t h e B u d d h a , q u estio n ed t h e a u t h ority of t h e Ved as.
T h ey also e m p h asised i n divid u al age n cy – s u ggesti ng

© e
t h a t m e n a n d wo m e n co u ld strive to a tt a i n liber a tio n
fro m t h e trials a n d trib u la tio n s of worldly existe n ce.

b
T h is w a s i n m a r k e d co n t r a s t t o t h e B r a h m a n ic a l
positio n , w h erei n , a s we h a ve see n , a n i n divid u a l’s
e x iste n ce w a s t h o u g h t to b e d ete r m i n e d b y h is or

o
h er birt h i n a specific caste or ge n der.
Sou rce 2

t tVerses from the Upanishads

o
Here are two verses from the Chhandogya Upanishad, a text composed

n
in Sanskrit c. sixth century BCE:

The nature of the self

This self of mine within the heart, is smaller than paddy or barley or
mustard or millet or the kernel of a seed of millet. This self of mine
within the heart is greater than the earth, greater than the intermediate
space, greater than heaven, greater than these worlds.
The true sacrifice
This one (the wind) that blows, this is surely a sacrifice …
While moving, it sanctifies all this; therefore it is indeed a sacrifice.
86 TH EMES IN I N D IA N H IS T ORY

How Buddhist texts were

prepared and preserved
The Buddha (and other teachers) taught orally – through discussion and
debate. Men and women (perhaps children as well) attended these discourses
and discussed what they heard. None of the Buddha’s speeches were written
down during his lifetime. After his death (c. fifth-fourth century BCE ) his

d
teachings were compiled by his disciples at a council of “elders” or senior

e
monks at Vesali (Pali for Vaishali in present-day Bihar). These compilations
were known as Tipitaka – literally, three baskets to hold different types of

h
texts. They were first transmitted orally and then written and classified
according to length as well as subject matter.

T s
The Vinaya Pitaka included rules and regulations for those who joined the

i
sangha or monastic order; the Buddha’s teachings were included in the Sutta

R l
P itaka; and the Abhidhamma Pitaka dealt with philosophical matters. Each

b
pitaka comprised a number of individual texts. Later, commentaries were

E
written on these texts by Buddhist scholars.

u
As Buddhism travelled to new regions such as Sri Lanka, other texts such

C
as the Dipavamsa (literally, the chronicle of the island) and Mahavamsa (the

p
great chronicle) were written, containing regional histories of Buddhism.

N re
Many of these works contained biographies of the Buddha. Some of the
oldest texts are in Pali, while later compositions are in Sanskrit.
When Buddhism spread to East Asia, pilgrims such as Fa Xian and Xuan

© e
Zang travelled all the way from China to India in search of texts. These they
took back to their own country, where they were translated by scholars.
Indian Buddhist teachers also travelled to faraway places, carrying texts to

b
disseminate the teachings of the Buddha.
Buddhist texts were preserved in manuscripts for several centuries in
monasteries in different parts of Asia. Modern translations have been prepared

o
from Pali, Sanskrit, Chinese and Tibetan texts.

t t
n o
F ig. 4.4
A B u d d hist m a n u script in S a n s k rit, c . t w elfth ce ntu r y
T H I N K E RS , B E L I E F S AND B UI L DI N GS 87

Sou rce 3

Fatalists and materialists?

Here is an excerpt from the Sutta Pitaka, describing a
conversation between king Ajatasattu, the ruler of
Magadha, and the Buddha:
On one occasion King Ajatasattu visited the Buddha

d
and described what another teacher, named Makkhali
Gosala, had told him:
“Though the wise should hope, by this virtue … by
this penance I will gain karma … and the fool should
by the same means hope to gradually rid himself of his

h e
T s
karma, neither of them can do it. Pleasure and pain,

l i
measured out as it were, cannot be altered in the

R
course of samsara (transmigration). It can neither be

b
lessened or increased … just as a ball of string will when

E
thrown unwind to its full length, so fool and wise alike

u
will take their course and make an end of sorrow.”

C p
And this is what a philosopher named Ajita
Kesakambalin taught:

N re
“There is no such thing, O king, as alms or sacrifice,
or offerings … there is no such thing as this world or

© e
the next …
A human being is made up of the four elements.

b
When he dies the earthy in him returns to the earth,
the fluid to water, the heat to fire, the windy to air,
and his senses pass into space …

t o
The talk of gifts is a doctrine of fools, an empty lie …
fools and wise alike are cut off and perish. They do

t
not survive after death.”

o
The first teacher belonged to the tradition of the Ajivikas.
They have often been described as fatalists: those who

n
believe that everything is predetermined. The second
teacher belonged to the tradition of the Lokayatas, usually
described as materialists. Texts from these traditions have
not survived, so we know about them only from the works
of other traditions.

D isc u ss...
D o yo u t h i n k it is a p p rop ria te to describe W h a t a re t h e p roble m s i n
t h ese m e n as fa t alists or m a terialists? reco n st r u cti n g h istor ies of
ideas a n d beliefs w h e n texts
a re n ot availa ble or h ave n ot
s u r vive d?
88 TH EMES IN I N D IA N H IS T ORY

3. B e yo n d W o r l d ly P l e a s u r e s
T h e M e s s a g e o f M a h avi r a
T h e b a sic p h ilosop h y of t h e J a i n a s w a s a lre a d y i n
existe n ce i n n or t h I n d i a before t h e b ir t h of
V a r d h a m a n a , w h o ca m e to be k n ow n a s M a h a vir a ,
i n t h e sixt h ce n t u ry B C E . Accor di ng to J a i n a tr a ditio n ,
M a h a vir a w a s p receded b y 2 3 ot h er teac h ers or

d
tirt h a n k a r a s – li t e r a ll y , t h ose w h o g u i d e m e n a n d
wo m e n across t h e river of existe n ce.

e
T h e m ost i m por t a n t i d e a i n J a i n is m is t h a t t h e
e n t i r e wor l d is a n i m a te d : eve n sto n es, roc k s a n d

h
w a ter h ave life. No n -i n j u ry to livi ng bei ngs, especially

T s
to h u m a n s, a n i m a ls, p l a n ts a n d i n sects, is ce n t r a l

i
to J ai n a p h ilosop h y. I n fact t h e p ri n ciple of a h i m sa,

R l
e m p h a s i se d w i t h i n J a i n i s m , h a s lef t i t s m a r k o n

b
I n d i a n t h i n k i n g a s a w h ole. Accor d i n g to J a i n a

E
te a c h i n gs, t h e cycle of b ir t h a n d reb ir t h is s h a ped

u
t h ro u gh k a r m a . Asceticis m a n d pe n a n ce a re req u ired

C
to free o n eself fro m t h e cycle of k a r m a. T h is ca n be

p
a c h ieve d o n l y b y r e n o u n ci n g t h e wor l d ; t h e r efor e,

N re
F ig. 4.5 m o n a st ic ex iste n ce is a n ecess a r y co n d it io n of
A n im a ge of a tir t h a n k a r a from salva tio n . J ai n a m o n k s a n d n u n s too k five vows: to
M a th ur a , c . thir d ce ntur y C E a b st a i n fro m k illi n g, ste a li n g a n d lyi n g; to ob serve

© e
celib acy; a n d to a bst ai n fro m possessi ng p roperty.
Sou rce 4

The world beyond the palace

b
o
Just as the Buddha’s teachings were compiled by his followers, the teachings of
Mahavira were also recorded by his disciples. These were often in the form of stories,

t
which could appeal to ordinary people. Here is one example, from a Prakrit text
known as the Uttaradhyayana Sutta, describing how a queen named Kamalavati

t
tried to persuade her husband to renounce the world:

o
If the whole world and all its treasures were yours, you would not be satisfied,
nor would all this be able to save you. When you die, O king and leave all things

n
behind, dhamma alone, and nothing else, will save you. As a bird dislikes the
cage, so do I dislike (the world). I shall live as a nun without offspring, without
desire, without the love of gain, and without hatred …
Those who have enjoyed pleasures and renounced them, move about like the
wind, and go wherever they please, unchecked like birds in their flight …
Leave your large kingdom … abandon what pleases the senses, be without
attachment and property, then practise severe penance, being firm of energy …

W h ic h of t h e a rg u m e n ts a dva n ced b y t h e q u ee n
do yo u fi n d m ost co n vi n ci ng?
T H I N K E RS , B E L I E F S AND B UI L DI N GS 89

3.1 The spread of Jainism

G rad u ally, J ainism spread to m a n y parts of In dia. Like D isc u ss...
t h e B u d d h ists, J ai n a sc hola rs p rod u ced a wealt h of Is a h i m s a releva n t i n t h e
literat u re in a variety of la ngu ages – Pra k rit, Sa nsk rit t w e n t y-fi r s t ce n t u r y?
a n d T a m il. F or cen t u ries, m a n u scripts of t hese texts
w e r e c a r ef u l l y p r e s e r v e d i n l i b r a r i e s a t t a c h e d t o
te m ples.
So m e of t h e e a rliest sto n e sc u l p t u res a ssoci a ted

d
wit h religio u s t r a ditio n s were p rod u ced b y devotees
of t h e J a i n a tirth a n k a r a s , a n d h ave bee n recovered

e
fro m sever a l sites t h ro u gh o u t t h e s u bco n ti n e n t.

