Explain antenna loading

Define and describe the operation of several antenna a antennas:

Yagi-Uda,
turnstile,
riodic, loop, phase
log periodi
Describe the operation of the following
special-purpose

arTay, helical
andelical
Describe the operation of a parabolic reflector
Describe the basic operation of waveguides

15-1 INTRODUCTION
dtenna is a metallic conductor system capable of radiaig and capruring electron.
nosphe

interface
transmission
lines to the
atmosphere, the atm
from a transe to
magnetic
energy. Antennas are used to
transmission
line couples Cnerey
Ismitter to
essence, a
transmission lines, or both. In
antenna, in
turn, couples energy receiv
receiver. The trantom
from an antenna to a from the atmosphere to a
an antenna or

a transmission lin to the atmosphere and

energy
received
c o m m u n i c a t i o n s system,
an antenna conver0n nsmissio
free-space radio waves that are emitt
line. At the transmit end of a
electromagnetuc
transmission line into
n c a l energy traveling along a w a v e s in space into ela
electromagnetic
Space. At the receive end, an
antenna converts al
energy on a transmission line.
line that consists conducting metalin tube
ot a
A Waveguide is a special type of transmission A waveguide is used to et.
energy is propagated. effi
through which high-frequency electromagnetic waves between
an antenna and a transceiver
Ciently interconnect high-frequency electromagnetic free space in the form of trans erse
Kadio waves are electrical energy that
has escaped into
the velocity of light and a
waves travel at approximately
electromagnetic waves. The escaped radio each other and at right angles to
at right angles to
comprised of magnetic and electric fields that are
the direction of travel. The plane parallel to the mutually
perpendicular lines of the electrie and mao.
netic fields is called the wavefront. The wave always travels in a direction at right angles to the wave.
front and may go forward or backward, depending on the relative direction of the lines of magnetic
and electric flux. If the direction of either the magnetic or the electric flux reverses, the direction of
travel is reversed. However, reversing both sets of flux has no effect on the direction of propagation.
All electrical circuits that carry alternating current radiate a certain amount of electrical energy
in the form of electromagnetic waves. However, the amount of energy radiated is negligible unless

the physical dimensions of the circuit approach the dimensions

of a wavelength of the wave. For
20 feet of separation between conductors radi-
example, a power line carrying 60-Hz current with
because a wavelength
at 60 Hz is over 3000 miles long. and 20 feet is
ates virtually no energy
insignificant in comparison. In comparison, an inductor (coil) I em long carrying a 6-GHz signal
will radiate a considerable amount of energy because I cm is comparable with the 5-cm wavelength.

15-2 BASIC ANTENNA OPERATION

From the previous discussion, it is apparent that the size of an antenna is inversely proportional o
frequency. A relatively small antenna can efficiently radiate high-frequency electromagnetic wave
while low-frequency waves require relatively large antennas. Every antenna has directional cnaia
teristics and radiate more energy in certain directions relative to other directions. Directon
characteristics of antennas are used to concentrate radiation in a desired direction or capture encie
arriving from a particular direction. wave
For an antenna to efficiently receive radio signals, it must abstract
energy from the rado he
as it passes by the receiving point. Electromagnetic wave reception occurs in an antennaln a because

electromagnetic flux or the wave cuts across the antenna conductor, inducing a voltage into
nto the
a that
ductor that varies with time in exactly the same manner as the current flowing in the ante
Tadiated the wave. The induced voltage, along with the current it that

antenna absorbs from the passing wave. produces, en represents

Electronic Communications Systems

608
 Voltage standing waves

i l l t t l i D ) :Radiated waves
Radiated
waves

a)
(b)

Radiated Radiated
a/4 N/2
waves waves

Ld

FGURE 15-1 Radiation frorm a transmission line: (a) transmission-line radiation; (b) spreadin9
conductors; (c) Marconi antenna; (d) Hertz antenna

Basic antenna operation is best understood by looking at the voltage standing-wave paterns On a

transmission line, which are shown in Figure 15-la. The transmission line is terminated in an open
Circuit, which represents an abrupt discontinuity to the incident voltage wave in the form of a phase rever-
Sal. The phase reversal results in some of the incident voltage being radiated, not reflected back toward
the source. The radiated energy propagates away from the antenna in the form of transverse electro-

extremely low. Radiation

magnetie waves. The radiation efficiency of an open transmission line is
efficiency is the ratio of radiated to reflected energy. To radiate more energy, simply spread the condue
tors farther apart. Such an antenna is called a dipole (meaning two poles) and is shown in Figure 15-1b.
In Figure 15-1c, the conductors are spread out in a straight line to a total length of one-quarter
(some-
wavelength. Such an antenna is called a basic quarter-wave antenna or a verticalmonopole
and is shown in
timés called a Marconi antenna). A half-wave dipole is called a Hertz
antenna

Figure 15-1d.
15-2-1 Antenna Equivalent Circuit
In radio communications systems, transmitters are connected to receivers through transmission lines,

antennas, and free space. Electromagnetie wave are coupled from transmit to receive antennas
is coupled from the primary to the
through free space in a manner similar to the way energy
secondary of a transformer. With antennas, however, the degree of coupling is much lower than with
wave is involved rather than just a magnetic wave. An antenna
a transformer, and an electromagnetic
with a four-terminal network as shown in Figure 15-2a.
coupling system can be represented
transferred from the transmitting antenna to free space and then
Electromagnetic energy must be
antenna. Figure 15-2c shows the equivalent circuit for a transmit
from free space to the receiving
antenna, and Figure
15-2c shows the equivalent circuit for a receive antenna.

