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 Introduction to
Nanoelectronic
Single-Electron
Circuit Design
 Introduction to
Nanoelectronic
Single-Electron
Circuit Design
Second Edition

Jaap Hoekstra
July 22, 2016 17:58 PSP Book - 9in x 6in 00-Jaap˙nanobook-Prelims

Published by
Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd.
Penthouse Level, Suntec Tower 3
8 Temasek Boulevard
Singapore 038988

Email: [email protected]
Web: www.panstanford.com

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Introduction to Nanoelectronic Single-Electron Circuit Design

(2nd Edition)
Copyright 
c 2016 Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd.

All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any
form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording or any information storage and retrieval system now known or to
be invented, without written permission from the publisher.

For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying

fee through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive,
Danvers, MA 01923, USA. In this case permission to photocopy is not
required from the publisher.

ISBN 978-981-4745-56-7 (Hardcover)

ISBN 978-981-4745-57-4 (eBook)

Printed in the USA

July 22, 2016 17:58 PSP Book - 9in x 6in 00-Jaap˙nanobook-Prelims

Contents

Preface xiii
Preface to the Second Edition xix

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Scope 1
1.1.1 Nanoelectronic Circuit Design Issues 2
1.1.2 Levels in Modeling: A Top-Down Approach 3
1.1.3 Overview of Tunneling Capacitor Circuit
Models 5
1.1.4 Important Quantum Mechanical Phenomena 9
1.2 Electron Tunneling 9
1.2.1 Free Electrons 10
1.2.2 Tunneling 11
1.2.3 Hot Electrons 13
1.2.4 Tunneling Time and Transition Time 13
1.3 Tunneling Capacitors and Island Charges 14
1.3.1 Two-Junction Circuit in Coulomb Blockade 16
1.4 Energy in Simple Capacitor Circuits: Bounded and
Unbounded Currents 18
1.4.1 Switching Circuits: Energy in a Resistive Circuit 19
1.4.2 Charging a Capacitor: Bounded Current 22
1.4.3 Charging a Capacitor: Unbounded Current 23
1.4.4 Energy Calculation with the Generalized Delta
Function 26
1.5 Operational Temperature 27
1.6 Research Questions 29

2 Tunneling Experiments in Nanoelectronics 31

2.1 Tunneling in the Tunnel Diode 32
July 22, 2016 17:58 PSP Book - 9in x 6in 00-Jaap˙nanobook-Prelims

vi Contents

2.1.1 Energy Band Diagram for the p–n Diode 32

2.1.2 Experiments of Esaki on the (Tunnel) Diode 38
2.1.3 Nonlinear Voltage–Current Characteristic of
the Tunnel Diode 40
2.1.4 Tunnel Current 45
2.1.5 Energy Paradox 47
2.1.6 Equivalent Circuit 48
2.1.7 Resonant Tunneling Diode 50
2.2 Tunneling Capacitor 52
2.2.1 Tunneling between Plates and the Hot Electron 52
2.2.2 Tunnel Capacitor and Electron Box 57
2.2.3 Single-Electron Tunneling Transistor and
Coulomb Blockade 58
2.2.4 Array of Tunnel Junctions and Coulomb
Oscillations 60
2.2.5 Single-Electron Tunneling Junction and
Coulomb Blockade 61

3 Current in Electrodynamics and Circuit Theory 65

3.1 Charges in Electrodynamics 66
3.2 Conservation of Charge and Continuity Equation 68
3.3 Electromagnetic Field Equations in Vacuum 70
3.4 Equations in the Presence of Charges and Currents 71
3.5 Conservation of Energy and Poynting’s Theorem 74
3.6 Steady-State and Constant Currents 76
3.6.1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law 77
3.6.2 Vector Potential A 78
3.6.3 Ohm’s Law 79
3.6.4 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law 80
3.7 Time-Dependent Current Flow 82
3.8 Toward Circuit Theory 84

4 Free Electrons in Quantum Mechanics 87

4.1 Particles, Fields, Wave Packets, and Uncertainty
Relations 87
4.2 Schrödinger’s Equation 91
4.2.1 Time-Independent Schrödinger Equation 92
4.3 Free Electrons 92
July 22, 2016 17:58 PSP Book - 9in x 6in 00-Jaap˙nanobook-Prelims