T s h
R l i
E u b
C
N re p
© e
b
F ig. 4.6
A p a ge from a fourtee nth-ce ntur y
4.T h e B u d d h a a n d t h e Q u e s t

o
J a in a m a n u script
f o r E n l ig h t e nme n t

t
C a n yo u ide n tify t h e scrip t?
O n e of t h e m ost i n fl u e n tial teac h ers of t h e ti m e w as

t
t h e B u d d h a. O ver t h e ce n t u ries, h is m essage sp rea d
a cross t h e s u bco n ti n e n t a n d beyo n d – t h ro u gh

o
C e n tr a l Asia to C h i n a , K orea a n d J a p a n , a n d t h ro u gh

n
S r i L a n k a , a c ross t h e se a s to M y a n m a r , T h a il a n d
a n d I n do n esi a .
H ow do we k n ow a bo u t t h e B u d d h a’s teac h i ngs?
T h ese h ave bee n reco n str u cted b y ca ref u lly editi ng, H a giogr a p h y is a biogr a p h y of
tra nslating a n d a n alysing t he B u dd hist texts a s a i n t or religio u s le a d e r .
m e n tio n ed e a rlier. H istori a n s h a ve a lso t ried to H agiogr a p h ies ofte n p r aise t h e
r eco n s t r u c t d e t a ils of h is life f r o m h a giogr a p h ies. sai n t’s ac h ieve m e n ts, a n d m a y
M a n y of t h ese were w ritte n dow n a t least a ce n t u ry not always be literally acc u rate.
a fte r t h e t i m e of t h e B u d d h a , i n a n a t te m p t to T h e y a r e i m p o r t a n t b ec a u se
p reserve m e m ories of t h e grea t teac h er. t h ey tell u s a bo u t t h e beliefs of
Accor di ng to t h ese t r a ditio n s, Sid d h a rt h a , as t h e t h e followers of t h a t p a rtic u la r
B u d d h a w as n a m ed a t birt h , w as t h e so n of a c h ief tr a dition .
90 TH EMES IN I N D IA N H IS T ORY

of t h e S a k y a cl a n . H e h a d a s h el te r e d u p b r i n gi n g
wit h i n t h e p alace, i n s u la ted fro m t h e h a rs h realities
of life. O n e d a y h e pers u a ded h is c h a rioteer to t a k e
h i m i n to t h e ci t y . H is fi r s t jo u r n ey i n to t h e wor l d
o u t si d e w a s t r a u m a t ic. H e w a s d ee p l y a n g u is h e d
w h e n h e sa w a n old m a n , a sic k m a n a n d a cor pse.
H e rea lised i n t h a t m o m e n t t h a t t h e deca y a n d
d est r u ctio n of t h e h u m a n bod y w a s i n evit a b le. H e

d
a lso s a w a h o m eless m e n dica n t, w h o, it see m ed to
h i m , h a d co m e to ter m s wit h ol d age, d ise a se a n d

e
dea t h , a n d fo u n d peace. Sid d h a rt h a decided t h a t h e

h
too wo u ld a dop t t h e s a m e p a t h . Soo n after, h e left
t h e p alace a n d set o u t i n sea rc h of h is ow n tr u t h .

T s
Sid d h a rt h a ex plored sever al p a t h s i n cl u di ng bodily

i
m or t ific a t io n w h ic h le d h i m to a si t u a t io n of n e a r

R l
F ig. 4.7 dea t h . A b a n don i ng t h ese extre m e m et hods, h e

b
A sculpture (c . 2 0 0 C E ) from m e d it a te d for sever a l d a ys a n d fi n a lly a t t a i n e d

E
A m a r a v a ti ( A n d hr a Pr a d es h ) , e n lig h te n m e n t. After t h is h e c a m e to be k n ow n a s
d e picting th e d e p a rture of th e

u
B u d d h a from his p a l a ce t h e B u d d h a or t h e E n ligh te n ed O n e. F or t h e rest of

C
h is life, h e t a u gh t

p
d h a m m a or t h e p a t h

N re
of righ teo u s livi ng.

© e
b
t o
o t
n D isc u ss...
If yo u did n ot k n ow
a bo u t t h e life of t h e
B u d d h a , wo u ld yo u
be a ble to tell w h a t
t h e sc u l p t u re
d e p ict s?
T H I N K E RS , B E L I E F S AND B UI L DI N GS 91

5. T h e T e a c hi n g s o f t h e B u d d h a
T h e B u d d h a’s t e a c h i n gs h a ve b ee n r eco n s t r u c t e d
f r o m s t o r i e s , f o u n d m a i n l y i n t h e S u t t a Pi t a k a .
A lt h o u gh so m e stories describe h is m ir ac u lo u s
p o w e r s , o t h e r s s u gge s t t h a t t h e B u d d h a t r i e d t o
co n vi n ce peop le t h ro u g h re a so n a n d pers u a sio n
r a t h er t h a n t h ro u gh displa ys of s u per n a t u r a l power.
F or i n s t a n ce, w h e n a gr ief-s t r ic k e n wo m a n w h ose

d
c h il d h a d d ie d c a m e to t h e B u d d h a , h e ge n t l y

e
co n vi n ced h er a bo u t t h e i n evit a bility of dea t h r a t h er
t h a n b ri ng h er so n b ac k to life. T h ese stories were

h
n a r r a ted i n t h e la ng u age spo k e n b y or di n a ry people
so t h a t t h ese co u ld be easily u n derstood.

T i s
A ccor d i n g to B u d d h is t p h iloso p h y , t h e wor l d is

l
t r a n s i e n t ( a n icc a ) a n d co n s t a n t l y c h a n gi n g; i t i s

R
also so u lless ( a n a tt a) as t h ere is not h i ng

b
per m a n e n t or eter n a l i n it. Wit h i n t h is t r a n sie n t

E
w o r l d , s o r r o w ( d u k k h a) i s i n t r i n s i c t o h u m a n

u
e x is te n ce. It is b y follow i n g t h e p a t h of m o d e r a t io n

C p
bet wee n severe pe n a n ce a n d self-i n d u lge n ce
t h a t h u m a n b e i n gs c a n r i s e a b ov e t h e s e w o r l d l y

N re
t ro u b les. I n t h e e a rliest for m s of B u d d h is m ,
w h et h e r or n ot go d e x is te d w a s i r r elev a n t .

© e
Sou rce 5
Buddhism in practice

b
This is an excerpt from the Sutta Pitaka, and contains the
advice given by the Buddha to a wealthy householder

o
named Sigala:

t t
In five ways should a master look after his servants
and employees … by assigning them work according
to their strength, by supplying them with food and

o
wages, by tending them in sickness; by sharing
delicacies with them and by granting leave at times …

n
In five ways should the clansmen look after the needs
of samanas (those who have renounced the world)
and Brahmanas: by affection in act and speech and
mind, by keeping open house to them and supplying
their worldly needs.
There are similar instructions to Sigala about how to
behave with his parents, teacher and wife.

S u ggest w h a t t h e i n st r u ctio n s rega r di ng

p a re n ts, teac h er a n d wife m a y h ave bee n .
92 TH EMES IN I N D IA N H IS T ORY

T h e B u d d h a r eg a r d e d t h e s o c i a l w o r l d a s t h e
D isc u ss... c r e a t io n of h u m a n s r a t h e r t h a n of d i v i n e o r igi n .
C o m p a re t h e B u d d h a’s a dvice T h erefore, h e a dvised k i ngs a n d g a h a p a tis (see also
to Sigala wit h Aso k a’s a dvice C h a p ter 2) to be h u m a n e a n d et h ical. I n divid u al effort
to h is s u bjects (C h a p ter 2). w a s ex pected to t r a n sfor m soci a l rel a tio n s.
D o yo u n otice a n y si m ila rities T h e B u d d h a e m p h a sise d i n d ivi d u a l age n cy a n d
a n d d iffere n ces? r ig h teo u s a ct io n a s t h e m e a n s to esc a p e fro m t h e
cycle of re b i r t h a n d a t t a i n self- re a lis a tio n a n d

d
n ib b a n a , liter a lly t h e ex ti n g u is h i n g of t h e ego a n d
desire – a n d t h u s e n d t h e cycle of s u fferi ng for t h ose

e
w h o r e n o u n ce d t h e w o r l d . A cco r d i n g to B u d d h is t

h
t r a d itio n , h is l a st wor d s to h is followers were: “ B e
la m ps u n to yo u rselves as a ll of yo u m u st wor k o u t

T s
yo u r ow n liber a tio n .”

