Unit 1: Concept of assessment

1.1. Definition and meaning of screening, assessment, evaluation, testing and measurement.

1.2. Assessment for diagnosis and certification – intellectual assessment, achievement, aptit
ude and other psychological assessments.

1.3. Developmental assessment and educational assessment – entry level, formative and su
mmative assessments.

1.4. Formal and informal assessment – concept, meaning and role in educational.
settings. Standardised/Norm referenced tests (NRT) and teacher made/informal Criterion refe
renced testing (CRT).

1.5. Points to consider while assessing students with developmental disabilities.

1.1 Definition and meaning of screening, assessment, evaluation, testing and measureme
nt.

Assessment is a continuous process for understanding individual and programming required

services for him. It involves collection and organization of information for specifying and
verifying problems and for making decisions about a student.

The decision may include a wide spectrum ranging from screening and identification to the
evaluation of teaching plan.

The selection of assessment tools and methods vary depending on the purpose for the
assessment is carried out.

Wallace, Larsen, & Elkinson-1992 - “Assessment refers to the process of gathering and
analyzing information in order to make instructional, administrative, guidance decision for an
individuals.”

Why Assessment?

Taylor (1981) answers by explaining the stages of assessment

— Stage 1 – To screen and identify those students with potential problems.

— Stage 2 – To determine and evaluate the appropriate teaching programme and strategies for
particular student.

— Stage 3 – To determine the current level of functioning and educational needs of a student

Purpose of assessment
Any one who is involved in assessment process should know clearly the purpose for which he
is conducting the assessment. Knowing this is very important as it decides the type of
assessment tools and means of gathering information for decision making.

For example, if the purpose is only for screening and identification, we use a short screening
schedule, for programme planning we use a checklist which helps in assessing the current
performance level and selection of content for teaching.

There are many purposes of assessment. They are:

1. Initial screening and identification,

2. determination and evaluation of teaching programmes and strategies (pre-referral

intervention),

3. determination of current performance level and educational need,

4. decisions about classification and programme placement,

5. development of individual educational programmes (including goals, objectives and

evaluation procedures).

6. evaluation of the effectiveness of the Individualized Educational Programme.

Initial screening and identification

· The students who require special attention or special educational services are initially
identified through assessment procedures. The procedures involve either informal procedures
such as observation or error analysis or formal procedures such as achievement or intelligence
tests. In other words, assessment is used to identify the children who warrant further
evaluation.

· Assessment is also used to screen children who are considered to be “high risk” for
developing various problems. These children would not have yet developed deficiencies
requiring special education, but they do exhibit certain behaviours that suggest problems in
future. Identifying such children allows continuous monitoring of problem areas and designing
of stimulation programme if required to prevent the problem.

Assessment for initial identification purpose, therefore is used to identify individual who might
need further detailed assessment or who might develop problems in future. Further, it identifies
individuals who with some type of immediate remedial programme might be able to cope with
the problem.

Evaluation of teaching programme and strategies (pre-referral)

One of the important roles of assessment is to determine appropriate programme and
strategies. For this purpose, information is used in four ways.

• First, prior to the referring of a student to special education programme, it can assist
regular teacher in determining what to teach and the best method to teach.
 • Second, it serves as a method of evaluating the effectiveness of the particular teaching
programme or strategy. Many a time a formal referral for special education can be
avoided if assessment information is used in this way. That is assessment information
can be used to develop and evaluate pre-referral intervention programming. For
example, a student X is getting poor marks in subjects as he makes a lot of spelling
mistakes. Before making a formal referral to special education services, thinking that
the student may be learning disabled, the regular teacher may assess and analyze the
work product (spelling errors) of the student and provide a remediation programme. If
student shows progress, further referral to special education services can be avoided.
• Third, in determining appropriate programmes and strategies, assessment can provide
pre-referral information to document the need for a formal referral. As explained above,
if pre-referral intervention fails to remediate the spelling problem, then there is a need
for referring the student for special education programmes.
• Fourth, the pre-referral intervention information can be incorporated into the individual
education programme for student who are eligible for and who ultimately receive
special education.

Determining of current performance level and educational need

The assessment of current performance level of a student in subjects or skills is essential to
state the need for special education programme. This information helps the teacher or
examiner.

• to identify subject(s) or skill(s) that need special assistance.

• to identify strengths and weaknesses of students.
• to select appropriate strategies and procedures.

Decision about classification and programme placement: The assessment data is used for
classification and placement of students with special needs in appropriate special educational
programmes. Theoretically, individuals are classified to indicate similarities and relationships
among their educational problems and to provide nomenclature that facilitates communication
within the field (Taylor, 1993). Based on assessment information students are classified and
suitable placement decisions are made. For example, a 6 year old child who is diagnosed to
have mental retardation needs a placement in special education programme which provides
education to children with mental retardation.

Development of the Individualized Educational Programme: The most important use of

assessment information is to determine the goals and objectives, and strategies to teach
children who are identified to have special educational needs. As each individual child’s needs
are different, we have to plan educational programme that meets the needs. A systematically
planned individualized educational programme is a blueprint for teachers to follow.

Evaluation of the effectiveness of the Individualized Educational Programme: Evaluation

procedures are also specified in Individualized Educational Programme along with goals,
objectives, methods and materials. Using these procedures, the teacher has to periodically
monitor the progress made by the student. The monitoring of the programme gives feedback
(positive or negative) to both teacher and student. Based on the type of feed back, the teacher
either changes her plan or continues the same plan or select a new activity. For example, on
periodic evaluation if the child shows improvement, the teacher will continue with her plan, if no
improvement is shown she may have to make changes in IEP.
Assessment is a continuous process

Assessment

Assessment is a process by which information is obtained relative to some known objective or

goal. Assessment is a broad term that includes testing. A test is a special form of assessment.
Tests are assessments made under contrived circumstances especially so that they may be
administered. In other words, all tests are assessments, but not all assessments are tests. We
test at the end of a lesson or unit.

Assessment originated most recently of all of the terms, in 1956. It was, and is, used in
education jargon to mean “determination of value.”