Contents vii

4.3.1 Electron as a Particle 93

4.3.2 Electron as a Wave 93
4.3.3 Beam of Free Electrons 95
4.3.4 Electron as a Wave Packet 96
4.3.5 Phase and Group Velocity 97
4.4 Free Electrons Meeting a Boundary 97
4.4.1 Step Potential: E < E 0 98
4.4.2 Step Potential: E > E 0 101
4.5 Electrons in Potential Wells 103
4.5.1 Infinite Well: Standing Waves 103
4.5.2 Finite Well: Periodic Boundary Conditions 105
4.5.3 Quantization of Energy 106
4.5.4 Free-Electron Model 108
4.5.5 Quantum Cellular Automata 110

5 Current and Tunnel Current in Quantum Physics 113

5.1 Electrical Conductivity in Metals 113
5.1.1 Drude Model 114
5.1.2 Electrical Conductivity in Quantum Mechanics 117
5.2 Current in Quantum Physics 120
5.2.1 Current Density in Quantum Physics 121
5.2.2 Current of Free Electrons 122
5.2.3 Purely Real Waves 123
5.3 Tunneling and Tunnel Current 123
5.3.1 Tunneling through a Rectangular Barrier 123
5.3.2 Tunnel Current 127
5.4 Shrinking Dimensions and Quantized Conductance 128
5.4.1 Two Dimensions 128
5.4.2 One Dimension and the Quantum Wire 129
5.4.3 Ballistic Transport and the Landauer Formula 131

6 Energy in Circuit Theory 133

6.1 Lumped Circuits 133
6.1.1 Kirchhoff’s Laws 134
6.1.2 Circuit Elements 134
6.1.3 Energy Considerations: Passive and Active
Elements 139
6.1.4 Linear Elements and Superposition 142
July 22, 2016 17:58 PSP Book - 9in x 6in 00-Jaap˙nanobook-Prelims

viii Contents

6.1.5 Affine Linear and Nonlinear Elements 145

6.2 Circuit Theorems 148
6.2.1 Tellegen’s Theorem 149
6.2.2 Thévenin and Norton Equivalents 153

7 Energy in the Switched Two-Capacitor Circuit 159

7.1 Problem Statement 159
7.2 Continuity Property in Linear Networks 161
7.2.1 Continuity Property of Bounded Capacitor
Currents 161
7.3 Unbounded Currents 162
7.3.1 Voltages in Circuits with Unbounded Currents 162
7.4 Zero Initial Capacitor Voltage (Zero State) 163
7.4.1 p Operator Notation 163
7.4.2 Impedance and Admittance Operators of the
Capacitor 164
7.4.3 Generalized Functions 165
7.5 Initial Charge Models 166
7.6 Solution A: Bounded Currents 170
7.7 Solution B: Unbounded Currents 170
7.7.1 Energy Generation and Absorption in Circuits
with Unbounded Currents 171
7.7.2 Energy Conservation 172
7.8 Unbounded or Bounded Currents through Circuits 174

8 Impulse Circuit Model for Single-Electron Tunneling: Zero

Tunneling Time 177
8.1 SET Junction Excited by an Ideal Current Source: Zero
Tunneling Time 179
8.1.1 Coulomb Oscillations 179
8.1.2 Tunneling of a Single Electron Modeled by an
Impulsive Current 180
8.1.3 Energy Is Conserved: Critical Voltage 184
8.2 SET Junction Excited by an Ideal Voltage Source 185
8.2.1 Critical Voltage 187
8.3 Basic Assumptions 187
8.3.1 During Tunneling the Equivalent Circuit Will
Have an Impulsive Component 187
July 22, 2016 17:58 PSP Book - 9in x 6in 00-Jaap˙nanobook-Prelims