R l i
6. F o l l o w e r s o f t h e B u d d h a

b
Soo n t h ere grew a bod y of disciples of t h e B u d d h a

E
a n d h e fo u n ded a s a ngh a , a n orga n isa tio n of m o n k s

u
w h o too beca m e teac h ers of d h a m m a . T h ese mon k s

C
lived si m ply, possessi ng o n ly t h e esse n tial req u isites

p
for s u rviv a l, s u c h a s a bowl to receive food o n ce a

N re
d a y fro m t h e laity. As t h ey lived o n al m s, t h ey were
k now n as b hik k h u s .
I n itia lly, o n ly m e n were a llowed i n to t h e s a ngh a ,

© e
b u t la ter wo m e n also ca m e to be a d m itted. Accor di ng
to B u d d h ist tex ts, t h is w a s m a de possi b le t h ro u gh

b
t h e m edia tio n of A n a n d a, o n e of t h e B u d d h a’s dea rest
disciples, w h o pers u a ded h i m to allow wom e n
i n t o t h e s a n g h a. T h e B u d d h a ’s fos t e r m o t h e r ,

o
M a h a p a j a p a t i G o t a m i w a s t h e fi r s t w o m a n t o b e

t
or d ai n ed as a b hik k h u ni . M a n y wom e n w h o e n tered
t h e s a ngh a bec a m e te a c h ers of d h a m m a a n d we n t

t
o n to beco m e t h eris, or respected wo m e n w h o h a d

o
a t t a i n e d li b e r a t io n .
T h e B u d d h a’s follow e r s c a m e f ro m m a n y soci a l

n
gro u p s. T h ey i n cl u d e d k i n gs, w e a l t h y m e n a n d
g a h a p a tis , a n d a lso h u m b le r fol k : wor k e r s, sl a ves
a n d cr aftspeople. O n ce wit h i n t h e s a ngh a , a ll were
rega r d e d a s eq u a l, h a vi n g s h e d t h ei r e a r lier soci a l
ide n tities o n becom i ng b hik k h u s a n d b hi k k h u nis . T h e
i n ter n a l f u n ctio n i ng of t h e s a ngh a w as b ased o n t h e
t r a d itio n s of g a n a s a n d s a ngh a s, w h ere co n se n s u s
w a s a r r ive d a t t h ro u g h d isc u ssio n s. If t h a t f a ile d ,
decisio n s were t a k e n by a vote o n t h e s u bject.
T H I N K E RS , B E L I E F S AND B UI L DI N GS 93

Sou rce 6

The Therigatha
F ig. 4.8
This unique Buddhist text, part of the Sutta Pitaka, is a A w om a n w a ter-c a rrier, M a th ur a ,
collection of verses composed by bhikkhunis. It provides c . thir d ce ntur y C E
an insight into women’s social and spiritual experiences.
Punna, a dasi or slave woman, went to the river each

d
morning to fetch water for her master’s household. There

e
she would daily see a Brahmana performing bathing rituals.
One morning she spoke to him. The following are verses

h
composed by Punna, recording her conversation with the
Brahmana:

T i s
I am a water carrier:

l
Even in the cold

R
I have always gone down to the water

E b
frightened of punishment
Or the angry words of high class women.

C u
So what are you afraid of Brahmana ,

p
That makes you go down to the water

N re
(Though) your limbs shake with the bitter cold?

The Brahmana replied:

© e
I am doing good to prevent evil;
anyone young or old
who has done something bad

b
is freed by washing in water.

o
Punna said:

t
Whoever told you
You are freed from evil by washing in the water?…

t
In that case all the frogs and turtles

o
Would go to heaven, and so would the water snakes
and crocodiles!

n
(Instead) Don’t do that thing,
the fear of which
leads you to the water.
Stop now Brahmana!
Save your skin from the cold …

W h ic h of t h e teac h i ngs of t h e B u d d h a a re
evide n t i n t h is co m positio n?
94 TH EMES IN I N D IA N H IS T ORY
Sou rce 7

Rules for monks and nuns

These are some of the rules laid down in the Vinaya
Pitaka:
When a new felt (blanket/rug) has been made by a
bhikkhu, it is to be kept for (at least) six years. If after

d
less than six years he should have another new felt
(blanket/rug) made, regardless of whether or not he

e
has disposed of the first, then – unless he has been
authorised by the bhikkhus – it is to be forfeited and

h
confessed.

T s
In case a bhikkhu arriving at a family residence is

l i
presented with cakes or cooked grain-meal, he may

R
accept two or three bowlfuls if he so desires. If he

b
should accept more than that, it is to be confessed.

E
Having accepted the two or three bowlfuls and having

u
taken them from there, he is to share them among the

C
bhikkhus. This is the proper course here.

p
Should any bhikkhu, having set out bedding in a

N re
lodging belonging to the sangha – or having had it set
out – and then on departing neither put it away nor
have it put away, or should he go without taking leave,

© e
it is to be confessed.

b
C a n yo u ex pla i n w h y t h ese r u les were fr a m ed?

t o B u d d h is m grew r a p i d ly bot h d u r i n g t h e lifeti m e

of t h e B u d d h a a n d after h is dea t h , as it a p pealed to

t
m a n y p eop le d iss a t isfie d w i t h e x ist i n g religio u s

o
p r actices a n d co n f u sed b y t h e r a pid socia l c h a nges
t a k i ng place a ro u n d t h e m . T h e i m port a n ce a tt ac h ed

n
to co n d u ct a n d v a l u es r a t h er t h a n cl a i m s of
s u periority b ased o n birt h , t h e e m p h asis placed o n
m e t t a (f e l l o w f e e l i n g) a n d k a r u n a (c o m p a s s i o n ),
es peci a lly for t h ose w h o were yo u n ger a n d we a k er
t h a n o n eself, were ideas t h a t d rew m e n a n d wo m e n
to B u d d h ist te a c h i ngs.

D isc u ss...
W h y do yo u t h i n k a d a si li k e P u n n a w a n ted to joi n
t he s a ngh a ?
T H I N K E RS , B E L I E F S AND B UI L DI N GS 95

7. S t u p a s
W e h a ve see n t h a t B u d d h i s t i d e a s a n d p r a c t i ces
e m e r ge d o u t of a p r oc e s s of d i a l og u e w i t h o t h e r
tr a ditio n s – i n cl u di ng t h ose of t h e B r a h m a n as, J ai n as
a n d seve r a l ot h e r s, n ot a ll of w h ose i d e a s a n d
p r a c t i ce s w e r e p r e se r ve d i n t e x t s . S o m e of t h e se
i n ter actio n s ca n be see n i n t h e w a ys i n w h ic h sacred
places ca m e to be ide n tified.

d
F ro m e a r lies t t i m es, p eo p le te n d e d to r ega r d
C h a it y a m a y a lso h a ve b ee n

e
cert ai n places as sacred. T h ese i n cl u ded sites d e r ive d fro m t h e wor d c h it a ,
w i t h s p eci a l t r ees o r u n i q u e r oc k s , o r sites of a w e- m ea n i ng a f u n er al pyre, a n d by

h
i n s p i r i n g n a t u r a l b e a u t y . T h ese s i t es , w i t h s m a l l exte n sio n a f u n er a ry m o u n d.
sh ri nes attached to t hem , were someti mes

T i s
d esc r i b e d a s c h a it y a s .

l
B u d d h i s t l i t e r a t u r e m e n t io n s seve r a l c h a it y a s .

R
It also describes places associa ted wit h t h e

E u b Map 1

C
M a jor B u d d hist site s

N re p
© e
Gan

s
du
ga

In Ya Lumbini
m u n Shravasti

b
a Kusinagara

Sarnath Barabar

o
Bodh
Bharhut Gaya

t t
Narmada Sanchi

nadi

o
Maha
Ajanta
Nasik Go

n
Junnar da
va
Karle ri
ARABIAN Nagarjunakonda
SEA Amaravati
Krishna
BAY OF
BENGAL

Krishna

S k etc h m a p not to sc a le
96 TH EMES IN I N D IA N H IS T ORY

B u d d h a’s life – w h ere h e w a s bor n (L u m b i n i), w h ere

h e a t t a i n e d e n lig h te n m e n t ( B o d h G a y a), w h e r e h e
ga ve h is fi r s t se r m o n (S a r n a t h ) a n d w h e r e h e
a t t a i n e d n ib b a n a (K u si n aga r a). G r a d u a lly , e a c h of
t h e s e p l a ces c a m e t o b e r eg a r d e d a s s a c r e d . W e
k n o w t h a t a b o u t 2 0 0 y e a r s a f t e r t h e t i m e of t h e
B u d d h a , A so k a erected a p ill a r a t L u m b i n i to m a r k
t h e fa ct t h a t h e h a d visited t h e p l a ce.

d
Sou rce 8 7.1 Why were stupas built

e
Why were stupas built T h ere were ot h er p l a ces too t h a t were rega r ded a s
sacred. T h is w as beca u se relics of t h e B u d d h a s u c h

h
This is an excerpt from the a s h is bodily re m a i n s or objects u sed b y h i m were

T s
Mahaparinibbana Sutta, part of b u ried t h ere. T h ese were m o u n ds k n ow n as st u p as.

i
the Sutta Pitaka: T h e t r a d i t io n of e rect i n g st u p a s m a y h a ve b ee n

R l
p re- B u d d h ist, b u t t h ey c a m e to be a ssoci a ted wit h
As the Buddha lay dying,
B u d d h is m . Si n ce t h ey co n t a i n ed relics rega r ded a s

b
Ananda asked him:

E
sacred, t h e e n tire st u p a ca m e to be ve n er a ted as a n
“What are we to do Lord, e m b le m of bot h t h e B u d d h a a n d B u d d h is m .

u
Accor di ng to a B u d d h ist text k n ow n as t h e

C
with the remains of the

p
Tathagata (another name for A s h o k a v a d a n a , A so k a d i s t r i b u t e d p o r t io n s of t h e
the Buddha)?” B u d d h a’s relics to every i m port a n t tow n a n d or dered

N re
The Buddha replied: t h e co n str u ctio n of st u p as over t h e m . B y t h e seco n d
“Hinder not yourselves ce n t u r y B C E a n u m ber of st u p as, i n cl u di ng t h ose a t
B h a r h u t , S a n c h i a n d S a r n a t h (M a p 1), h a d b ee n