We assess progress at the end of a school year through testing, and we assess verbal and
quantitative skills through such instruments as the SAT and GRE. Whether implicit or explicit,
assessment is most usefully connected to some goal or objective for which the assessment is
designed. A test or assessment yields information relative to an objective or goal. In that sense,
we test or assess to determine whether or not an objective or goal has been obtained.
Assessment of skill attainment is rather straightforward. Either the skill exists at some
acceptable level or it doesn’t. Skills are readily demonstrable. Assessment of understanding is
much more difficult and complex. Skills can be practiced; understandings cannot. We can
assess a person’s knowledge in a variety of ways, but there is always a leap, an inference that
we make about what a person does in relation to what it signifies about what he knows. In the
section on this site on behavioral verbs, to assess means To stipulate the conditions by which
the behavior specified in an objective may be ascertained. Such stipulations are usually in the
form of written descriptions.

Evaluation
Evaluation is perhaps the most complex and least understood of the terms. Inherent in the idea
of evaluation is "value." When we evaluate, what we are doing is engaging in some process that
is designed to provide information that will help us make a judgment about a given situation.

Evaluation originated in 1755, meaning “action of appraising or valuing.”

It is a technique by which we come to know at what extent the objectives are being achieved. It
is a decision making process which assists to make grade and ranking.

According to Barrow and Mc Gee: It is the process of education that involves collection of data
from the products which can be used for comparison with preconceived criteria to make
judgment.

Nature of Evaluation

· It is systematic process

· It is a continuous dynamic process Identifies strength and weakness of the program

· Involves variety of tests and techniques of measurement

· Emphasis on the major objective of an educational program

· Based upon the data obtained from the test

· It is a decision making process

Generally, any evaluation process requires information about the situation in question. A
situation is an umbrella term that takes into account such ideas as objectives, goals, standards,
procedures, and so on. When we evaluate, we are saying that the process will yield information
regarding the worthiness, appropriateness, goodness, validity, legality, etc., of something for
which a reliable measurement or assessment has been made. For example, I often ask my
students if they wanted to determine the temperature of the classroom they would need to get
a thermometer and take several readings at different spots, and perhaps average the readings.
That is simple measuring. Teachers, in particular, are constantly evaluating students, and such
evaluations are usually done in the context of comparisons between what was intended
(learning, progress, behavior) and what was obtained.

Test

A test or an examination (or "exam") is an assessment intended to measure a test-

takers knowledge, skill, aptitude, or classification in many other topics (e.g., beliefs). In
practice, a test may be administered orally, on paper, on a computer, or in a confined area that
requires a test taker to physically perform a set of skills. The basic component of a test is
an item, which is sometimes colloquially referred to as a "question." Nevertheless, not every
item is phrased as a question given that an item may be phrased as a true/false statement or
as a task that must be performed (in a performance test). In many formal standardized tests, a
test item is often retrievable from an item bank.
Test originated in the 1590s, meaning “trial or examination to determine the correctness of
something.”

According to Barrow and McGee: A test is a specific tool or procedure or a technique used to
obtained response from the students in order to gain information which provides the basis to
make judgment or evaluation regarding some characteristics such as fitness, skill, knowledge
and values.

Nature of Test

· The test is reliable

· The test is valid

· It is objective

· Must accomplish with norms

· Should not be expensive

· Less time consuming

· Must produce results and its implementation

· Its feasibility

· Must have educational values

Test may be called as tool, a question, set of question, an examination which use to measure a
particular characteristic of an individual or a group of individuals. It is something which
provides information regarding individual’s ability, knowledge, performance and achievement.
A test may vary in rigor and requirement. For example, in a closed book test, a test taker is
often required to rely upon memory to respond to specific items whereas in an open book test,
a test taker may use one or more supplementary tools such as a reference book or calculator
when responding to an item. A test may be administered formally or informally. An example of
an informal test would be a reading test administered by a parent to a child. An example of a
formal test would be a final examination administered by a teacher in a classroom or an I.Q.
test administered by a psychologist in a clinic. Formal testing often results in a grade or a test
score. A test score may be interpreted with regards to a norm or criterion, or occasionally both.
The norm may be established independently, or by statistical analysis of a large number of
participants. A formal test that is standardized is one that is administered and scored in a
consistent manner to ensure legal defensibility. A standardized test with important
consequences for the individual test taker is referred to as a high stakes test. Standardized
tests are often used in education, professional certification, counseling, psychology,
the military, and many other fields.

Examination

Examination originated in the 1610s, meaning “test of knowledge.”

Exams and tests are a great way to assess what the students have learned with regards to
particular subjects. Exams will show what part of the lesson each student seems to have taken
the most interest in and has remembered.

With every pupil being so individual, exams are also a great way for teachers to find out more
about the students themselves. The test environment comes with added stress, which allows
teachers to work out how their students argue and how they think individually by their works,
which is a great attribute for them to keep in mind for future class activities.

Measurement

Measurement refers to the process by which the attributes or dimensions of some physical
object are determined. One exception seems to be in the use of the word measure in
determining the IQ of a person. The phrase, "this test measures IQ" is commonly used.
Measuring such things as attitudes or preferences also applies. However, when we measure,
we generally use some standard instrument to determine how big, tall, heavy, voluminous, hot,
cold, fast, or straight something actually is.

It is the collection of information in numeric form It is the record of performance or the

information which is required to make judgment.

According to R.N. Patel: Measurement is an act or process that involves the assignment of
numerical values to whatever is being tested. So it involves the quantity of something.