15-3 ANTENNA RECIPROCITY

device-passive in that it cannot actually amplify a signal, at
A basic antenna is a passive reciprocal
of the word (however, you will see later in this chapter that an antenna can
least not in the true sense

609
Antennas and Waveguides
 0 (Reference) Major o° (Reference)
front
lobe

45° - A5° 45
Major
front
TObe
Line of Minor Minor
10 kM side side
6 kM shoot
-90 2 kM lobe
2W lobe
90° -90°
3 kM 4 kM 1 W
5W 3 uW
P = 10 uW/m 4 uW
Back
minor
Minor lobe
3Ide
-135 Tobe 135 135
-135

180° 180°

(a) (b)

0° 0
Major
front
lobe
-45° 45° I5
-45.

-3 dB
-3dB

8 dB dB dB
2 dB
90
90° - 90° 90
+8 dB|
10 dB 6 dB Minor
0 dB +4 dB
side
Minor lobe
side Minor
lobe back
lobe

135 135°
-135° 135

180° 180°
(c) (d)

FIGURE 154 Radiation patterns: (a) absolute (fixed power) radiation pattern; (b) relative (fixed distance) radiation patterm
[c) relative (fixed distance) radiation pattern in decibels; and (d) relative (fixed distance) radiation pattern in decibels for an
omnidirectional (point source) antenna

Recall from Chapter 9 that a true isotropic radiator radiates n-

power at a constant ra
formly in all directions. An ideal isotropic antenna also radiates all the power supplied to it. Isotropie
radiators do not exist, however, and they are used only for andanalytical descriptions compaid
154-3 Near and Far Fields
Xhe radiation field that is close to an antenna is not the same as the radiation field that is at a
,
great
distance. The term nearfield refers to the field pattern that is close to the antenna, and the tet n far

Electronic Communications Systems

612
 radiated
Jeld relers to the field onc-half of a cycle, power is
pattern that is at great distance. During second
ficld. During the
poweris stored temporarily in the
near
SOme ot the
a r or the cycle, power in the near field is returned to thec antenna. This action iS Simla
in
induction
which an
field
inductor
Do stores and releases energy. Thercfore, the ncar nficld is sometimes called the
to
never returned
outward and is
a reaches the far field continues to radiate
radiation field. Radiated power Usu-
is

n
the more e Tar field is sometimes called the
aly important of the two; therefore, antenna radiation patterns arcE hore ). is the vi
arneld. The near field is defined as the area within adistance D/ from theantenna,
wavelength and Dthe antenna diameter in the same units.
15-4-4 Radiation Resistance and Antenna
Efficency
it is converted to heat
and dissipated.
Supplied to an antenna is not radiated. Some of
D resistance is somewhat "unreal" in that it cannot be measured directly. Radiation
resistance
alanon antenna to the squar
1San ac antenna resistance and is equal to the ratio of the power radiated by the
of the current at its feedpoint. Mathematically, radiation resistance 1s

R,=Pnd (15-1)

where R, radiation resistance (ohms)

=

Pradpowerradiated by the antenna (watts)

i antenna current at the feedpoint (ampere)
Radiation resistance is the resistance that. ifit replaced the antenna, would dissipate exactly the samne
in
of an antenna as described
amount of power that the antenna radiates. The radiation resistance the
an arbitrary point on
Equation 15-1 is in a sense a fictitious quantity because it is referenced to
antenna hat would have different current values for different reference points. It is common prac-

or sometimes the current

tice, however, to refer the radiation resistance to the current maximum point
point, although in many cases the two points are one in the same.
at the feed
When referenced to the
radiation resistance because
Current maximum point, radiation resistance is sometimes called loop

a current maximum is also called a current loop.

Tt seems apparent that radiation resistance is at times rather nebulous concept as it is
a

not always easily measured. It is a useful concept only when it

is readily measurable and has no
current value to which it can be referenced.
meaning for antennas in which there is no clearly defined
radiated by an antenna to the sum of the power radi-
Apenna efficiency is the ratio of the power the antenna to the total input
and the power dissipated or the ratio of the power radiated by
ated
antenna efficiency is
power. Mathematically,

rad x100 (15-2a)

1n

where n = antenna efficiency (percentage)

radradiated power (watts)
rad
Pininputpower (watts)
PinPradPa

md x100
1 P+P (15-2b)
OI
rad

antenna (watts)
where Prad power radiated by
dissipated in antenna (watts)
P power
simplified electrical equivalent circuit for an antenna. Some of the
Figure 15-5 shows a

in the effective resIstance (ground resistance, corona, imperfect dielectrics.

input power is dissipated
and the remainder 1s radiated. The total antenna power is the sum of
eddy currents, and so on),

613
Antennas and Waveguides
 Dissipatod
power Radiated
power
R,
w-

FIGURE 15-5 Simplified equivalent circuit of an antenna

the dissipated and radiated powers. Therefore, in terms of resistance and current, antenna efficie
Is ciency
iR, R
1 (R, +R) R, +R (15-3)
where n =
antenna efficiency
antenna current (ampere)
R,= radiation resistance (ohms)
R. = effective antenna resistance (ohms)

15-5 ANTENNA GAIN

The terms directive gin and power gain are often misunderstood and, consequently, misused
Directive gain is the ratio of the power density radiated in a particular direction to the power density
radiated to the same point by a reference antenna, assuming both antennas are radiating the same
amount of power. The relative power density radiation pattern for an antenna is actually a directive
gain
pattern if the power density reference is taken from a standard reference antenna, which is generally an
isotropic antenna. The maximum directive gain is called directivity. Mathematically, directive gain is

D=
(15-4)
ref
where D =directive gain (unitless)
= power density at some point with a given antenna (watts per meter squared)
retpower density at the
same point with a reference antenna (watts per meter squared)
Power gain is the same as directive gain except that the total power fed to the antenna is used
(i.e., antenna efficiency is taken into account). It is assumed that the given antenna and the reference
antenna have the same input power and that the reference antenna is loss-less (n = 100¢).
Mathematically, powergain (A,)is
ApDn (15-5)
If antenna is lossless, it radiates 100%
an
of the input and the power is equal the
directive gain. The power gain for an antenna is given in power, gain
decibels as
ApaB) 10 log (Dn) (15-6)
For an isotropic reference, the power gain (dB)
It is usual to state the power in decibels when
of a half-wave dipole is approximately 1.64 (2.1 dB).
gain referring to a/2 dipole (dBd). However, if relc1
is made to an isotropic radiator, the decibel
figure is stated as dBi, or dB/isotropic radiator, and
dB greater than if a half-wave dipole were used for the is
reference. It is important to note that tne
Ower