© e
Ananda by honouring the
remains of the Tathagata. Be b u il t .
zealous, be intent on your 7.2 How were stupas built

b
own good.” I n s c r i p t i o n s fo u n d o n t h e r a i l i n gs a n d p i l l a r s of
But when pressed further, st u p a s recor d do n a t io n s m a d e for b u il d i n g a n d

o
the Buddha said: decor a ti ng t h e m . So m e do n a tio n s were m a de by k i ngs

t
s u c h as t h e S a t ava h a n as; ot h ers were m a de by
“At the four crossroads g u il d s, s u c h a s t h a t of t h e ivor y wor k ers w h o

t
they should erect a thupa f i n a n c e d p a r t of o n e of t h e g a t e w a y s a t S a n c h i .
(Pali for stupa) to the H u n d r e d s of d o n a t io n s w e r e m a d e b y wo m e n a n d

o
Tathagata. And whosoever
m e n w h o m e n t io n t h ei r n a m es, so m et i m es a d d i n g
shall there place garlands or
t h e n a m e of t h e p l a ce f r o m w h e r e t h e y c a m e, a s

n
perfume … or make a
well a s t h eir occ u p a tio n s a n d n a m es of t h eir
salutation there, or become
in its presence calm of heart, rel a tives. B hi k k h u s a n d b hi k k h u nis also con trib u ted
that shall long be to them for tow a r ds b u ildi ng t h ese m o n u m e n ts.
a profit and joy.” 7.3 The structure of the stupa
T h e st u p a (a S a n s k rit wor d m ea n i ng a h ea p)
Look at Fig. 4.15 a n d see origi n a ted as a si m ple se m i-circ u la r m o u n d of ea rt h ,
whether you ca n identify l a ter ca lled a n d a . G r a d u ally, it evolved i n to a m ore
some of these practices. co m p lex st r u ct u re, b a l a n ci n g ro u n d a n d sq u a re
s h a pes. A bove t h e a n d a w as t h e h a rmik a , a b alco n y-
li k e str u ct u re t h a t rep rese n ted t h e a bode of t h e gods.
T H I N K E RS , B E L I E F S AND B UI L DI N GS 97
F ig. 4.9
A votive in scription from S a nchi
H u n d reds of si m il a r i n scrip tio n s
h ave a lso bee n fo u n d a t B h a r h u t
a n d A m a r a v a t i.

e d
h
A risi ng fro m t h e h a rmik a w as a m ast called t h e y a s hti ,
ofte n s u r m o u n ted b y a ch h a tri or u m b rella . A ro u n d D isc u ss...

T s
t h e m o u n d w as a r aili ng, sep a r a ti ng t h e sacred sp ace

i
W h a t a re t h e si m il a rities a n d
fro m t h e sec u la r world.

l
differe n ces betwee n t h e pl a n

R
T h e ea rly st u p as a t S a n c h i a n d B h a r h u t were pla i n of t h e G rea t St u p a , S a n c h i

b
e x ce p t fo r t h e s t o n e r a i l i n gs , w h i c h r e s e m b l e d a (F ig. 4.1 0 a) a n d t h e

E
b a m boo or woode n fe n ce, a n d t h e ga tew a ys, w h ic h p h otogr a p h (F ig. 4.3)?

u
were ric h ly ca rved a n d i n st alled a t t h e fo u r ca r di n al

C
p oi n t s . W o r s h i p p e r s e n t e r e d t h r o u g h t h e e a s t e r n

p
ga tew a y a n d w al k ed a ro u n d t h e m o u n d i n a cloc k wise

N re
directio n k eepi ng t h e m o u n d o n t h e righ t, i m it a ti ng
t h e s u n’s co u rse t h ro u gh t h e s k y. L a ter, t h e m o u n d
of t h e s t u p a s c a m e to b e el a b o r a t el y c a r ve d w i t h

© e
n ic h es a n d sc u l p t u res a s a t A m a r a v a ti, a n d S h a h - W h a t a re t h e fea t u res of
ji- k i- D h er i i n Pes h a w a r (P a k ist a n). t h e b u ildi ng t h a t a re

b
clea rest i n t h e pla n? W h a t
a re t h e fea t u res t h a t a re
best see n i n t h e eleva tion?

t o
o t
n
F ig. 4.1 0 b
A n elev a tion of th e G re a t Stu p a
A n elev a tio n p rovi des a ver tic a l perspective.
F ig. 4.1 0 a
Pl a n of th e G re a t Stu p a a t S a nchi
A pl a n p rovides a h orizo n t a l perspective of a b u ildi ng.
98 TH EMES IN I N D IA N H IS T ORY

8. “ Dis c ov e r i n g ” S t u p a s
T h e Fa t e o f Ama r a va t i a n d S a n c h i
E a c h st u p a h a s a h istor y of its ow n – a s we h a ve
j u st see n , so m e of t h ese a re h istor ies of h ow t h ey
were b u ilt. B u t t h ere a re h istories of d iscoveries a s
well, a n d let u s n ow t u r n to so m e of t h ese. I n 1 7 9 6 ,
a loc a l r a j a w h o w a n ted to b u il d a te m p le st u m b led

d
u po n t h e r u i n s of t h e st u p a a t A m a r a v a ti. H e
deci ded to u se t h e sto n e, a n d t h o u g h t t h ere m ig h t

e
b e so m e t r e a s u r e b u r ie d i n w h a t see m e d t o b e a
h ill. So m e ye a rs l a ter, a B ritis h offici a l n a m ed C oli n

h
M a c k e n z i e (s e e a l s o C h a p t e r 7 ) v i s i t e d t h e s i t e .

T s
A lt h o u g h h e fo u n d sever a l p ieces of sc u l p t u re a n d

i
F ig. 4.1 1 m a de det a iled d r a wi n gs of t h e m , t h ese repor ts were

R l
T h e e a stern g a te w a y , S a nchi n eve r p u b lis h e d .
Notice t h e vi b r a n t sc u l p t u re.

b
In 1854, Walter E lliot, the com missioner

E
o f G u n t u r ( A n d h r a P r a d e s h ), v i s i t e d

u
A m aravati a n d collected sever a l

C
sc u l p t u r e p a n els a n d too k t h e m a w a y

p
to M a d r as. (T h ese ca m e to be ca lled t h e

N re
E lliot m a r b les a ft e r h i m .) H e a lso
d iscove re d t h e re m a i n s of t h e weste r n
ga tew a y a n d ca m e to t h e co n cl u sio n t h a t

© e
t h e st r u ct u re a t A m a r a v a ti w a s o n e of
t h e l a rgest a n d m ost m ag n ifice n t
B u d d h ist st u p as ever b u ilt. B y t h e

b
1 8 5 0s, so m e of t h e sla bs fro m A m a r ava ti
h a d b eg u n to b e t a k e n to d iffe re n t

o
pl aces: to t h e Asi a tic Society of B e nga l

t
a t C a lc u t t a , to t h e I n d i a O ffice i n
M a d r as a n d so m e eve n to Lo n do n . It w as

t
n o t u n u s u a l t o fi n d t h e se sc u l p t u r e s
a dor n i n g t h e ga r de n s of B ritis h

o
a d m i n istr a tors. I n fact, a n y n ew officia l
i n t h e a rea co n ti n u ed to re m ove

n
sc u lp t u res fro m t h e site o n t h e gro u n ds
t h a t ea rlier officia ls h a d do n e t h e sa m e.
O n e of t h e few m e n w ho h a d a differe n t
p oi n t of vie w w a s a n a r c h a eologis t
n a m e d H . H . C ole. H e w rote: “It see m s
to m e a s u icid a l a n d i n defe n sible policy
to a llow t h e co u n t r y to b e loote d of
origi n a l wor k s of a n cie n t a r t.” H e
believed t h a t m u se u m s s h o u ld h ave
p l a ste r -c a st f a csi m iles of sc u l p t u re,
w h e r e a s t h e o r igi n a l s s h o u l d r e m a i n
T H I N K E RS , B E L I E F S AND B UI L DI N GS 99

w h ere t h ey h a d bee n fo u n d. U n fort u n a tely, C ole did

n o t s u c c e e d i n co n v i n c i n g t h e a u t h o r i t i e s a b o u t D isc u ss...
A m a r ava ti, alt h o u gh h is plea for in situ p reserva tio n Rea d Sectio n 1 agai n .
w as a dop ted i n t h e case of S a n c h i. G ive yo u r reaso n s w h y
W h y did S a n c h i s u rvive w h ile A m a r ava ti did n ot? S a n c h i s u r vive d .
Per h a p s A m a r a v a ti w a s d iscovere d b efore sc h ol a rs
u n derstood t h e va l u e of t h e fi n ds a n d rea lised h ow
c r i t ic a l i t w a s t o p r ese r ve t h i n gs w h e r e t h e y h a d

d
bee n fo u n d i n stea d of re m ovi ng t h e m fro m t h e site. In situ m ea n s o n t h e spot.
W h e n S a n c h i w as “discovered” i n 1 8 1 8, t h ree of its

e
fo u r g a t e w a y s w e r e s t ill s t a n d i n g, t h e fo u r t h w a s

h
lyi ng o n t h e spot w h ere it h a d falle n a n d t h e m o u n d
w a s i n goo d co n d i t io n . E ve n so, i t w a s s u gges t e d

T s
t h a t t h e ga tew a y be t a k e n to eit h er Pa ris or Lo n do n ;

i
F ig. 4.1 2
fi n ally a n u m ber of factors h elped to k eep S a n c h i as

l
A section of th e g a te w a y

R
it w a s, a n d so it st a n ds, w h erea s t h e m a h a ch a it y a D o yo u t h i n k t h e sc u lp tors a t

b
a t A m a r a v a ti is n ow j u st a n i n sig n ific a n t lit tle S a n c h i w a n ted to depict a scroll

E
m o u n d, tot ally de n u ded of its for m er glory. b ei n g u n f u r le d?