Nature of Measurement

· It should be quantitative in nature

· It must be precise and accurate (instrument)

· It must be reliable

· It must be valid

· It must be objective in nature

Standard instruments refer to instruments such as rulers, scales, thermometers, pressure

gauges, etc. We measure to obtain information about what is. Such information may or may not
be useful, depending on the accuracy of the instruments we use, and our skill at using them.
There are few such instruments in the social sciences that approach the validity and reliability
of say a 12" ruler. We measure how big a classroom is in terms of square feet, we measure the
temperature of the room by using a thermometer, and we use Ohm meters to determine the
voltage, amperage, and resistance in a circuit. In all of these examples, we are not assessing
anything; we are simply collecting information relative to some established rule or standard.
Assessment is therefore quite different from measurement, and has uses that suggest very
different purposes. When used in a learning objective, the definition provided on the ADPRIMA
for the behavioral verb measure is: To apply a standard scale or measuring device to an object,
series of objects, events, or conditions, according to practices accepted by those who are
skilled in the use of the device or scale.
To sum up, we measure distance, we assess learning, and we evaluate results in terms of some
set of criteria. These three terms are certainly connected, but it is useful to think of them as
separate but connected ideas and processes.

1.2 Assessment for diagnosis and certification – intellectual assessment, achievement, a

ptitude and other psychological assessments.

Assessment is a process of collecting data for the purpose of making decisions. Assessment
provides us with baseline information for intervention, whereas the evaluation is the
assessment of outcome of an intervention. In clinical practice, therefore, we need both
assessment and evaluation methods. The purpose of the assessment is as follows:

a. To identify the condition based on specific criteria and to establish that it is a clinical entity
that requires appropriate mental health services and placement decisions

b. To identify and treat etiological factors and risk factors for ID

c. To identify the needs implicated by the condition and design a program plan to reduce the
disability impact

d. To match the nature and needs of the conditions effectively with the best intervention
methods available

e. To evaluate the effectiveness of intervention.

Psychological Assessments or Psychological Tests are verbal or written tests formed to

evaluate a person’s behaviour. Many types of Psychological tests help people understand
various dynamics of the human being. It helps us understand why someone is good at
something, while the other is good at another. However, Humans are complex beings which
can’t be defined and classified under certain branches. The subjective nature of humans and
individual differences has quite often raised criticism in psychological testing.

The classification of the types of psychological tests is as follows:

• As per the nature of psychological tests in terms of standardized and non-testing method
of testing
• As per the functions of psychological tests such as intelligence tests, personality tests,
interest inventories, aptitude tests, etc.

Intellectual assessment has changed a great deal in the twentieth century. It has moved from
assessments based on language and speech patterns to sensory discrimination, with most
early assessments being for the mentally deficient. Gradually, the assessment instruments
developed into the precursors of the standardized instruments used in the 1990s, which
measure more complex cognitive tasks for all levels of cognitive ability. The most commonly
used tests, the Wechsler scales, were not developed out of theory, but were guided rather by
clinical experience. In the progression of test development, the relative alternates to the
Wechsler have been more theory-based. The direction in test development in the 1990s seems
to be continuing to lead to theory being at the base of intelligence tests, instead of being just
purely clinically driven. Psychometric theories and neurological theories are growing as the
basis for new instruments. However, despite this proliferation of new theory-driven tests, there
is a definite conservatism that holds on to the past, reluctant to let Wechsler tests be truly
rivaled. Part of this hold on the past is research-based and part is clinically-based. Because the
Wechsler tests have been reigning supreme for so long, there has been a mountain of research
studies using the Wechsler scales. Thus, clinicians have a good empirical basis to form their
understanding of what a specific Wechsler profile may be indicating. Clinically, psychologists
are also quite comfortable and familiar with the Wechsler scales. A good clinician who has
done many assessments may be familiar enough with every nook and cranny of the WAIS-R to
barely need the manual to administer it. Thus, the field so far has changed relatively slowly.
Computer based technology is likely going to ultimately shape the field of assessment by 2020.
Computer scoring programs and computer assisted reports are already in use, and the future is
likely to include a much greater progression of technologically advanced instruments for
assessing intelligence.

Here are the major types of intelligence tests:

• Wechsler Individual Achievement Test

• Woodcock Johnson III Tests of Cognitive Disabilities
• Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
• Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
• Peabody Individual Achievement Test
• Universal Nonverbal Intelligence
• Differential Ability Scales

Achievement tests are used to assess a test-taker’s knowledge in certain academic areas.
Considering the word achievement, that is precisely what these kinds of test measure. An
achievement test will measure a student's achievement or mastery of content, skill or general
academic knowledge.

An achievement test measures how an individual has learned over time and what the individual
has learned by analyzing his present performance. It also measures how a person understands
and masters a particular knowledge area at the present time. With this test, you can analyze
just how quick and precise an individual is in performing the tasks that they consider an
accomplishment.

An achievement test is an excellent choice to analyze and evaluate the academic performance
of an individual.

For instance, every school requires its students to show their proficiency in a variety of
subjects.

In most cases, the students are expected to pass to some degree to move to the next class. An
achievement test will record and evaluate the performance of these students to determine how
well they are performing against the standard.

The primary aim of an achievement test is to evaluate an individual. An achievement test

however can start an action plan.

An individual may get a higher achievement score that shows that the person has shown a high
level of mastery and is ready for an advanced level of instruction. On the other hand, a low
achievement score might indicate that there are concerned areas that an individual should
improve on, or that a particular subject should be repeated.
For example, a student can decide to start a study plan because of the result of an achievement
test. So it can serve as a motivation to improve or an indicator to proceed to a higher level. An
achievement test is used in both the educational sector and in the professional sector.

Aptitude test, examination that attempts to determine and measure a person’s ability to
acquire, through future training, some specific set of skills (intellectual, motor, and so on). The
tests assume that people differ in their special abilities and that these differences can be
useful in predicting future achievements.

General, or multiple, aptitude tests are similar to intelligence tests in that they measure a broad
spectrum of abilities (e.g., verbal comprehension, general reasoning, numerical operations,
perceptual speed, or mechanical knowledge). The Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) and
the American College Testing Exam (ACT) are examples of group tests commonly used in the
United States to gauge general academic ability; in France the International Baccalaureate
exam (le bac) is taken by secondary-school students. Such tests yield a profile of scores rather
than a single IQ and are widely used in educational and vocational counseling. Aptitude tests
also have been developed to measure professional potential (e.g., legal or medical) and special
abilities (e.g., clerical or mechanical). The Differential Aptitude Test (DAT) measures specific
abilities such as clerical speed and mechanical reasoning as well as general academic ability.