614 Electronic Communications Systems

 a n antenna can never exceed the input power. Therefore, the antenna does not actualy
p y une input power. An antenna simply concentrates its radiated power in a particular direction.

nererore, points that

are located in
where
the radiated power is concentrated realize
Eaelaive to the power density at the same points had an isotropic antenna been used. If an apparci
areas
gain is rea
directo t o n , a corresponding reduction in power density a loss) must be realized in another
e o n . Ihe direction in which an antenna is pointing'" is always the direction of maximum radia
uon. because an antenna is a reciprocal device. its radiation pattern is also its reception pattern. ror

captured power, a receive antenna must be pointing in the direction from which reception is
desired. Therefore, receive antennas have directivity and power gain just as transmit antennas do.

15-5-1 Effective lsotropic Radiated Power

ectuve isotropic radiated power (EIRP) is defined as an equivalent transmit power and is expressed
mathematically as
EIRP = Prad D, (watts) (15-7a)
where Pradtotal radiated power (watts)
D,= transmit antenna directive gain (unitless)

or EIRP(dBm)=10log rad+101log D, (15-7b)

or EIRP(JBW) = 10 log (PradD) (15-7c)

Equation 15-7a can be rewritten using antenna input power and power gain as

EIRP PinA (15-7d)

where Pintotal antennainput power (watts)
A, = transmit antenna power gain (unitless)

or EIRP dBm=10log PA (15-7e)

(0.001,
EIRP<aBw, = 10 log (PinA,) (15-76)
EIRP or simply ERP (effective radiated power) is the equivalent power that an isotropic
antenna would have to radiate to achieve the same power density in the chosen direction at a given
For instance, if a given transit antenna has a power gain of 10, the power
point as another antenna.
the antenna is 10 times greater than it would have been had the antenna
density a given distance from
An isotropic antenna would have to radiate 10 times as much power to
been an isotropic radiator.
Therefore, the given antenna effectively radiates 10 times as much
achieve the same power density.
antenna with the same input power
and efficiency.
power as an isotropic distance R from a transmit antenna,
at a given point
To determine the power density
to include the transmit antenna gain and rewritten as
Equation 15-5 can be expanded
P=LinA

(15-8a)
4TtR

or in terms of
directive gain
(15-8b)
4TtR
(watts per meter squared)
where P =
power density
Pintransmit
antenna input power (watts)
antenna (watts)
radiated from transmit
Prad power
antenna power gain (unitless)
A,= transmit directive power gain (unitless)
transmit antenna
D, =

transmit antenna (meters)

R = distance from

615
Antennas and Waveguides
 Major lobe

0 dB

-3 d

Minor
FIGURE 15-8 Antenna beamwidth
back lobe

15-8 ANTENNA BEAMWIDTH

on
(-3 dB) points
the angular separation between the two half-power
lobe of an is
ne majorbeamwidth
nena simply
antenna's plane radiation pattern, usually taken in one of the "principaPai
15-8 is the angle Tormed
ne beamwidth for the antenna whose radiation pattern is shown in Figure at
(the power density
A, X, and B (angle 0). Points A and B are the half-power points
oesePpoints
points is one-half of what it is an equal distance from the antenna in the direction ot maxiimun
beamwiatn.

ddanon). Antenna beamwidth is sometimes called-3-dB beamwidth orhalf-power antenna,

Antenna gain is inversely proportional to beamwidth (i.e.,
the higher the gain ot an
well in all
antenna radiates equally
narrower the beamwidth). An omnidirectional (isotropic)
ne 360°. Typical antennas have
beamwidths
directions. Thus, it has a gain of unity and a beamwidth of
a beamwidth
microwave antennas to have
between 30° and 60°, and it is not uncommon for high-gain

as low as 1°.

15-9 ANTENNA BANDWIDTH

which antenna operation 1s
defined as the frequency range over
Antenna bandwiadth is vaguely between the half-power frequencies
taken as the difference
satisfactory." Bandwidth is normally but sometimes refers to varia-
lowest frequencies of operation)
(difference between the highest and of the
Antenna bandwidth is often expressed as percentage
a
tions in the antenna's input impedance.
antenna's optimum frequency of operation.

INPUT IMPEDANCE
15-10 ANTENNA flows to the
Radiation from an antenna is a direct
result of the flow of RF current. The current
which is connected to a small gap
between the conductors that
through a transmission line, called the
antenna transmissionline is connected is
The point on the antenna where the
make up the antenna.
The feedpoint presents an ac load to the
transmission
antenna input
terminal or simply thefeedpoint. and the antenna's
transmitter's output impedance
antenna impedance. If the
input
line called the impedance of the transmission line,
characteristic
there will be no

input impedance
are equal to the antenna and radiated.
the line, and
maximum power is transferred to the
waves on
standing
antenna's input voltage to input current.
input impedance is simply the ratio of the
Antenna
Mathematically,input
impedance is

(15-19)

where Zinantenna inputimpedance (ohms)

(volts)
E antenna input voltage
antenna input current (ampere)
,
621
Antennas and Waveguides
 Antenna input impedanee iS generally complex: however, if the feedpoint is at a current max
and there is no reactive componept, the input impedance is equal to the sum of of the
the radiation
resistance and the ellective resistance.
15-11 BASIC ANTENNA