Contents ix

8.3.2 In SET Circuits Energy Is Conserved 188

8.3.3 Tunneling through the Barrier Is
Nondissipative 189
8.3.4 Tunneling Is Possible When a Reservoir
Filled with Electrons Is Facing Empty Energy
Levels 189
8.3.5 In Metals Conduction Electrons Move on the
Fermi Level 190
8.4 Conditions for Tunneling 191
8.4.1 Resistive Behavior 192
8.4.2 Hot-Electron Model at the Positive Side 192
8.4.3 Filling Empty States at the Negative Side 194
8.4.4 Transition Time 195
8.4.5 Capacitive Behavior 195
8.4.6 An Extended Hot-Electron Model 196
8.5 Tunnel Condition: Mathematical Formulation 198

9 Impulse Circuit Model for Single-Electron Tunneling:

Nonzero Tunneling Times 201
9.1 SET Junction Excited by an Ideal Current Source:
Nonzero Tunneling Time 201
9.2 SET Junction Excited by a Nonideal Current or
Voltage Source 207
9.3 Tunneling of Many Electrons, Stochastic Tunneling,
and Resistive Behavior 211
9.3.1 The Probability That a Single Electron
Tunnels in a Time Interval τ 212
9.3.2 Tunnel Junction Excited by an Ideal Voltage
Source: Many Electrons 215
9.3.3 Tunnel Junction Excited by a Current Source:
Stochastic Behavior 217

10 Generalizing the Theory to Multijunction Circuits 221

10.1 How Much Energy Is Needed to Tunnel onto a
Metallic Island? 222
10.2 Electron Box Excited by an Ideal Current Source:
Zero Tunneling Time 224
10.2.1 Energy Considerations: Bounded Currents 225
July 22, 2016 17:58 PSP Book - 9in x 6in 00-Jaap˙nanobook-Prelims

x Contents

10.3 Electron Box Excited by an Ideal Voltage Source 226

10.3.1 Energy Considerations: Unbounded
Currents 228
10.4 Electron Box Excited by a Current Source: Nonzero
Tunneling Time 229
10.5 Initial Island Charges and Random Background
Charges 230

11 Single-Electron Tunneling Circuit Examples 233

11.1 The Electron Box 234
11.1.1 Excited by an Ideal Constant Current
Source 234
11.1.2 Excited by a Real Constant Current Source 234
11.1.3 Excited by an Ideal Constant Voltage Source 236
11.2 Double-Junction Structure 237
11.3 SET Transistor 239
11.4 Three-Junction Structure 243
11.4.1 Using Superposition to Calculate Slopes in
the State Diagram of a SET Transistor 244
11.4.2 State Diagram of the General
Three-Junction Structure 246
11.5 SET Inverter 250

12 Circuit Design Methodologies 253

12.1 Introduction and Challenges 254
12.1.1 Information and Signals 254
12.1.2 Uncertainties and Inaccuracies 255
12.1.3 The Interconnection Problem 255
12.1.4 Managing the Complexity in the Design
Process 256
12.2 Nanoelectronic Design Issues 256
12.2.1 Coping with Uncertainty and Inaccuracy 256
12.2.2 Coping with the Interconnection Problem 262
12.2.3 Coping with the Design Complexity
Problem 263
12.3 SET Circuit Design Issues 264
12.3.1 Signal Amplification 264
12.3.2 Biasing 265
12.3.3 Coupling 265
July 22, 2016 17:58 PSP Book - 9in x 6in 00-Jaap˙nanobook-Prelims

Contents xi

12.4 Circuit Simulation 269

12.5 Random Background Charges 275
12.5.1 Put the Information in the Amplitude or
Frequency Component of the Signal 276
12.5.2 Use Compensation (Circuits) to Control the
Charge among the Islands 277
12.5.3 Use Redundancy on a Higher Level (System
Level) 277
12.6 An Outlook to System Design: Fuzzy Logic and
Neural Networks 278
12.6.1 Fuzzy Logic 278
12.6.2 Neural Networks 279
12.6.3 SET Perceptron Examples 284