People encounter a variety of aptitude tests throughout their personal and professional lives,
often starting while they are children going to school.

Here are a few examples of common aptitude tests:

• A test assessing an individual's aptitude to become a fighter pilot

• A career test evaluating a person's capability to work as an air traffic controller
• An aptitude test is given to high school students to determine which type of careers they
might be good at
• A computer programming test to determine how a job candidate might solve different
hypothetical problems
• A test designed to test a person's physical abilities needed for a particular job such as a
police officer or firefighter
1.3 Developmental assessment and educational assessment – entry level, formative and
summative assessments.

Entry level Assessment

The assessment of entry-level students' academic literacy: does it matter? In Higher Education
both nationally and internationally, the need to assess incoming students' readiness to cope
with the typical reading and writing demands they will face in the language-of-instruction of
their desired place of study is (almost) common cause. This readiness to cope with reading
and writing demands in a generic sense is at the heart of what is meant by notions of academic
literacy. 'Academic literacy' suggests, at least, that entry-level students possess some basic
understanding of – or capacity to acquire an understanding of – what it means to read for
meaning and argument; to pay attention to the structure and organization of text; to be active
and critical readers; and to formulate written responses to academic tasks that are
characterized by logical organization, coherence and precision of expression.

Formative Assessment

Formative assessment provides feedback and information during the instructional process,
while learning is taking place, and while learning is occurring. Formative assessment measures
student progress but it can also assess your own progress as an instructor. For example, when
implementing a new activity in class, you can, through observation and/or surveying the
students, determine whether or not the activity should be used again (or modified). A primary
focus of formative assessment is to identify areas that may need improvement. These
assessments typically are not graded and act as a gauge to students’ learning progress and to
determine teaching effectiveness (implementing appropriate methods and activities).

In another example, at the end of the third week of the semester, you can informally ask
students questions which might be on a future exam to see if they truly understand the
material. An exciting and efficient way to survey students’ grasp of knowledge is through the
use of clickers. Clickers are interactive devices which can be used to assess students’ current
knowledge on specific content. For example, after polling students you see that a large number
of students did not correctly answer a question or seem confused about some particular
content. At this point in the course you may need to go back and review that material or present
it in such a way to make it more understandable to the students. This formative assessment
has allowed you to “rethink” and then “redeliver” that material to ensure students are on track. It
is good practice to incorporate this type of assessment to “test” students’ knowledge before
expecting all of them to do well on an examination.

Types of Formative Assessment

· Observations during in-class activities; of students non-verbal feedback during lecture

· Homework exercises as review for exams and class discussions)

· Reflections journals that are reviewed periodically during the semester

· Question and answer sessions, both formal—planned and informal—spontaneous

· Conferences between the instructor and student at various points in the semester

· In-class activities where students informally present their results

· Student feedback collected by periodically answering specific question about the

instruction and their self-evaluation of performance and progress

More specifically, formative assessments:

· help students identify their strengths and weaknesses and target areas that need work

· help faculty recognize where students are struggling and address problems immediately
Formative assessments are generally low stakes, which means that they have low or no point
value. Examples of formative assessments include asking students to:

· draw a concept map in class to represent their understanding of a topic

· submit one or two sentences identifying the main point of a lecture

· turn in a research proposal for early feedback

Summative Assessment

Summative Assessments are given periodically to determine at a particular point in time what
students know and do not know. Many associate summative assessments only with
standardized tests such as state assessments, but they are also used at and are an important
part of district and classroom programs. Summative assessment at the district and classroom
level is an accountability measure that is generally used as part of the grading process.

Summative assessment is more product-oriented and assesses the final product, whereas
formative assessment focuses on the process toward completing the product. Once the
project is completed, no further revisions can be made. If, however, students are allowed to
make revisions, the assessment becomes formative, where students can take advantage of the
opportunity to improve.

Types of Summative Assessment

· Examinations (major, high-stakes exams)

· Final examination (a truly summative assessment)

· Term papers (drafts submitted throughout the semester would be a formative

assessment)

· Projects (project phases submitted at various completion points could be formatively

assessed)

· Portfolios (could also be assessed during it’s development as a formative assessment)

· Performances

· Student evaluation of the course (teaching effectiveness)

· Instructor self-evaluation

Summative assessments are often high stakes, which means that they have a high point value.
Examples of summative assessments include:

· a midterm exam

· a final project
· a paper

· a senior recital

Difference between Formative & Summative Evaluation

AREAS FORMATIVE SUMMATIVE

DEFINITION To monitor learning progress during To assess learning progress at the end of
instruction. teaching.
NATURE Ongoing, continuous At the end of the instructional process.
PURPOSE Feedback to the Teacher and Assigning Grades, & Extent of achievement
Students of jobs.
TYPE OF TESTS Teacher made tests & Rating scale & Evaluation of Projects
Observational techniques.
USE TO STUDENTS a) Information for modifying a) Certifying pupil’s mastery of the
instruction. learning outcome.

b) Prescribing group of b) Assigning grades.

individual remedial work.
USE TO TEACHER a) Information for modifying a) Judging the appropriateness of the
instruction. course objectives.

b) Prescribing group of b) Effectiveness of the instruction.

individual remedial work.
STUDENT- TEACHER Daily continuous interaction. Delayed instruction.
RELATIONSHIP
FUNCTION Guiding the development process. Making an overall assessment.
EXAMPLES Oral questions and observation. Terminal Exams. Unit tests. Project
Evaluation. Teacher- aid evaluation.

1.4 Formal and informal assessment – concept, meaning and role in educational.
settings. Standardised/Norm referenced tests (NRT) and teacher made/informal Criterion refe
renced testing (CRT).

Formal assessments have data which support the conclusions made from the test. We usually
refer to these types of tests as standardized measures. These tests have been tried before on
students and have statistics which support the conclusion such as the student is reading below
average for his age. The data is mathematically computed and summarized. Scores such as
percentiles, stanines, or standard scores are mostly commonly given from this type of
assessment.