15-11-1 Elementary Doublet

splest type of antenna is the The elementary doublet is an clectricall.
elementary doublet.
o e and is often referred to simply as a short dipole, clementary dipole, or Her shom
Cerically short means short compared with onc-half wavelength but not necessarily one
with a
nitorm current (generally, any dipole that is less than one-tenth wavelength long is considl
CIccuically short). In reality, an elementary doublet cannot be achieved; however, the concentdered
short dipole is useful in of a
An
understanding more practical antennas.
elementary doublet has uniform current throughout its length. However, the curren is
assumed to vary
sinusoidally in time and at any instant is
it) = I sin (27yft + )
where i(r) instantaneous current (amperes)
=

peak amplitude of the RF current (amperes)

=

f= frequency (hertz)
t
instantaneous time (seconds)
e phase angle (radians)
With the aid of
Maxwell's equations, it can be shown that the far (radiation) field is
607Tll sino
AR (15-20)
where 8 =
electric field
intensity (volts per meter)
I dipole current (amperes rms)
=

l= end-to-end
length of the dipole (meters)
R= distance from
a wavelength (meters)
the dipole (meters)
o angle between the axis of the antenna and the
Figure 15-9a direction of radiation as shown in

0
Elementary
doublet
45°
45

Top view

d=90°

90°-
90°

Side view
(Perpendicular to
the dipole axes)
-135
135°

(a)
(b)
EIGURE 15-9 (a) Elementary doublet; [b} relative radiation pattern
(top view

622 Electronic Communications Systems

 Plotting Equation 15-20 gives the relative clectric ficld intensity pattern for an elementary dipole,
which is shown in Figure 15-9b. It can be seen that radiation is maximum at right angles to the dipole
and falls off to zero at the ends.
substit
Equation 15-10 by substitung
2 1ve power density pattern can be derived from
P=E11207t. Mathematically, we
have
sin d (15-21)
P = 30Tt/"
R
15-12 HALF-WAVE DIPOLE
ne linear half-wave dipole is one of the most widely used antennas at frequencies adoveM
Cucncies below 2 MHz, the physical length of a half-wavelength antenna is prohibitive. The nair
was the tirst to
avC apole is
generally referred to as a Hertz antenna after Heinrich Hertz, who
demonstrate the existence of
electromagnetic waves.
long and
A lertz antenna is a That is. it is a multiple of quarter-wavelengths
resonant antenna.
pen circuited at the far end. Standine waves of voltage and current exist along a resonant antennd.
g r e l-10 shows the idealized voltage and current distributions along a half-wave dipole. Each po
there
n a looks as if it were an open quarter-wavelength
section oftransmission line. Thus,
maximum
and current
a
sin voltage maximum and current minimum at the ends and a voltage minimum
the middle. Consequently, assuming that the feedpoint is in the center of the antenna, the input
mpedance 1s Eminmax and a minimum value. The impedance at the ends of the antenna is Emaxmin

center-fed half-wave dipole. The

and a maXimum value. Figure 15-11 shows the impedance curvefor a
impedance varies from a maximum value at the ends of approximately 2500Q to a minimum valueat
tne feedpOint of approximately 73 Q (of which between 68 2 and 70 Q is the radiation resistance).
gain, and the radiation
For an ideal antenna, the is 100%,efficiency directivity equals power
resistance equals the input impedance (73); thus
120
D= A =-
radiation resistance

1201.667
72
(15-22)

10log 1.64 2.18 dB

and

FIGURE 15-10 ldealized voltage and current

-a/2- distributions along a halfwave dipole

max
Lmax

min

FIGURE 15-11 Impedance curve for a center-fed

-a/2 half-wave dipole

623
Antennas and Waveguides
 (a) (c)
(b)
FIGURE 15-19 Flat-top antenna loading

Over on top to form an L or T, as shown in Figure 15-19, the current loop will occur nearer i e

TOp of the radiator. If the flat top and vertical portions are each one-quarter wavelengtn 1ong

the current maximum will occur at the top of the vertical radiator.

15-15 ANTENNA ARRAYS

elements are combined to form a Single
ancnna
array 1s formed when two or more antenna
n 1 Ic
antenna. An antenna element is an individual radiator, such as a half- or quarter-wave dipO1E.
elements are physically placed in such a way that their radiation fields interact with each other, pro-
fields. The purpose of an array
ducing a total radiation pattern that is the vector sum of the individual smaller
1s to increase the directivity of an antenna system and concentrate the radiated power within a
geographic area. Driven
driven and parasitic (nondriven).
essence, there are two types of antenna elements:
In
from or are driven by the
elements are directly connected to the transmission line and receive power
source. Parasitic elements are not connected to the
transmission line; they receive energy only through
A parasitic element that is longer
mutual induction with a driven element or another parasitic element.
a reflector A reflector effectively
than the driven element from which it receives energy is called
opposite direction. Therefore, it
acts
it in the
reduces the signal strength in its direction and increases
the parasitic
as if it were a concave mirror. This
action occurs because the wave passing through
induced it. The induced
element induces a voltage that is reversed 180°
with respect to the wave that
the energy it just
and the element radiates (it actually reradiates
voltage produces an in-phase current, and reinforces in the other.
a field that cancels in one direction
received). The reradiated energy sets up element is called a director. A director
shorter than its associated driven
A parasitic element that is it acts as if
direction and reduces it in the opposite direction. Therefore,
increases field strength in its
lens. This is shown in Figure 15-20.
it were a convergent convex
increased in either the horizontal or vertical plane, depending on
Radiation directivity can be
not driven, the pattern depends on
elements and whether they are driven. If
the placement of the the relative phase
directors or reflectors. If driven, the pattern depends on
whether the elements are
of the feeds.