9. S c u l p t u r e

C p u
We h ave j u st see n h ow sc u lp t u res were

N re
re m oved fro m st u p as a n d tr a n sported
all t h e w a y to E u rope. T h is h a p pe n ed
p a r t l y b ec a u s e t h os e w h o s a w t h e m

© e
co n si d e r e d t h e m t o b e b e a u t if u l a n d
v a l u a b le, a n d w a n te d to k ee p t h e m for

b
t h e m selves. Let u s loo k a t so m e of t h ese
m ore closely.

o
9.1 Stories in stone

t
You may have seen wandering storytellers
carrying scrolls (ch ara n achitras) of cloth

t
or p a per wit h pict u res on t h e m a n d
poi n ti ng to t h e pict u res a s t h ey tell

o
the story.
Loo k a t F ig u re 4 . 1 3 . A t first sig h t

n
t h e sc u lp t u re see m s to depict a r u r a l
sce n e, wit h t h a tc h ed h u ts a n d trees.
H owever, a rt h istoria n s w h o h ave
c a r ef u l l y s t u d i e d t h e s c u l p t u r e a t
S a n c h i ide n tify it a s a sce n e fro m
t h e V e s s a n t a r a J a t a k a . T h is is a
story a bo u t a ge n ero u s p ri n ce w h o
gave a w ay everyt h i ng to a
B r a h m a n a , a n d we n t to live i n
t h e forest wit h h is wife a n d
c h il d r e n . A s yo u c a n see i n t h is
100 TH EMES IN I N D IA N H IS T ORY

e d
T s h
i
F ig. 4.1 3 case, h istoria n s ofte n try to u n derst a n d t h e m ea n i ng

R l
A p a rt of th e north ern g a te w a y of sc u lp t u re b y co m p a ri ng it wit h text u al evide n ce.

E b
9.2 Symbols of worship
Art h istoria ns h a d to acq u ire fa m ilia rity wit h

u
h agiogr a p h ies of t h e B u d d h a i n or der to u n derst a n d

C p
B u d d h ist sc u lp t u re. Accor di ng to h agiogr a p h ies, t h e
B u d d h a a t t a i n e d e n l ig h t e n m e n t w h i l e m e d i t a t i n g

N re
F ig. 4.1 4 ( f a r right ) u n der a tree. M a n y ea rly sc u lp tors did n ot s h ow t h e
Wors hip ping th e B od hi tre e B u d d h a i n h u m a n for m – i n stea d, t h ey s h owed h is
Notice t h e t ree, t h e sea t, a n d t h e p rese n ce t h ro u gh sy m bols. T h e e m p ty sea t (F ig. 4.1 4)

© e
people a ro u n d it.
F ig. 4.1 5 ( mid d le right ) w as m ea n t to i n dica te t h e m edit a tio n of t h e B u d d h a ,
Wors hip ping th e stu p a a n d t h e s t u p a ( F ig. 4 . 1 5) w a s m e a n t to r e p r ese n t

b
F ig. 4.1 6 ( b elo w ) t h e m a h a p a rinibb a n a . A not h er freq u e n tly u sed
Setting in motion th e w h eel of sy m bol w as t h e w h eel (F ig. 4.1 6). T h is stood for t h e
d h a rm a fi r s t se r m o n of t h e B u d d h a , d elive r e d a t S a r n a t h .

o
As is obvio u s, s u c h sc u lp t u res ca n n ot be u n derstood

t
li te r a lly – for i n st a n ce, t h e t ree does n ot st a n d

o t
n
T H I N K E RS , B E L I E F S AND B UI L DI N GS 101

si m ply for a tree, b u t F ig. 4.1 7

sy m bolises a n eve n t T h e w om a n a t th e g a te
i n t h e life of t h e
B u d d h a . I n or d er to
u n dersta n d such
sy m bols, h istoria n s
h ave to fa m ilia rise
t h e m selves wit h t h e

d
t r a d itio n s of t h ose
w h o p rod u ced t h ese wor k s

e
of a r t.

h
9.3 Popular traditions

T s
O t h er sc u l p t u res a t S a n c h i were

i
per h a ps n ot directly i n spired b y

R l
B u d d h ist ideas. T hese i ncl u de
b e a u t if u l wo m e n s w i n gi n g f r o m t h e

E b
e dge of t h e g a t e w a y , h ol d i n g o n to a
t ree (F ig.4.1 7). I n iti a lly, sc h ol a rs were

u
a b it i n t rig u ed a bo u t t h is i m age,

C p
w h ic h see m ed to h ave little to do wit h
re n u n cia tion . H owever, after ex a m i n i ng ot h er

N re
liter a r y t r a d itio n s, t h ey re a lise d t h a t it co u l d b e a
re p rese n t a tio n of w h a t is d escr i b e d i n S a n s k r it a s
a s h a l a b h a n ji k a . A ccor d i n g to p o p u l a r b elief, t h is

© e
w a s a wo m a n w h ose to u c h c a u se d t r ees to flowe r
a n d be a r fr u it. It is li k ely t h a t t h is w a s rega r ded

b
a s a n a u s p ic io u s s y m b ol a n d i n t egr a t e d i n t o t h e
d eco r a t io n of t h e s t u p a . T h e s h a l a b h a n ji k a m o t if
F ig. 4.1 8
s u ggests t h a t m a n y peop le w h o t u r n ed to B u d d h is m

o
A n ele p h a nt a t S a nchi
e n ric h ed it wit h t h eir ow n p re- B u d d h ist a n d eve n

t
n o n - B u d d h i s t b e l i efs , p r a c t i ce s a n d i d e a s .
So m e of t h e rec u r re n t m otifs i n t h e

t
sc u lpt u re at Sa nch i were eviden tly

o
d e r ive d fro m t h ese t r a d it io n s.
T h ere a re ot h er i m ages a s well. F or

n
i n st a n ce, so m e of t h e fi n est depictio n s
of a n i m a ls a re fo u n d t h ere. T h ese
a n i m als i n cl u de elep h a n ts, horses,
m o n k eys a n d ca ttle. W h ile t h e J a t a k a s
co n t a i n sever a l a n i m a l stories t h a t a re
depicted a t S a n c h i, it is li k ely t h a t m a n y
of t h ese a n i m a ls w e r e c a r ve d to c r e a te
lively sce n es to d r a w viewers. Also,
a n i m a l s w e r e of t e n u s e d a s s y m b o l s of
h u m a n a t t r i b u tes. E le p h a n t s, for e x a m p le,
were depicted to sign ify stre ngt h a n d wisdo m .
102 TH EMES IN I N D IA N H IS T ORY

Paintings from the past

While stone sculpture survives the ravages of time and is
therefore most easily available to the historian, other visual
means of communication, including paintings, were also
used in the past. Those that have survived best are on
walls of caves, of which those from Ajanta (Maharashtra)
are the most famous.

d
The paintings at Ajanta depict stories from the Jatakas.

e
These include depictions of courtly life, processions, men
and women at work, and festivals. The artists used the

h
technique of shading to give a three-dimensional quality.
Some of the paintings are extremely naturalistic.

T i s
F ig. 4.1 9

R l
G a j a l a k shmi

E u b
C
F ig. 4.2 0

p
A p a inting from A j a nt a

N re
Note t h e sea ted fig u re a n d t h ose
se r vi n g h i m .

© e
F ig. 4.2 1

b
o
A s erp e nt a t S a nchi

t t
n o
A n ot h er m otif is t h a t of a wo m a n s u r ro u n ded b y
lot u ses a n d elep h a n ts (F ig. 4.1 9), w h ic h see m to be
sp ri n k li ng w a ter o n h er as if perfor m i ng a n a b his h e k a
or co n secr a tio n . W h ile so m e h istori a n s ide n tify t h e
fig u re a s M a y a , t h e m ot h er of t h e B u d d h a , ot h ers
ide n tify h er wit h a pop u l a r god dess, G a j a l a k s h m i –
l i t e r a l l y , t h e go d d ess of goo d fo r t u n e – w h o is
a ssoci a te d w i t h ele p h a n t s. It is a lso p ossi b le t h a t
T H I N K E RS , B E L I E F S AND B UI L DI N GS 103

d evo t ees w h o s a w t h ese sc u l p t u r es i d e n t ifie d t h e

fig u re wit h bot h M a y a a n d G a j a l a k s h m i. D isc u ss...
C o n s i d e r , t oo , t h e s e r p e n t , w h i c h i s fo u n d o n B o n e, ter r acott a a n d m et a l
seve r a l p ill a r s ( F ig. 4 . 2 1). T h is m ot if see m s to b e ca n a lso be u sed for
derived fro m pop u l a r t r a d itio n s, w h ic h were n ot sc u lp t u re. F i n d o u t m ore
a lw a ys recor ded i n tex ts. I n teresti n gly, o n e of t h e a bo u t t h ese.
e a r l ies t m o d e r n a r t h is to r i a n s, J a m es F e rg u sso n ,
co n si d ere d S a n c h i to b e a ce n t re of t ree a n d

d
ser pe n t wors h ip. H e w as not fa m ilia r wit h B u d d h ist
liter a t u re – m ost of w h ic h h a d n ot yet b ee n

e
t r a n sl a ted – a n d a r rived a t t h is co n cl u sio n b y

h
st u dyi ng on ly t he i m ages on t heir ow n .