Informal assessments are not data driven but rather content and performance driven. For
example, running records are informal assessments because they indicate how well a student
is reading a specific book. Scores such as 10 correct out of 15, percent of words read correctly,
and most rubric scores are given from this type of assessment.
The assessment used needs to match the purpose of assessing. Formal or standardized
measures should be used to assess overall achievement, to compare a student's performance
with others at their age or grade, or to identify comparable strengths and weaknesses with
peers. Informal assessments sometimes referred to as criterion referenced measures or
performance based measures, should be used to inform instruction.

The most effective teaching is based on identifying performance objectives, instructing

according to these objectives, and then assessing these performance objectives. Moreover, for
any objectives not attained, intervention activities to re-teach these objectives are necessary

Norm Referenced Assessment

Norm Referenced Assessment or Norm Referenced Testing (NRT) is the more traditional
approach to assessment. These tests and measurement procedures involve test materials that
are standardized on a sample population and are used to identify the test takers ability relative
to others. It is also known as formal assessment.

Norm referenced assessment is defined as a procedure for collecting data using a device that
has been standardized on a large sample population for a specific purpose. Every standardized
assessment instrument will have certain directions that must be followed. These direction
specify the procedure for administering the test and ways to analyze and interpret the results
and reporting them. Examples of the more commonly known formal assessment devices are
the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for children – Revised (WISC-R), The Illinois Test of
Psycholinguistic Ability (ITPA), The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test and the Peabody Picture
Vocabulary Test – Revised (PPVT-R) and Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT).

Advantages of norm-referenced assessment

Norm referenced tests are widely used in special and remedial education for many reasons.

— First, the decision of categorizing the children as exceptional or special is mainly based on
the test results of NRTs.

— Second, it is easy to communicate test results to parents and others unfamiliar with tests.

— Third, norm-referenced tests have received the most attention in terms of technical data and
research. They are specifically useful in problem identification and screening.

Disadvantages of norm-referenced assessment

The use of norm referenced tests data for the purpose of educational programming is
questioned in many instances for the following reasons.

— Information obtained from norm-referenced testing is too general to be useful in everyday

classroom teaching. Many educators disregard the prognosis and interpretative types of data
provided by standardized tests because the information is often not directly applicable to
developing daily teaching activities or interventions. What does knowing a child’s WISC-R score
or grade equivalent in reading specifically tell a teacher about what and how to teach? For
instance, what is important is to know whether the child needs to learn initial consonants or is
he having difficulty with comprehension.
— NRTs tend to promote and reinforce the belief that the focus of the problem is within the
child. It is because the primary purpose of NRTs is to compare one student with another.
However, although a child may differ from the norm, the real problem may not be within the
child but in the teaching, placement or curriculum. Educators must begin to assess teacher
behaviours, curriculum content, sequencing and other variables not measured by norm
referenced tests.

Criterion-referenced assessment (CRTs)

Criterion-referenced assessment is concerned with whether a child is able to perform a skill as
per the criteria set, or not. In contrast to norm referenced assessment, which compares one
persons performance to others, criterion referenced assessment compares the performance of
an individual to the pre-established criteria. In criterion-referenced test, the skills within a
subject are hierarchically arranged so that those that must be learned first are tested first. In
maths, for example addition skills would be evaluated (and taught) before multiplication skills.
These tests are usually criterion referenced because a student must achieve competence at
one level before being taught at a higher level.

Advantages of criterion referenced assessment

The criterion-referenced test results are useful:

— to identify specific skills that need intervention.

— to determine the next most logical skill to teach as the implications for teaching are more
direct with criterion referenced tests.

— to conduct formative evaluation, that is, the performance of the student is recorded regularly
or daily when the skills are being taught.

This makes it possible to note the student progress, to determine if intervention is effective and
to help decide the next skill to be taught if achieved, if not to decide what other strategies or
methods and materials are to be used for teaching.

Disadvantages of criterion-referenced assessment

— Establishing the passing criteria for a specific skill is a problem in criterion-referenced

testing. For example, if a test were needed to determine, whether student had mastered high
school mathematics, there is a problem of determining exactly which skills should be included
in the test. Further, should a student pass the test if 90% of the questions are answered
correctly or only if 100% are correct? These decisions must be carefully considered, because
setting inappropriate criteria may cause a student to struggle unnecessarily with a concept.

— It is difficult to decide exactly which skills should be included in the test.

— There is also a problem that the skills assessed may become the goals of instruction rather
than selecting the skills that the child should know. Due to this, the teachers may narrow down
their instruction and teach in accordance with what is measured on the test rather than what is
truly required for the child to know.

Curriculum-Based Assessment (CBA)

The concept of curriculum based assessment is not new and has been employed for a number
of years. CBA has been developed as a means to cope with low-achievers and children with
special needs in regular schools. Further, it fits into the non-categorical model that is
assessment is focused on testing curriculum-based skills and not on testing for labeling
purpose.

The CBA aims to identify children’s educational needs and the most appropriate forms of
provision to meet those needs. Sality and Bell (1987) describes educational needs as
“behaviours which a person lacks which are necessary in order to function effectively and
independently both in the present and in the future”.

The starting point for conducting CBA is the child’s classroom. It is the suitability of this
environment and the child’s interaction with it that is assessed and not the child.

Definition:
CBA has been defined by Blankenship and Lilly (1981) (quoted in Sality and Bell, 1987; pg.35)
as the practice of obtaining direct and frequent measures of a student’s performance on a
series of sequentially arranged objectives derived from the curriculum used in the classroom.
It helps in finding out the current level of a student in terms of the expected curricular
outcomes of the school. In other words, assessment instrument is based on the contents of
the student curriculum. Some types of CBA are informal, while others are more formal and
standardized.