15-15-1 Broadside Array

It is made by simply placing sev-
of the simplest types of antenna arrays.
A broadside array is
one

size (both length and diameter) in parallel with

each other and in a
eral resonant dipoles of equal from the source. As the name implies, a
All elements are fed in phase same
straight line (collinear).
at right angles to the plane of the array
and radiates very little in the direc-
broadside array radiates driven half-wave
15-21a shows a broadside array that is comprised of four
tion of the plane. Figure the that is radiated from element 2 has
one-half wavelength. Therefore, signal
elements separated by
farther than the signal radiated from element 1 (i.e., they are radiated
traveled one-half wavelength additional 180° phase shift.
Crisscrossing the transmission line produces an
180° out of phase).
in all the elements phase,
are in and the radiated signals are in phase and
Therefore, the currents
to the plane of the array. Although the horizontal radiation pattern
additive in a plane at right angles

629
Antennas and Waveguides
 or more above the ground. The exact height
depends on the precise radiat:
wavelength
desired. Each set of elements acts as a transmission line terminated in 1ts characteristic im
nus, waves are radiated only in the forward direction. The terminating resistor absorhedance
pattern
maximuapproxi.
rhombic antenna hasa
has a
ely one-third of the total antenna input power. Therefore,
a

CIency of 67%. Gains of over 40 (16 dB) have been achieved with rhombic antennas. cffi.

15-16 SPECIAL-PURPOSE ANTENNAS

15-16-1 Folded Dipole

A two-wire folded dipole and its associated voltage standing-wave pattern are sho
Figure 15-24a. The folded dipole is essentially a single antenna made up of two elements. One
own

ment is fed directly, whereas theotherisconductively coupled atthe ends. Each element is one.ha
Wavelength long. However, because current can flow around corners, there is a full wavelenoth
Current on the antenna. Therefore, for the same input power, the input current will be one-half
of the basic half-wave dipole, and the input impedance is four times higher (4 X 72 = 288). Tho
input impedance of a folded dipole is equal to the half-wave impedance (/2 S2) times the
number of
Tolded wires squared. For example, if there are three dipoles, as shown in Figure 15-24b, the inmut
impedance is 3 x 72 648 Q. Another advantage of a folded dipole Over a basic half-wave
is wider dipole
bandwidth. The bandwidth can be increased even further by making the dipole
larger in diameter (such an antenna is appropriately called a fat dipole). However, fat elements
dipoles have
slightly different current distributions and input impedance characteristics than thin ones.
1516-1-1 Yagi-Uda antenna. Awidely used antenna that commonly uses a folded dipole as
the driven element is the Yagi-Uda antenna, named after two
described its operation. (The Japanese scientists who invented it and
Yagi-Uda generally is called simply Yagi.) A Yagi antenna is a linear
array consisting of a dipole
and two or more
parasitic elements: one reflector and one
tors. A
or more direc-
simple three-element Yagi is shown in Figure 15-25a. The driven element
is a half-wavelength
folded dipole. (This element is referred to as the driven element because it is connected to the trans-
mission line; however, it is generally used for
receiving only.) The reflector is a straight aluminum rod
approximately 5% longer than the dipole, and the director is cut approximately 5% shorter than the
driven element. The spacing between elements is
generally between 0.1 and 0.2 wavelength.
Figure 15-25b shows the radiation pattern for a Yagi antenna. The
typical directivity for a Yagi
between 7 dB and 9 dB. The bandwidth of the
Yagi can be increased by using more than one foldedis
dipole, each cut to a
slightly different length. Therefore, the Yagi antenna is
television reception because of its wide bandwidth (the VHF TV band extends commonly used for VHF
from 54 MHzto
216 MHz). Table 15-2 lists the element spacings for Yagi arrays with from
two to eight elements.

Feedpoint
3
(a) Feedpoint
(b)
FIGURE 15-24 (a) Folded dipole; [b) three-element folded dipole

632 Electronic Communications Systems

 Reflector
Director
0.1
0.2A
0.1-
0.2
0.55
.45

Feedpoint

2 driven
element
(a) (b)
FIGURE 15-25 Yagi-Uda antenna: (a) three-element Yagi; (b) radiatiorn patern

Table 15-2 Element Spacing for Yagi Arrays (Al Units in Wavelength, J

Element Number of Elements

7 8
Spacing 3 4 5 6

Reflector from
driven element 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18
Director 1 from
driven element 0.17 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.15
Director 2 from
director 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.21 0.22
Director 3 from
director 2 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.30
Director 4 from
director 0.28 0.28 0.29

Director 5 from
director 4 0.30 0.30
Director 6 from
director 5 0.35
Director 7 from
director 6

15-16-2 Turnstile Antenna

A turnstile antenna is formed by placing two dipoles at right angles to each other, 90° out of phase,

as shown in Figure
15-26a. The radiation pattern shown in Figure 15-26b is the sum of the radiation
which produces a nearly omnidirectional pattern. Turnstile antenna
patterns from the two dipoles,
common.
of 10 or more dB are
gains
15-16-3 Log-Periodic Antenna
called log periodics evolved from the initial work of
frequency-independent antennas
A class of
R. H. DuHamel, and D. E. Isbell at the University of Illinois in 1957.
VH. Rumsey, J. D. Dyson,
antennas is the
of log-periodic of their radiation
independence resistance and
The primary advantage bandwidth ratios of 10:1
Log-periodic antennas have orgreater. The
radiation pattern to frequency.
of the highest to the lowest frequency over which an antenna will satis-
handwidth ratio is the ratio
foctorily operate. The bandwidth ratio is often used rather than simply stating the percentage of the
Log periodics are not simply a type of antenna but rather a class
bandwidth to the center frequency.

633
Antennas and Waveguides
 60

Beamwidth

50 3

40

3 dB

30 0.3 Beamwidth

Gain

20 0.1
102 103 104 105

Antenna area
A/ (square wavelengths)
Note: Abscissa is actual antenna area, and actual
antenna gain is taken to be 3 dB below theoretical.