T s
1 0. N e w R e l igio u s T r a di t io n s

i
F ig. 4.2 2

R l
10.1 The development of Mahayana A n im a ge of th e B u d d h a from
Buddh ism M a th ur a , c . first ce ntu r y C E

E b
B y t h e fi r s t ce n t u r y C E, t h e r e is evi d e n ce of
c h a n ges i n B u d d h ist i de a s a n d p r a ctices. E a rly

C u
B u d d h ist te a c h i n gs h a d give n gre a t i m por t a n ce

p
to self-effor t i n a c h ievi n g nib b a n a . B esi des, t h e

N re
B u d d h a w a s r eg a r d e d a s a h u m a n b ei n g w h o
a t t a i n e d e n l ig h t e n m e n t a n d n i b b a n a t h r o u g h
h is ow n effor ts. H owever , gr a d u a lly t h e i d e a of

© e
a s a vio u r e m e rge d . It w a s b elieve d t h a t h e
w as t h e on e w ho co u ld e n s u re salva tion .
S i m u l t a n eo u sl y , t h e co n ce p t of t h e B o d h is a t t a

b
a lso d evelo p e d . B o d h is a t t a s w e r e p e r ceive d a s
d ee p ly co m p a ssio n a te b ei n gs w h o a cc u m u l a te d

o
m erit t h ro u g h t h eir effor ts b u t u sed t h is n ot to

t
a tt a i n nib b a n a a n d t h ereb y a b a n do n t h e worl d ,
b u t to h el p ot h ers. T h e wors h i p of i m ages of t h e

t
B u d d h a a n d B od h is a t t a s b ec a m e a n i m por t a n t
p a r t of t h is t r a d itio n .

o
T h is n ew w a y of t h i n k i ng w as called M a h a y a n a
– liter ally, t h e “grea t ve h icle”. T h ose w h o a dop ted

n
t h e s e b e l i efs d e s c r i b e d t h e o l d e r t r a d i t i o n a s
H i n a y a n a or t h e “lesser ve h icle”.

Hinayana or Theravada?
Supporters of Mahayana regarded other Buddhists
as followers of Hinayana. However, followers of the
older tradition described themselves as theravadins ,
that is, those who followed the path of old, respected
teachers, the theras.
104 TH EMES IN I N D IA N H IS T ORY

10.2 The growth of Puranic Hinduism

T h e n otio n of a savio u r w as n ot u n iq u e to B u d d h is m .
W e fi n d si m il a r i d e a s b ei n g d evelo p e d i n d iffe r e n t
w a ys wit h i n tr a ditio n s t h a t we n ow co n sider p a rt of
H i n d u is m . T h ese i n cl u d e d V a is h n a vis m (a for m of
F ig. 4.2 3
H i n d u is m wit h i n w h ic h V is h n u w a s wors h ip ped a s
T h e V a r a h a or bo a r a v a t a r of
Vis h n u re scuing th e e a rth god d e s s,
t h e p ri n cip al deity) a n d S h aivis m (a tr a ditio n wit h i n
A ihole ( K a rn a t a k a ) c . sixth w h ic h S h iva w as rega r ded as t h e c h ief god), i n w h ic h

d
ce ntur y C E t h e r e w a s gr o w i n g e m p h a s is o n t h e w o r s h i p of a
c h ose n deity. I n s u c h wors h ip t h e bo n d betwee n t h e

e
W h a t does t h e p roportio n d evotee a n d t h e god w a s vis u a lise d a s o n e of love

h
of t h e fig u res s u ggest? a n d devotio n , or b h a k ti.
I n t h e c a s e of V a i s h n a v i s m ,

T s
c u lts developed a ro u n d t h e

l i
v a r io u s a v a t a r s or i n c a r n a t io n s

R
of t h e d e i t y . T e n a v a t a r s w e r e

b
r ecog n ise d w i t h i n t h e t r a d i t io n .

E
T h ese were for m s t h a t t h e deity

C u
w as believed to h ave ass u m ed i n

p
or der to save t h e world w h e n ever

N re
it w as t h rea te n ed b y disor der a n d
dest r u ctio n bec a u se of t h e
d o m i n a n c e of e v i l fo r c e s . I t i s

© e
li k ely t h a t differe n t ava t a rs were
pop u l a r i n differe n t p a r ts of t h e
co u n t r y . R ecog n isi n g e a c h of

b
t h ese loc a l d ei t ies a s a for m of
V is h n u w a s o n e w a y of crea ti ng

o
a m ore u n ified religio u s tr a ditio n .

t
So m e of t h ese for m s we re
represen ted in scu lpt u res, as were

t
ot her deities. S h iva, for i nsta nce,

o
w a s sy m bolise d b y t h e ling a ,
a lt h o u gh h e w a s occ a sio n a lly

n
rep rese n ted i n h u m a n for m too.
All s u ch represen tations depicted
a com plex set of ideas a bo u t t he
deities a n d t h eir a ttrib u tes
t h ro u g h sy m bols s u c h a s h e a d -
dresses, or n a men ts a n d a y u d h a s
– wea po n s or a u spicio u s objects
t h e deities hold i n t h eir h a n ds –
how t hey are seated, etc.
To u n d e r st a n d t h e m e a n i n gs
of t h e s e s c u l p t u r e s h i s t o r i a n s
T H I N K E RS , B E L I E F S AND B UI L DI N GS 105

e d
T s h
R l i
E u b
C p
h a ve to be fa m ili a r wit h t h e stories be h i n d t h e m –

N re
m a n y of w h ic h a re co n t a i n e d i n t h e P u r a n a s,
com piled by B r a h m a n as (by a bo u t t h e m id dle of t h e
first m ille n n i u m C E ) . T h ey co n t ai n ed m u c h t h a t h a d
F ig. 4.2 4
A n im a ge of D urg a , M a h a b a lip ur a m
( T a mil N a d u ) , c . sixth ce ntu r y C E

© e
Ide n tify t h e w a ys i n w h ic h
bee n co m posed a n d bee n i n circ u la tio n for ce n t u ries,
t h e a rtists h ave depicted
i n cl u d i n g s tor ies a b o u t go d s a n d go d d esses.
m ove m e n t. F i n d o u t m ore
G e n er ally, t h ey were w ritte n i n si m ple S a n s k rit verse,

b
a bo u t t h e story depicted i n
a n d were m ea n t to be rea d a lo u d to ever y bod y, t h is sc u lpt u re.
i n cl u d i n g wo m e n a n d S h u d r a s, w h o d i d n ot h a ve

o
access to V edic lea r n i ng.

t
M u c h of w h a t is co n t ai n ed i n t h e P u r a n as evolved
t h ro u g h i n ter a ctio n a m o n gst p eop le – p r iests,

t
merch a n ts, a n d ordi n a ry men a n d women w ho
t r avelled fro m pl ace to pl ace s h a ri ng ideas a n d

o
beliefs. We k n ow for i n st a n ce t h a t V as u deva- K ris h n a

n
w as a n i m port a n t deity i n t h e M a t h u r a regio n . O ver
ce n t u ries, h is wors h ip sp rea d to ot h er p a r ts of t h e
co u n t r y a s well.
10.3 Building temples
A ro u n d t h e t i m e t h a t t h e s t u p a s a t si tes s u c h a s
S a n c h i were a cq u iri n g t h eir p rese n t for m , t h e first
te m ples to h o u se i m ages of gods a n d god desses were
also bei ng b u ilt. T h e ea rly te m ple w as a s m all sq u a re
room , called t h e g a rb h a grih a , wit h a si ngle doorw a y
for t h e wors h ip per to e n ter a n d offer wors h ip to t h e
i m a ge . G r a d u a l l y , a t a l l s t r u c t u r e , k n o w n a s t h e
106 TH EMES IN I N D IA N H IS T ORY

e d
T s h
R l i
b
F ig. 4.2 5

E
A te m ple in D eog a rh s hi k h a r a , w as b u ilt over t h e ce n tr al s h ri n e. Te m ple

u
( Utt a r Pr a d es h ) , c . fifth ce ntu r y CE w a l l s w e r e of t e n d e co r a t e d w i t h s c u l p t u r e . L a t e r

C
te m ples beca m e fa r m ore ela bor a te – wit h asse m bly

p
Ide n tify t h e re m a i n s of t h e
h a lls, h u ge w a lls a n d ga tew a ys, a n d a r r a n ge m e n ts

N re
s hi k h a r a a n d t h e e n tr a n ce to
for s u p plyi ng w a ter (see also C h a p ter 7).
t h e g a rb h a grih a .
O n e of t h e u n iq u e fea t u res of ea rly te m ples w as
t h a t so m e of t h ese were h ollowed o u t of h u ge roc k s,