Procedure followed in developing CBA

• The first stage in the process requires that the curriculum be defined as series of tasks
which are sequenced and expressed in the form of behavioural objectives.
• Placement in the curriculum helps to identify which skills have been learned and those
which need to be taught in the future. It pinpoint exactly where a child is on the
curriculum.
• Selection of suitable teaching methods, materials and patterns of classroom organization
for teaching.
• Evaluating children’s progress – relates to the selection of teaching methods, patterns of
classroom organization and choice of curriculum.
• Curriculum Based Assessment can therefore, be seen as a procedure which sets up
situations where links are established between various teaching approaches and pupil
progress.
Teacher Made Test (TMT)

A teacher-made test is an alternative to a standardized test, written by the instructor in order to

measure student comprehension.

Teacher-made tests are considered most effective when they are implemented as part of the
education process, rather than after the fact.

Distinctions between Criterion-referenced and Norm-referenced testing

DIMENSION CRITERION REFERENCED NORM REFERENCED

PURPOSE To determine whether each student has To rank each student with respect to the
achieved specific skills or concepts. achievement of others in broad areas of
knowledge.
To find out how much students know before
instruction begins and after it has finished. To discriminate between high and low
achievers.

CONTENT Measures specific skills which make up a Measures broad skill areas sampled from a
designated curriculum. These skills are variety of textbooks, syllabi, and the
identified by teachers and curriculum judgments of curriculum experts.
experts.

Each skill is expressed as an instructional

objective.
ITEM Each skill is tested by at least four items in Each skill is usually tested by less than four
CHARACTERSTICES order to obtain an adequate sample of items.
student
performance and to minimize the effect of Items vary in difficulty.
guessing.
Items are selected that discriminate between
The items which test any given skill are high
parallel in difficulty and low achievers.

SCRE Each individual is compared with a preset Each individual is compared with other
INTERPRETATION standard for acceptable achievement. The examinees and assigned a score--usually
performance of other examinees is expressed as a percentile, a grade equivalent
irrelevant. score, or a stanine.

A student's score is usually expressed as a Student achievement is reported for broad

percentage. skill areas, although some norm-referenced
 Student achievement is reported for tests do report student achievement for
individual skills. individual skills.

1.5 Points to consider while assessing students with developmental disabilities.

Assessing students with learning disabilities can be challenging. Some students, such as those
with ADHD and autism, struggle with testing situations and cannot remain at a task long
enough to complete such assessments. But assessments are important; they provide the child
with an opportunity to demonstrate knowledge, skill, and understanding. For most learners with
exceptionalities, a paper-and-pencil task should be at the bottom of the list of assessment
strategies. Below are some alternate suggestions that support and enhance the assessment of
learning disabled students.

To obtain a comprehensive set of quantitative and qualitative data, accurate and useful
information about an individual student's status and needs must be derived from a variety of
assessment instruments and procedures including RTI data, if available. A comprehensive
assessment and evaluation should

1. Use a valid and the most current version of any standardized assessment.

2. Use multiple measures, including both standardized and nonstandardized assessments,

and other data sources, such as

o case history and interviews with parents, educators, related professionals, and the student
(if appropriate);

o evaluations and information provided by parents;

o direct observations that yield informal (e.g., anecdotal reports) or data-based information
(e.g., frequency recordings) in multiple settings and on more than one occasion;

o standardized tests that are reliable and valid, as well as culturally, linguistically,
developmentally, and age appropriate;

o curriculum-based assessments, task and error pattern analysis (e.g., miscue analysis),
portfolios, diagnostic teaching, and other nonstandardized approaches;

o continuous progress monitoring repeated during instruction and over time.

3. Consider all components of the definition of specific learning disabilities in IDEA 2004
and/or its regulations, including

o exclusionary factors;

o inclusionary factors;
o the eight areas of specific learning disabilities (i.e., oral expression, listening
comprehension, written expression, basic reading skill, reading comprehension, reading
fluency, mathematics calculation, mathematics problem solving);

o the intra-individual differences in a student, as demonstrated by "a pattern of strengths and

weaknesses in performance, achievement, or both relative to age, State-approved grade level
standards or intellectual development" 34 CFR 300.309(a)(2)(ii).

4. Examine functioning and/or ability levels across domains of motor, sensory, cognitive,
communication, and behavior, including specific areas of cognitive and integrative difficulties
in perception; memory; attention; sequencing; motor planning and coordination; and thinking,
reasoning, and organization.

5. Adhere to the accepted and recommended procedures for administration, scoring, and
reporting of standardized measures. Express results that maximize comparability across
measures (i.e., standard scores). Age or grade equivalents are not appropriate to report.

6. Provide confidence interval and standard error of measure, if available.

7. Integrate the standardized and informal data collected.

8. Balance and discuss the information gathered from both standardized and
nonstandardized data, which describes the student's current level of academic performance
and functional skills and informs decisions about identification, eligibility, services, and
instructional planning.

Role of special educator in assessment

Unit 2: Role of special educator in assessment

2.1. Screening tools – scope and importance in educational settings and tools used

2.2. Formal assessments carried out by special educator - curriculum based

assessments, educational evaluations, term end evaluations.

2.3. Informal assessment carried out by the teachers – Assessment for planning
Individualised educational Programmes (IEPs), Teacher made and criterion referenced tests
in different curricular domains.

2.4. Assessment of students who need high supports/having severe disabilities.

2.5. Teacher competencies and role of special education teacher in assessment in

different settings.

2.1 Screening tools – scope and importance in educational settings and tools used
Screening is a brief, simple procedure used to identify infants and young children who may be
at risk for potential health, developmental, or social-emotional problems. It identifies children
who may need a health assessment, diagnostic assessment, or educational evaluation.

"Screening" means using a standardized instrument (either parent questionnaire or an

observational) that has been validated by research to learn more about the child's
development. Using a standardized instrument is much more effective for identifying real
concerns or delays than just using professional judgment or informal questions about the
child's development.

• Is used for the early identification of individuals at potentially high risk for a specific
condition or disorder
• Can indicate a need for further evaluation or preliminary intervention
• Is generally brief and narrow in scope
• May be administered as part of a routine clinical visit
• Is used to monitor treatment progress, outcome, or change in symptoms over time
• May be administered by clinicians, support staff with appropriate training, an electronic
device (such as a computer), or self‐administered
• Support staff follow an established protocol for scoring with a pre‐established cut‐off
score and guidelines for individuals that score positive.
• Is neither definitively diagnostic nor a definitive indication of a specific condition or
disorder

Screening helps identify children who need more evaluation and address concerns early before
they become bigger problems.