FIGURE 15-32 Antenna power gain and beamwidth relationship

microwave systems. By
used with point-to-point
antennas are
ighly directional (high gain) directed toward the receiving
antenna, the
beam that can be
Tocusing the radio energy into a
narrow Over
several orders of magnitude
antenna can increase the effective radiated power by
transmitting
antenna, in a manner
analogous to that of a telescope,
that of a nondirectional antenna. The receiving The most c o m m o n type
or
received by a similar amount.
can also increase the effective power
reflector.
transmission and reception is the parabolic
antenna used for microwave

Parabolic Reflector Antenna for

15-17-1 and directivity and are very popular
Parabolic reflector antennas provide extremely high gain antenna consists of two main parts:
communications links. A parabolic
microwave radio and satellite mechanism. In essence, the feed
mecha-
and the active element called the feed
a parabolic reflector which radiates electromagnetic
or a dipole array),
antenna (usually a dipole
nism houses the primary device that simply reflects the energy
radiated
reflector. The reflector is a passive
waves toward the directional emission in which the individual
mechanism into a concentrated, highly
by the feed wavefront).
with each other (an in-phase
waves are all in phase
reflector is probably the most basic compo
Parabolic reflectors. The parabolic
15-17-1-1 or dish; therefore, they
reflectors resemble the shape of a plate
antenna. Parabolic
nent of a parabolic antennas or simply dish
antennas. To understand how a para-
sometimes called parabolic dish A parabola is a
first understand the geometry of parabola.
are a
works, it is necessary to
bolic reflector a x and defined as the locus of a point
that moves
mathematically as y=
plane curve that
is expressed line
the focus) added to its distance from a straight
its distance from another point (called whose
so that 15-34 shows the geometry of a parabola
is of constant length. Figure
(called the directrix) XY
and whose axis is line
focus is at point F the following relationships exist:
shown in Figure 15-34,
For the parabola
BB' FC+ CC' k =
(a constant length)
FA +AA' FB +
=
=

and FX
focal length ofthe parabola (meters)
a constant
for a given parabola (meters)
k =

directrix length (meters)

WZ
639
Antennas and Waveguides
 20
Angle(degrees 10
0
350
340 Main l o b e s

30
0

main signal
330 20 down
from
Decibels

320

50

60
310

70

300
70
30
Side lobes
290
Side lobes

280

270
100
260

110
250

120
Back lobes
240

130
230
LITT
210 200 190 180 170 160 150 140
220

FIGURE 15-33 Main beam and side lobes for a typical parabolic antenna

led the
The ratio of the focal length to the diameter of the mouth of the parabola (FX/WZ) 1S c a l d
aperture ratio or simply aperture of the parabola; the same term is used to describe camera le
resulting
A parabolic reflector is obtai when the parabola is revolved around the XY axis. The
ad-
curved surface dish is called a paraboloid. The reflector behind the bulb of a flashlight ortne
lamp of an automobile has a paraboloid shape to concentrate the light in a particular directio
A parabolic antenna consists of a paraboloid reflector illuminated with microwave c nerey
d
radiated by a feed system located at the focus point. If electromagnetic energy is radiating to

Electronic Communications Systems

640
 C

Focus

Parabola

N FIGURE 15-34 Geometry of a parabola

ne parabolic reflector from the focus, all radiated waves will travel the same distance by the time

ney reach the directrix, regardless from which point on the parabola they are reflected. Thus, all
reach the directrix
when they
waves radiated toward the parabola from the focus will be in phase and
une Wz). Consequently, radiation is concentrated along the XY axis, cancellation takes place
all other directions. A paraboloid reflector used to receive electromagnetic energy exhibits exactily
the same behavior. Thus, a parabolic antenna exhibits the principle of reciprocity and works equally
well as a receive antenna for waves arriving from the XY direction (normal to the directrix). Rays
received from all other directions are canceled at that point.
or receive the
solid metal surface to efficiently reflect
Tt is not necessary that the dish have a
almost as much energy as a solid
Signals. The surface can be a mesh and still reflect or receive
a mesh rather than a
surface, provided the width of the openings is less than 0.1 wavelength. Using
solid conductor considerably reduces the weight of the reflector.
Mesh reflectors are also easier to
a much more stable structure.
adjust, are affected less by wind, and in general provide
15-17-1-2 Parabolic antenna beamwidth. The three-dimensional radiation from a para-

shape the of a fat cigar in direction XY. The

bolic reflector has a main lobe that resembles
antenna in degrees is given as
approximate -3-dB beamwidth for parabolic
a

70A
(15-28)
D

70c
(15-29)
D
or

where 6 = beamwidth between half-power points (degrees)

wavelength (meters)
c 3 X 10° meters per second
D = antenna mouth diameter (meters)
f= frequency (hertz)
o 20 (15-30)
and
the beamwidth between nulls in the radiation pattern (degrees). Equations 15-28
where o equals
are accurate when
used for antennas with large apertures (i.e., narrow beamwidths).
through 15-30
In a parabolic reflector, reflectance from the
15-17-1-3 Parabolic antenna efticiency ().
is not perfect. Therefore, a small portion of the signal radiated from the feed
Surface of the dish the edge of the dish does not
at the dish surface. In addition, energy near
mechanism is absorbed
around the edge of the dish. This is called spillover or leakage. Because
but rather is diffracted
reflect
only about S0% to 75% of the energy emitted from the feed
of dimensional imperfections,

641
Antennas and Waveguides
 mechanism is:actually reflected by the paraboloid. Also, in a real antenna the
he ffeed
mechan is
a point source; it occupies a finite area in front of the reflector and actually obscures a s n
the center of the dish and causes a shadow area in front of the antenna that is incapable of enall area in
ering or using energy. These imperfections contribute to a typical efficiency for either gath
antenna of only about 55% (m = 0.55). That is, only 55% of the energy radiated by the feedbolie para
anisim actually propagates forward in a concentrated beam.