© e
as a rtificial caves. T h e tr a ditio n of b u ildi ng a rtificial
caves w as a n old o n e. So m e of t h e ea rliest (F ig. 4.2 7)

b
t o
o t
n
F ig. 4.2 6
Vis h n u reclining on th e serpe nt
S h es h n a g, sculpture from D eog a rh
( Utt a r Pr a d es h ) , c . fifth ce ntu r y C E
T H I N K E RS , B E L I E F S AND B UI L DI N GS 107

of t h ese were co n st r u cted i n t h e t h ir d ce n t u r y B C E

o n t h e or ders of Aso k a for re n o u n cers w h o belo nged
to t h e Ajivi k a sect.
T h is tr a ditio n evolved t h ro u gh va rio u s st ages a n d
c u l m i n a ted m u c h la ter – i n t h e eigh t h ce n t u ry – i n
t h e c a rvi n g o u t of a n e n tire te m p le, t h a t of
K a il a s h n a t h a (a n a m e of S h iv a).
A cop per pla te i n scrip tio n recor ds t h e a m a ze m e n t

d
of t h e c h ief sc u lp tor after h e co m pleted t h e te m ple
a t E llor a: “ O h h ow did I m a k e it!”

h e
R T l i F ig. 4.2 7 s
b
E ntr a nce to a c a ve a t B a r a b a r

E
( B ih a r ) , c . thir d ce ntur y B C E

C p u
N re
F ig. 4.2 8
K a il a s h n a th a T e m ple, E llor a
( M a h a r a s htr a ) . T his e ntire structure

© e
is c a rve d out of a single piece of
roc k .

b
11. C a n W e “ S e e ” E v e r y t hi n g?

o
B y n ow yo u h a ve h a d a gli m p se of t h e r ic h vis u a l
t r a d i t io n s t h a t e x is t e d i n t h e p a s t – e x p r esse d i n

t
b ric k a n d ston e a rc h itect u re, sc u lpt u re a n d

t
p a i n ti ng. We h a ve see n t h a t m u c h h a s bee n
destroyed a n d lost over t h e ce n t u ries. Nevert h eless,

o
w h a t r e m a i n s a n d h a s b ee n p r ese r ve d co n ve y s a
se n se of t h e visio n of t h e a rtists, sc u lp tors, m aso n s

n
a n d a rc h itects w h o crea ted t h ese spect ac u la r wor k s.
Yet , d o w e a l w a ys a u to m a t ic a ll y u n d e r s t a n d w h a t
t h ey w a n ted to co n vey? C a n we ever k n ow w h a t t h ese
i m ages m ea n t to people w h o sa w t h e m a n d ve n er a ted
t h e m a bo u t 2,0 0 0 yea rs ago?
11.1 Grappling with the unfamiliar
I t w i l l b e u s ef u l t o r e c a l l t h a t w h e n n i n e t e e n t h -
ce n t u r y E u r o p e a n sc h ol a r s fi r s t s a w so m e of t h e
sc u l p t u r es of go d s a n d go d d esses, t h ey co u l d n ot
u n derst a n d w h a t t h ese were a bo u t. So m eti m es, t h ey
w e r e h or r ifie d b y w h a t see m e d to t h e m grotesq u e
108 TH EMES IN I N D IA N H IS T ORY

fig u res, w it h m u lti p le a r m s a n d h e a d s or w it h

co m bi n a tio n s of h u m a n a n d a n i m al for m s.
T h ese ea rly sc h ola rs tried to m a k e se n se of w h a t
a p p e a r e d t o b e s t r a n ge i m a ges b y co m p a r i n g
t h e m w i t h sc u l p t u r e w i t h w h i c h t h e y w e r e
fa m ilia r, t h a t from a n cie n t G reece. W h ile t h ey
oft e n fo u n d e a r l y I n d i a n sc u l p t u r e i n fe r ior
to t h e wor k s of G ree k a rtists, t h ey were very

d
excited w h e n t h ey discovered i m ages of t h e
B u d d h a a n d B od h isa tt as t h a t were evide n tly

e
b a se d o n G r ee k m o d els. T h ese w e r e, m or e

h
oft e n t h a n n ot , fo u n d i n t h e n o r t h w es t , i n
cities s u c h a s T a x il a a n d Pes h a w a r , w h ere

T s
In do- G ree k r u lers h a d est a blis h ed

i
k i n gd o m s i n t h e seco n d ce n t u r y B C E . A s

R l
t h ese i m ages were closest to t h e G ree k

b
st a t u es t h ese sc h ol a rs were fa m ili a r

E
w i t h , t h e y w e r e co n s i d e r e d t o b e t h e

u
b es t e x a m p les of e a r l y I n d i a n a r t . I n

C
effect, t h ese sc h ola rs a dop ted a str a tegy

p
we all freq u en tly u se – devisi ng

N re
y a r d s t ic k s d e r ive d f r o m t h e f a m ili a r to
m a k e se n se of t h e u nfa m ilia r.
11.2 If text and image do not match …

© e
C o n s i d e r a n o t h e r p r o b l e m . W e h a ve see n
t h a t a rt h istoria n s ofte n d r a w u po n text u al

b
t r a d i t i o n s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e m e a n i n g of
sc u lp t u res. W h ile t h is is cer t a i n ly a fa r
m or e effic a cio u s s t r a t egy t h a n co m p a r i n g

o
I n dia n i m ages wit h G ree k st a t u es, it is n ot

t
a lw a ys e a sy to u se. O n e of t h e m ost
i n t r ig u i n g e x a m p l es of t h i s i s a f a m o u s

t
s c u l p t u r e a l o n g a h u ge r oc k s u r f a c e i n

o
M a h a b a li p u r a m (T a m il N a d u ).
C lea rly, F ig. 4.3 0 is a vivid depictio n of

n
a story. B u t w h ic h story is it? A rt h istoria n s
h ave sea rc h ed t h ro u gh t h e P u r a n as to
i de n tify it a n d a re s h a r p ly d ivi ded i n t h eir
op i n io n s. So m e feel t h a t t h is dep icts t h e
desce n t of t h e river G a nga fro m h eave n – t h e

F ig. 4.2 9
A B od his a tt a from G a n d h a r a
Note t h e clot h es a n d t h e h a irstyle.
T H I N K E RS , B E L I E F S AND B UI L DI N GS 109

n a t u r al cleft t h ro u gh t h e ce n tre of t h e roc k s u rface

m igh t rep rese n t t h e river. T h e story itself is n a r r a ted
i n t h e P u r a n a s a n d t h e e p ics. O t h e r s feel t h a t i t
rep rese n ts a stor y fro m t h e M a h a b h a r a t a – A r j u n a
doi ng pe n a n ce o n t h e river b a n k i n or der to acq u ire
a r m s – poi n ti ng to t h e ce n tr al fig u re of a n ascetic.

d
F i n ally, remem ber t h at m a n y rit u als, religio u s beliefs

e
a n d p r actices were n ot recor ded i n a per m a n e n t,
visible for m – as m o n u m e n ts, or sc u lp t u re, or eve n

h
p ai n ti ngs. T h ese i n cl u ded d aily p r actices, as well as
t h os e a s soc i a t e d w i t h s p e c i a l oc c a s io n s . M a n y

T i s
com m u n ities a n d peoples m a y not h ave felt t h e n eed

l
for k eepi ng lasti ng recor ds, eve n as t h ey m a y h ave D isc u ss...

R
h a d vi b r a n t t r a d it io n s of religio u s a ct ivit ies a n d D escri be a n y religio u s a ctivity

E b
p h ilosop h ica l ideas. I n fact, t h e spect ac u l a r yo u h ave see n .
i n st a n ces we h ave foc u sed o n i n t h is c h a p ter a re Is it per m a n e n tly recor ded i n

C u
j u st t h e tip of t h e iceberg. a n y for m ?

N re p
© e
b
F ig. 4.3 0
A sculpture in M a h a b a lip ur a m

t o
o t
n
110 TH EMES IN I N D IA N H IS T ORY

Time l i n e 1
M a j o r R e l igio u s D e v e l o pme n t s
c. 1500-1000 BCE E a r ly V e d ic t r a d it io n s

c. 1 0 0 0 - 5 0 0 BCE L a ter V e d ic t r a d itio n s

c. si x t h ce n t u r y BCE E a r ly U p a n is h a d s; J a i n is m , B u d d h is m
c. t h i r d ce n t u r y
c. seco n d ce n t u r y
BCE F irst st u p as
D evelop m e n t of M a h a y a n a B u d d h is m , V a is h n a vis m ,

e d
h
B C E on wards S h a ivis m a n d go d d ess c u l t s

T s
c. t h i r d ce n t u r y E a rliest te m p les

i
CE

R bl Time l i n e 2

C E
L a n dma r k s i n t h e Dis c ov e r y a n d P r e s e r va t io n o f E a r ly

u
M o n ume n t s a n d S c u l p t u r e

p
Ni neteen t h cen t ur y

N re
1814 F o u n d i n g of t h e I n d i a n M u se u m , C a lc u t t a
1834 P u b lic a t io n of E s s a y o n t h e A rc h itect u r e of t h e H i n d u s ,

© e
b y R a m R a j a ; C u n n i n g h a m e x p lor es t h e s t u p a a t S a r n a t h