Screening provides an opportunity for young children and their families to access a wide variety
of services and early childhood programs, and promotes and supports parents' understanding
of their child's health, development, and learning.

Developmental screening

Developmental screening is early identification of children at risk for cognitive, motor,

communication, or social-emotional delays. These are delays that may interfere with expected
growth, learning, and development and may warrant further diagnosis, assessment, and
evaluation.

Developmental screening instruments include the domains of:

• cognition
• fine and gross motor skills
• speech and language
• social-emotional development

Social-emotional screening

Social-emotional screening is a component of developmental screening of young children that

focuses on a child's ability to:
 • Express and regulate emotions
• Form close and secure relationships
• Explore his/her environment and learn

Separate social-emotional screening is needed for young children, since it is not adequately
addressed in general developmental screening instruments. For children under age 6 years,
social-emotional screening is synonymous with mental health screening.

Mental health screening

Mental health screening is the early identification of children at risk for possible mental health
disorders that may interfere with expected growth, learning, and development and may warrant
further diagnosis, assessment, and evaluation.
2.2 Formal assessments carried out by special educator - curriculum based
assessments, educational evaluations, term end evaluations.

The professional involved in special education in today’s schools plays a very critical role in the
overall education of students with all types of disabilities. The special educator’s position is
unique in that he or she can play many different roles in the educational environment. Whatever
their role, special educators encounter a variety of situations that require practical decisions
and relevant suggestions. No matter which type of professional you become in the field of
special education, it is always necessary to fully understand the assessment process and to be
able to clearly communicate vital information to professionals, parents, and students.
CBA entails measurement that uses “direct observation and recording of a student’s
performance in the local curriculum as a basis for gathering information to make instructional
decisions” (Deno, 1987: 41). CBA, with a history critical to, and highlighting, the special
education movement in the United States, evolved during the last three decades into a system
of ongoing measurement of student progress, and sound decision making about instructional
practices. Today, it represents the collection of a solid research base that can be linked directly
to teachers’ instructional decisions. The application of CBA principles helps to ensure that
individual students, in and outside of a classroom environment, achieve teachers’ instructional
objectives, regardless of the learning setting in which their instruction occurs. Clearly, teachers
who implement CBA processes and procedures appropriately are able to design effective
instruction. As they implement and manage instruction, they are able to gather assessment
data, using frequent assessment of their students’ progress across curricular areas in a
systematic manner on critical curriculum objectives. These teachers, then, are able to reflect on
their obtained data to make sound educational decisions about their own instructional
effectiveness and classroom success.

Teachers employ ongoing assessment data to cover a range of skills in varied, academic core
subject areas (e.g., concept recognition, number recall, and rule differentiation in mathematics;
letter naming, word recognition, and fluency in reading; and capitalization, punctuation, and
subject–verb agreement in written expression). They view data over time (e.g., pre, during, or
after instruction), and in a variety of settings (e.g., classroom, community, home, and work
site). As teachers reflect on the usefulness of assessment linked to instruction, and as ongoing
assessment continues in teachers’ regular repertoire of reporting student academic progress
over time, they, then, begin to involve students more directly and explicitly during teaching–
learning processes. The use of reflective data, collected through instructionally relevant
measurement by teachers and students, helps to inform whether or not students are making
instructional progress. This helps to confirm whether or not students are demonstrating
behaviors toward reaching levels of academic mastery. Such data use, also, helps to inform
and confirm whether or not teachers are successful in educational decision making.
Regardless of what skills teachers assess, the curricular standards that teachers employ, when
they collect data, where they assess, how they measure, and/or the type of data teachers seek,
instruction and learning analyzed by teachers lead to meaningful knowledge. Frequent analyses
help teachers to(1) know critical skills for assessment that require teacher attention; (2) ensure
valid and reliable data collection, (3) examine instructional data on an ongoing basis, (4)
monitor student performance critical to student learning situations, (5) make reflective
decisions about their own teacher effectiveness, and (6) improve students’ academic
achievement and self-instructional awareness.

IDEA recognizes the important role that a team plays in the evaluation of students and their
ongoing education. One of the central components of providing services for students with
disabilities is convening a team of stakeholders that includes key professionals and family
members to collaboratively create an IEP (Council for Exceptional Children, n.d.). A high-quality
IEP is the primary mechanism to individualize and assist students with disabilities in making
progress. The special education teacher’s role as a team member is to consider the student’s
strengths and needs based on assessment information and work collaboratively with the entire
team to design an educational plan that, when implemented, will produce maximum benefit for
the student. Because implementation and assessment of the educational plan are
ongoing, special education teachers need to be able to interpret and communicate
assessment results regularly with other teachers, staff, and families as part of the effort to
monitor a student’s response to instruction.
We will explore assessment for learning, where the priority is designing and using assessment
strategies to enhance student learning and development. Sometimes a teacher might begin the
lesson, unit, or academic term with a diagnostic assessment. These assessments are used to
determine students’ previous knowledge, skills, and understandings prior to teaching. This ‘pre-
assessment helps the teacher determine what students already know, what they need to know,
and to adjust the curriculum to meet the needs of the students.

Assessment for learning is most often formative assessment, i.e. it takes place during the
course of instruction by providing information that teachers can use to revise their teaching
and students can use to improve their learning (Black, Harrison, Lee, Marshall & Wiliam, 2004).
Formative assessment includes both informal assessment involving spontaneous
unsystematic observations of students’ behaviors (e.g. during a question and answer session
or while the students are working on an assignment) and formal assessment involving pre-
planned, systematic gathering of data.

Assessment of learning is a formal assessment that involves assessing students in order to

certify their competence and fulfill accountability mandates. Assessment of learning is
typically summative, that is, administered after the instruction is completed (e.g. a final
examination in an educational psychology course). Summative assessments provide
information about how well students mastered the material, whether students are ready for the
next unit, and what grades should be given.