15-17-1-4 Parabolic antenna power gain. For a transmit parabolic antenna, the r
is approximated as gain

4,- (15-31a)
wnere
Ap power gain with respect to an isotropic antenna (unitless)
D mouth diameter of parabolic reflector (meters)
n antenna efficiency (antenna radiated power relative to the power radiated by thefond
mechanism) (unitless)
A =

wavelength (meters per cycle)

For a typical antenna efficiency of 55% (n = 0.55), Equation 15-31a reduces to

A, 5.4D2
c2 (15-31b)
where c is the velocity of propagation (3 x 10$ m/s). In decibel form,
ApaB)20logfMH) + 20 log Dm)42.2 (15-31c)
where Appower gain with respect to an isotropic antenna (decibels)
mouth diameter of parabolic reflector (meters)
f=frequency (megahertz)
42.2 constant (decibels)
For an antenna efficiency of 100%, add 2.66 dB to the value computed with Equation 15-31c.
From Equations 15-3la, b, and c, it can be seen that the power gain of a parabolic antennas
inversely proportional to the wavelength squared. Consequently, the area (size) of the dish is an
important factor when designing parabolic antennas. Very often, the area of the reflector itself 1s
given in square wavelengths (sometimes called the electrical or effective area of the reflector). The
larger the area, the larger the ratio of the area to a wavelength and the higher the power gain.
For a receive parabolic antenna, the surface of the reflector is
again not completely ilhunu
nated, effectively reducing he area of the antenna. In a receiving parabolic antenna, the effective
area is called the capture area and is always less than the actual
mouth area. The capture ared
be calculated by comparing the power received with the
power density of the signal being receive
Capture area is expressed mathematically as

AkA (15-32)

where A= capture area (square meters)

A actual area (square meters)
k= aperture efficiency, a constant that is dependent on the type of antenna used and co
ration (approximately 0.55 for a paraboloid fed
by a half-wave dipole)
Therefore, the power gain for a receive parabolic antenna is

47TA4TtkA
A, (15-33a)

Electronic Communications Systems

642
 Radiation directions for parabolic
FIGURE 15-35
focal point outside the reflector:
reflectors: [a)
focal point inside the reflector
(a) (6) (b]

15-33a, the power gain

or a para-
Dubsatuting the area of the mouth of a paraboloid into Equation
as
approximated
bolic receive antenna with an efficiency n =0.55 can be closely

(15-33b)
,-5-4
where D = dish diameter (meters)
A= wavelength (meters per cycle)

ApiaB)10 log| 5.4 (15-33c)

In decibel form,

efficiency (or sometimes illumination efficiency).

The term kin Equation 15-32 is called aperture
radiator and the effect introduced
both the radiation pattern of the primary
Aperture efficiency considers This ratio is called aperture
focal length of the antenna to the reflector diameter (fID).
by the ratio ofthe which indirectiy determines
number determines the angular aperture of the reflector,
number Aperture 15-35 illustrates radiation
radiation is reflected by the parabolic dish. Figure
how much of the primary reflector and (b) when the focal
when the focal point is outside the
directions for parabolic reflectors (a)
reflector.
point is inside the Equation 15-31c and the receive antenna power gain
The transmit power gain using
calculated
samne results for a given antenna,
thus
15-33c will yield approximately the
calculated using Equation
of parabolic antennas.
proving the reciprocity shown in Figure 15-33 is typical for both
transmit and receive
The radiation pattern more than in
within the main lobe is approximately 75 dB
antennas. The power gain
parabolic than the maximum side lobe gain.
direction and almost 65 dB more
the backward

Example 15-4
reflector with 10 W of power radiated by the feed mechanism operating at 6 GHz
For a 2-m-diameter parabolic
of 55% and an aperture efficiency of 55%, determine
with a transmit antenna efficiency
a. Beamwidth.

b. Transmit power gain.

c. Receive power gain.
d. EIRP.
15-29:
Solution a. The beamwidth is found by substituting into Equation

70(3x10)=1.15°
(6x10')2)

643
Antennas and Waveguides
 15-3lc:
ne transmit power gain is found by substituting into Equation
42.2 39.4 dB
20 log 2
-

6000 +
Apdny20 log
15-33C:
he receive power gain is found by substituting into Equation
c(m/s) 3x 10* = 0.05 m/cycle
frequency(Hz) 6x 10"

1 0 1 0 - 339.4 dB
Ap(dB)
d. The EIRP is the product of the radiated power times the transmit antenna gain or, in decibels,

EIRP=Ap(dB) Tradiated (dBm)

=39.4+10log
0.001
= 39.4 dB+40dBm = 79.4 dBm

15-17-2 Feed Mechanisms

The feed mechanism in a parabolic antenna actually radiates the electromagnetic energy and. there
here-
fore, is often called the primary antenna. The feed mechanism is of primary importance becauseis
function is to radiate the
feed mechanism should direct
energy toward the reflector. An ideal
energy toward the parabolic reflector and have no shadow effect. In practice, this is impossibleto
allthe
accomplish, although if care is taken when designing the feed mechanism, most of the energy can
be radiated in the
proper direction, and the shadow effect can be minimized. There are three primary
types offeed mechanisms for parabolic antennas:centerfeed, horn feed, and Cassegrainfeed.
15-17-2-1 Center feed. Figure 15-36 shows a diagram for a center-fed paraboloid reflector
with an additional spherical reflecton The primary antenna is placed at the focus. Energy radiated
toward the reflector is reflected outward in a concentrated beam. However,
energy not reflected by
the paraboloid spreads in all directions and has the tendency of disrupting the overall radiation
pattern. The spherical reflector redirects such emissions back toward the parabolic reflector, where
they are rereflected in the proper direction. Although the additional spherical reflector helps
concentrate more energy in the desired direction, it also has a tendency to block some of the initial
reflections. Consequently, the good it accomplishes is somewhat offset by its own shadow effect, and
its overall performance is only marginally better than without the additional spherical reflector.

Paraboloid reflector

Spherical reflectoor

Primary antenna
Feed at focus
cable

FIGURE 15-36 Parabolic antenna with a center reu

Electronic Communications Systems

644
 7-2-2 Hornfeed. Figure 15-37a shows a diagram for a parabolic reflector using a hom
e d . With a horn-feed mechanism, the primary antenna isa smallhorn antenna rather thana simpig
poie o r dipole array. The horn is simply a flared piece of waveguide material that is placed a
TOCus and radiates a somewhat directional pattern towardtheparabolic reflector. When a propagating
electromagnetic field reaches the mouth of the horn, it continues to propagate in the same genera
and the wavetront
CLOn, eXcept that, in accordance with Huygens's principle, it spreads laterally,
eventually becomes spherical. The horn structure can have several different shapes, as show
* - 3 / b : sectoral (flaring only in one direction), pyramidal, or conical. As with the center Ieea,
c d presents somewhat of an obstruction to waves reflected from the parabolic dish.