13 More Potential Applications and Challenges 289

13.1 Logic Circuits 289
13.1.1 Electron-Box Logic 290
13.1.2 Memory Elements 299
13.2 Analog Functionality 302
13.2.1 Voltage-Controlled Variable Capacitor 302
13.2.2 Charge Detection 303
13.2.3 Electron Pump in Metrology 304
13.2.4 Reading Out a Quantum Computer 304
13.2.5 Single-Atom Nanoelectronics 305
13.2.6 Single-Molecule Electronics 305

Epilogue to the First Edition 307

References 313
Index 319
July 22, 2016 17:58 PSP Book - 9in x 6in 00-Jaap˙nanobook-Prelims

Preface

In Introduction to Nanoelectronic Single-Electron Circuit Design

single-electron circuits are studied as an introduction to the
fast-expanding field of nanoelectronics. In nanoelectronics, single-
electron circuits are those circuits that process information and
signals by making use of time-dependent currents and voltages due
to charge transport by just one single or only a few electrons.
This textbook follows an unconventional approach to explaining
the operation and design of single-electron circuits. In general,
the conventional approach to this subject is to begin with a brief
introduction to the quantum physics of nanodevices, followed by
modeling the devices by mathematical means. It is the author’s
opinion that an alternative approach with an emphasis on experi-
ments to obtain a characterization of the devices will enhance the
reader’s comprehension. Therefore after the introduction, first some
landmark experiments are reviewed and discussed. Then a brief
introduction to the relevant (quantum) physics of the nanodevices
is given. Subsequently, the characterization of devices is used to
obtain equivalent circuit diagrams. To ease the discussions on
the characteristics and the equivalent circuits some topics from
linear and nonlinear circuit theory are briefly reviewed. Knowing
this, a circuit theoretical framework will be built. Devices and
(small) circuits are modeled both by mathematical means and by
circuit simulations. Also currents in classical and quantum physics
are reviewed. Simple circuits including single-electron devices are
treated. After this, circuit design methodologies are discussed,
as well as typical electronics topics such as signal amplification,
biasing, coupling, noise, and circuit simulation. When looking
forward to dealing with systems, emphasis is placed on redundant
and fault-tolerant architectures to cope with the uncertainties
July 22, 2016 17:58 PSP Book - 9in x 6in 00-Jaap˙nanobook-Prelims

xiv Preface

related to the critical nanometer-sized device dimensions and the

probabilistic nature of quantum physics. The book ends with a brief
discussion on potential applications and challenges.
Due to their simplicity, this monograph mainly considers metallic
single-electron tunneling (SET) junctions. For an introduction to
single-electron circuit design, circuits with these devices are already
complex enough.
The basic physical phenomena under consideration are the
quantum mechanical tunneling of electrons through a small insu-
lating gap between two metal leads, the Coulomb blockade, and
the associated phenomenon of Coulomb oscillationsthe last two
resulting from the quantization of charge. The metalinsulatormetal
structure through which the electrons may tunnel is called a
tunnel(ing) junction. This tunneling is considered to be stochastic,
that is, successive tunneling events across a tunnel junction are
uncorrelated, and is described by a Poisson process. Throughout
the textbook, tunneling through a potential barrier is considered
to be nondissipative (the tunneling process through the barrier is
considered to be elastic), unless explicitly stated differently.
Electron transport in nanoelectronic devices can best be de-
scribed by quantum physics; nanoelectronic circuits can best be
described by Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws, which have a firm
basis in classical physics. This tension between quantum physics and
classical physics is taken for granted; experiments with circuits will
have to approve whether we can successfully include the quantum
character of charge in a circuit theory for single-electron electronics.
As quantum mechanics is described in terms of energy, it seems
obvious to describe, that is, to analyze, the behavior of SET devices
and SET circuits with energies. This is what the so-called orthodox
theory of single electronics does. In this semiclassical physics theory
an electron will tunnel if the free (electrostatic) energy in the
system after tunneling is lower than the free energy in the system
before tunneling. However, as we will see, this energy loss cannot
always be modeled as dissipation by heat or by radiation without
violating Kirchhoffs laws. Especially, when the tunnel event of single
electrons is considered the dissipation cannot be modeled by a
finite resistance. To design, that is, to synthesize, circuits with these
devices, we need a circuit theory. It must be based on Kirchhoff’s
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