1 8 35 -1 8 4 2 J a m es F e rg u sso n s u r veys m a jor a r c h a eologic a l sites

b
1851 E st a b lis h m e n t of t h e G ove r n m e n t M u se u m , M a d r a s

o
1854 A le x a n d e r C u n n i n g h a m p u b lis h es B h ils a Top e s , o n e of t h e

t
e a r liest wor k s o n S a n c h i

1878 R a je n d r a L a l a M i t r a p u b lis h es B u d d h a G a y a : T h e H e rit a ge

t
of S a k y a M u n i

o
1880 H . H . C ole a p p oi n te d C u r a tor of A n cie n t M o n u m e n t s

n
1888 P a ssi n g of t h e T r e a s u r e T rove A c t , givi n g t h e gove r n m e n t
t h e r ig h t to a cq u i r e a ll ob jects of a r c h a eologic a l i n te r est
Twen t iet h cen t ur y

1914 J o h n M a r s h a ll a n d A lfr e d F o u c h e r p u b lis h T h e Mon u m e n ts

of S a n c h i
1923 J o h n M a r s h a ll p u b lis h es t h e C o n s e r v a tio n M a n u a l
1955 Pr i m e M i n iste r J a w a h a r l a l N e h r u l a ys t h e fo u n d a t io n sto n e
of t h e N a t io n a l M u se u m , N ew D el h i
1989 S a n c h i d ecl a re d a W or l d H er it age S ite
T H I N K E RS , B E L I E F S AND B UI L DI N GS 111

A n s w e r i n 10 0 -15 0 w o r d s
1. W e r e t h e i d e a s of t h e U p a n is h a d ic t h i n k e r s
d iffere n t fro m t h ose of t h e fa t a lists a n d
m a terialists? G ive reason s for yo u r a n swer.
2. S u m m a rise t h e ce n tr al teac h i ngs of J ai n is m .
3. D isc u ss t h e role of t h e beg u m s of B h op a l i n

d
p reservi ng t h e st u p a a t S a n c h i.

e
4. Rea d t h is s h ort i n scrip tio n a n d a n swer:

h
I n t h e ye a r 3 3 of t h e m a h a r a j a H u vis h k a (a
K u s h a n a r u ler), i n t h e first m o n t h of t h e h ot

T s
seaso n o n t h e eigh t h d a y, a B od h isa tt a w as set

i
u p at M a d h u va n a k a by t he bhik k h u ni D h a n avati,

R l
t h e s i s t e r’s d a u g h t e r of t h e b h i k k h u n i

b
B u d d h a m ita, w ho k nows t he Tipit a k a , t he fem ale

E
p u p i l of t h e b h i k k h u B a l a , w h o k n o w s t h e

u
Tipit a k a , toget h er wit h h er fa t h er a n d m ot h er.

C
(a) H ow did D h a n ava ti d a te h er i n scrip tio n?
(b)

(c)
N re p
W h y do yo u t h i n k s h e i n st a lled a n i m age of t h e
B od h isa tt a?
W ho were t h e rela tives s h e m e n tion ed?
(d)

© e
W h a t B u d d h ist text did s h e k n ow?

b
(e) F ro m w h o m did s h e lea r n t h is tex t?
5. W h y do yo u t h i n k wo m e n a n d m e n joi n ed t h e

o
s a ngh a? F ig. 4.3 1

t
A sculpture in S a nchi

o t
n
112 TH EMES IN I N D IA N H IS T ORY

W r i t e a s h o r t e s s ay ( a b o u t
5 0 0 w o r d s) o n t h e f o l l o w i n g :
6. T o w h a t e x t e n t d oes k n ow le dge of B u d d h is t
liter a t u re h elp i n u n derst a n di ng t h e sc u lp t u re
a t S a n c h i?
7. F igs. 4.3 2 a n d 4.3 3 a re two sce n es fro m S a n c h i.

d
D escribe w h a t yo u see i n eac h of t h e m , foc u si ng
on t h e a rc h itect u re, pla n ts a n d a n i m als, a n d t h e

e
a c t ivi t ies. I d e n t ify w h ic h o n e s h o w s a r u r a l

h
sce n e a n d w h ic h a n u r b a n sce n e, givi ng reaso n s
for yo u r a n swer.

T i s
8. D isc u ss t h e develop m e n t i n sc u lp t u re a n d

l
a rc h itect u re a ssoci a ted wit h t h e rise of

R
V aish n avism a n d S h aivism .

E b
9. D isc u ss h ow a n d w h y st u p as were b u ilt.

C p u
F ig. 4.3 3

N re
© e
b
o
F ig. 4.3 2

t t
n o
T H I N K E RS , B E L I E F S AND B UI L DI N GS 113

Map wo r k
10. O n a n ou tline world m ap, m ar k t he areas to w hich
B u d d h ism sprea d. Tr ace t he la n d a n d sea ro u tes
from t h e s u bcon ti n e n t to t h ese a reas. If you would like to know
more, read:
A.L. Basham. 1985.
P r o j e c t ( a n y o n e) The Wonder that was India .

d
Rupa, Calcutta.
11. O f t h e r eligio u s t r a d i t io n s d isc u sse d i n t h is

e
c h a p ter, is t h ere a n y t h a t is p r actised i n yo u r N.N. Bhattacharyya. 1996.
n eig h bo u r h ood? W h a t a re t h e religio u s tex ts Indian Religious Historiography.

h
u sed tod a y, a n d h ow a re t h ey p reserved a n d Munshiram Manoharlal,

s
tr a n s m itted? A re i m ages u sed i n wors h ip? If so,

T
New Delhi.

i
a r e t h ese s i m i l a r t o o r d iffe r e n t f r o m t h ose

l
described i n t h is ch a pter? D escribe t he b u ildi ngs

R
M.K. Dhavalikar. 2003.
u sed for religio u s a ctivities tod a y, co m p a ri n g Monumental Legacy of Sanchi.

b
t h e m wit h ea rly st u p as a n d te m ples. Oxford University Press,

E
New Delhi.

u
12. C ollec t a t le a s t five p ic t u r es of sc u l p t u r e o r

C
p a i n t i n g, b elo n gi n g t o d iffe r e n t p e r io d s a n d Paul Dundas. 1992.

p
regio n s, o n t h e religio u s t r a ditio n s described i n The Jains.

N re
t h is c h a p ter. Re m ove t h eir ca p tio n s, a n d s h ow Routledge, London.
eac h on e to two people, a n d as k t h e m to describe
w h a t t h ey see. C o m p a re t h eir descrip tio n s a n d Gavin Flood. 2004.

© e
p rep a re a repor t o n yo u r fi n di ngs. Introduction to Hinduism.
Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge.

b
Richard F. Gombrich. 1988.
Theravada Buddhism: A Social

o
History from Ancient Benares to

t
Modern Colombo. Routledge
and Kegan Paul, London.

t
Benjamin Rowland. 1967.

o
The Art and Architecture of
India: Buddhist/Hindu/Jain.

n
Penguin Books,
Harmondsworth.

For more information,

you could visit:
http://dsal.uchicago.edu/
images/aiis/
114 TH EMES IN I N D IA N H IS T ORY

Credits for Illustrations

Theme 1
F ig.1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.8, 1.1 1, 1.1 2, 1.1 3, 1.1 4, 1.1 5,
1.16, 1.20, 1.22, 1.23, 1.26, 1.28, 1.29, Fig 1 . 3 0 of exercises:
A rch a eologic a l Surve y of In di a a n d N a tion a l Mu se u m,

d
N e w D elhi

e
F ig. 1.7, 1.9, 1.1 0, 1.1 7, 1.1 8, 1.1 9, 1.2 1, 1.2 4:
Prof. G regor y L. Posse hl

h
F ig. 1.2 7:

T s
C e ntre for C ultur a l Resources a n d Tr a ining, Ne w D elhi

Theme 2

R l i
E b
F ig. 2.1: A meric a n In stitute of In di a n Stu dies, G urg a on
F ig. 2.2, 2.6: A rch a eologic a l S urve y of In d i a

C u
F ig. 2.3, 2.5, 2.1 0:

p
C e ntre for C ultur a l Resources a n d Tr a ining, Ne w D elhi

N re
F ig. 2.4, 2.7, 2.9, 2.1 2, 2.1 3: N a tion a l M u se u m, N e w D elhi
F ig. 2.8: Wi k ipe di a

© eTheme 3
F ig. 3.1, 3.1 0: A rch a eologic a l S urve y of In di a

b
F ig. 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9: N a tion a l M u se u m,
N e w D elhi

t oTheme 4

t
F ig. 4.1, 4.5, 4.8, 4.9, 4.1 2, 4.1 3, 4.1 4, 4.1 5, 4.1 6, 4.1 7,

o
4.1 8, 4.1 9, 4.2 1, 4.2 2, 4.2 3, 4.2 4, 4.2 5, 4.2 6, 4.2 7, 4.2 9,
4.3 1, fig 4.3 2 a n d 3 3 in exercise:

n
A meric a n In stitute of In di a n Stu dies, G urg a on
F ig. 4.2: Wi k ipe di a
F ig. 4.3, 4.1 1, 4.2 8, 4.3 0:
C e ntre for C ultur a l Resources a n d Tr a ining, Ne w D elhi
F ig. 4.4, 4.6, 4.7, 4.2 0: N a tion a l M u se u m, N e w D elhi