Parabolic
dish

Horn
feed

(a)

Conical horn

Sectoral E-plane horn

Pyramidal horn

Sectoral H-plane horn

(6)
horn types
Parabolic antenna with a horn feed: (a) horn feed; (b) waveguide
FIGURE 15-37

645
Antennas and Waveguides
 The beamwidth of a plane containing the guide axis
horn in a Is inversely proportior
ional
formulas Ior the nai-power beamui.he
norn mouth dimension in that plane. Approximate idths of
optimum-flare horns in the E and H planes are
56A

d (15-34a)
56
(15-34h)
where eg= half-power E-plane beamwidth (degrees)
GH half-power H-plane beamwidth (degrees)
A= wavelength (meters)
dEE-plane moutlh dimension (meters)
da=H-plane mouth dimension (meters)
15-17-2-3Cassegrain feed. The Cassegrain feed is named after an 18th-century astron
onomer
and evolveddirectly from astronomical optical telescopes. Figure 15-38 shows the basic geometry
of a Cassegrain-feed mechanism. The primary radiating source islocated in or just behind a smai
opening at the vertex of the paraboloid rather than at the focus. The primary antenna is ainmed at
between the vertex and the focus.
Sd secondary reflector (Cassegrain subreflector) located
The rays emitted from the primary antenna are reflected from the Cassegrain subreflector and
then illuminate the main parabolic reflector just as if they had originated at the focus. The rays are
collimated by the parabolic reflector inthe same way as with the center- and horn-feed mechanisms,
The subreflector must have a hyperboloidal curvature to reflect the rays from the primary antenna in
such a way as to function as a virtual source at the paraboloidal focus. The Cassegrain feed is com
monly used for receiving extremely weak signals or when extremely long transmission lines or
waveguide runs are required and it is necessary to place low-noise preamplifiers as close to the
antenna as possible. With the Cassegrain feed, preamplifiers can be placed just before the feed mech-
anism and not be an obstruction to the reflected waves.

Paraboloid primary
reflector

In-phase
plane
Feed antenna (horn)
Obstructed ray
Focus of paraboloid
and hyperboloid
Waveguide Direction
of propagation

Hyperboloid
secondary reflector

FIGURE 15-38 Parabolic antenna with a Cassegrain feed

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646
 15-17-3 Conical Horn Antenna
A COnical horm antenna consists of a cone that is truncated in a piece of circular waveguide as shown
n igure 15-39. The waveguide in turn connects the antenna to either the transmitter or the receiver
it the horn itself is
used as the antenna, the cone angle 9 (sometimes called the flare angle) 1s made
approximately 50. In this case, the length of the truncated cone determines the antenna gain. When
a
horn is used as the feed mechanism for a parabolic dish,
conical the
angle and length
are
flare is when the mouth
d O r optimum illumination of the reflector. The simplest feed mechanism
of the conical horn is located at the focal point of the reflector.

15-18 WAVEGUIDES
Parallel-Wire transmission lines, including coaxial cables, cannot effectively propagate electromag-
netic energy above approximately 20 GHz because of the attenuation caused by skin effect and radi-
with
ation addition, parallel-wire transmission 1lines cannot be used to propagate signals
losses. In
dielectric separating the two
high powers because the high voltages associated with them cause the
conductors to break down. Consequently, parallel-wire transmission lines are impractical for many

optical fiber cables and

O r and microwave
applications. There are several alternatives, including
waveguides.
rectangular in cross
In its simplest form, waveguide is a hollow conductive tube, usually
a
section are selected such
section but sometimes circular or elliptical. The dimensions of the cross
(hence the name "wave-
that electromagnetic waves can propagate within the interior of the guide
rather serves as a boundary that
guide). A waveguide does not conduct current in the true sense but
conductors and, therefore, reflect
confines electromagnetic energy. The walls of the waveguide are
is a good conductor and very
electromagnetic energy from their surface. If the wall of the waveguide
little power is dissipated. In a
thin, little current flows in the interior walls, and, consequently, very
but rather through the
waveguide, conduction of energy occurs not in the walls of the waveguide
dielectric within the waveguide, which is usually dehydrated air or inert gas. In essence, a waveguide
interior removed. Electromagnetic energy propa-
is analogous to a metallic wire conductor with its
back and forth in a zigzag pattern.
gates down a waveguide by reflecting field
When discussing waveguide behavior, it is necessary to speak in terms of electromagnetic
and voltages for transmission
and magnetic fields) rather than currents as
concepts (i.e., electric the same order as the wavelength of the
of a waveguide must be on
lines. The cross-sectional area

Therefore, waveguides are generally restricted to frequencies above 1 GHz.

signal it propagating.
is

15-18-1 Rectangular Waveguide

are the most common form of waveguide. To understand how rectangular
Rectangular waveguides of from
waveguides work, it is necessary to understand the
basic behavior waves reflecting a con-

ducting surface.
free space as transverse electromagnetic (TEM)
Electromagnetic energy is propagated through
a direction of propagation that are mutually
waves with a magnetic
field, an electric field, and
wave to exist in a waveguide, it must satisfy Maxwell's equations
Derpendicular. For an electromagnetic
complex and beyond the intent of this book.
through the guide. Maxwell's equations necessarily
are

factor of Maxwell's equations is that a TEM wave cannot have a tangential component
However, a limiting
The wave cannot travel straight down a waveguide
at the walls of the waveguide.
of the electric field

FIGURE 15-39 Conical horn antenna

647
Antennas and Waveguides