2.3 Informal assessment carried out by the teachers – Assessment for planning
Individualised educational Programmes (IEPs), Teacher made and criterion referenced tests
in different curricular domains.

An informal assessment is spontaneous. It is a method of evaluation where the instructor tests

participants' knowledge using no standard criteria or rubric. This means that there is no
spelled-out evaluation guide. Rather, the instructor simply asks open-ended questions and
observes students' performances to determine how much they know.

If informal assessments are not concerned with grading students, then what are they about?
It's simple—feedback. Data from these evaluations help the instructor make ongoing
adjustments to create better learning experiences for participants.

Simultaneously, teachers depend on these pieces of information to plan out standard testing,
aka formal assessments. For example, during an English class, the teacher observes that
students find summary-writing challenging. They pay more attention to this area during the
course and then set a formal summary writing test at the end of the day.

All students must be assessed in order to qualify for special education services. Once a
referral is made, school district personnel must develop an assessment plan with an
assessment prior written notice and provide it to the parent/guardian within 15 calendar days
of the referral, excepting during time periods when school is not in session for more than 5
school days. An Assessment Plan is a description of the evaluation procedures that will be
used to help the IEP team determine the:

§ Presence/nature of a qualifying disability

§ Eligibility for special education and related services

§ Needs of the student and how they will be met

§ Appropriate instructional strategies

Mainstreaming and Criterion Referenced Tests

If your students are mainstreamed into the regular classroom for classes such as social
studies and science, then they are probably taking criterion referenced tests. Some of your
students may have accommodations and modifications written in their IEPs for test taking,
such as having the test read to them or being allowed to use notes or study guides. With these
modifications, the information you gather from criterion referenced tests should show you how
well students understand the material they are learning in content area classes. You can use
this information from assessments to offer additional support to students through study
guides, extra reading assignments, or even computer software.

For example, if a student with an IEP is mainstreamed into a fourth grade classroom and takes
a science test that is read to him, the test results should accurately show how much
information the student understands about the science unit. Since the questions are read,
teachers can gauge whether or not students understand a vocabulary word–not if they can
read it. The same would be true if a student’s IEP stated that he could dictate his answers to a
paraprofessional. Teachers can assess whether the student understands the science
information–not if the student can write answers and spell vocabulary correctly.

Some students with special needs do not have testing modifications in their IEPs, and so
science and history tests may be more difficult for them because they do struggle with reading
or writing skills. In these cases, it is harder to use criterion referenced tests to drive instruction
and see what objectives students still need to master. They may know all the facts necessary
for the science test, but they are limited by their reading and writing abilities. As a special
educator, you can go over the graded assessment with students to see if they understand
concepts but need help with reading and writing.

When you receive criterion referenced tests' results for your students, you can use these results
to aid instruction for your students in the following ways:

§ Offer more support in the subject area for your student. For example, you can read material
from the textbook in your class before he goes to the regular classroom. You can also provide
a study guide with the information most needed for the test highlighted.

§ Provide information for IEP meetings and even writing IEP goals. If students are doing well
on criterion referenced tests, then they may be meeting some of their IEP goals. They may not
need test accommodations any more, or they may need fewer. If students are consistently
failing criterion-referenced tests, these results may need to be discussed with the IEP
committee and additional testing may need to be conducted to modify the IEP.

§ Discover your students' interests. Criterion referenced tests may be an opportunity for
special educators to discuss topics with students from historical figures to animal habitats. If
students show a strength or particular interest in a certain subject matter, you can use this
interest to teach objectives such as test taking or study skills.
Special educators can use criterion referenced tests to help their students succeed at their own
levels.

2.4 Assessment of students who need high supports/having severe disabilities.

Students with disabilities need accommodations or alternate forms of assessment so that their
learning can be measured at system and classroom level and targeted teaching strategies can
be employed. Various kinds of accommodations should be made available to students
depending on their needs and technology can play a pivotal role in providing assessment
opportunities to children with disabilities. Put simply, diverse assessment approaches are
necessary for testing students with disabilities along with a range of pedagogies that address
their learning needs.

IDEA requires that students with disabilities take part in state or district-wide assessments.
These are tests that are periodically given to all students to measure achievement. It is one way
that schools determine how well and how much students are learning. IDEA now states that
students with disabilities should have as much involvement in the general curriculum as
possible. This means that, if a child is receiving instruction in the general curriculum, he or she
could take the same standardized test that the school district or state gives to nondisabled
children. Accordingly, a child’s IEP must include all modifications or accommodations that the
child needs so that he or she can participate in state or district-wide assessments.

The IEP team can decide that a particular test is not appropriate for a child. In this case, the IEP
must include:

• an explanation of why that test is not suitable for the child, and
• how the child will be assessed instead (often called alternate assessment).

Ask your state and/or local school district for a copy of their guidelines on the types of
accommodations, modifications, and alternate assessments available to students.

Because accommodations can be so vital to helping children with disabilities access the
general curriculum, participate in school (including extracurricular and nonacademic activities),
and be educated alongside their peers without disabilities.

2.5 Teacher competencies and role of special education teacher in assessment in

different settings.

For inclusion to show positive benefits, the learning environment and instructional models
must be carefully established to provide strong learning opportunities for all students. Special
education and general education teachers must have mutual respect and open minds toward
the philosophy of inclusion, as well as strong administrative support and knowledge of how to
meet the needs of students with disabilities. The involvement of a special education teacher is
crucial to the success of a combined learning environment in a number of areas:

Curriculum Design

Special education teachers help craft the lessons for inclusive classrooms to ensure that the
needs of students with disabilities are considered. Teachers may work together to develop a
curriculum that is accessible to all students, or the special education teacher might make
modifications to the general education teacher’s lesson plans. A special education teacher will
also create supplemental learning materials for specific students, including visual,
manipulative, text, and technology resources, and determine when one-on-one lessons might
be needed.

Teachers must examine students’ strengths, weaknesses, interests, and communication

methods when crafting lessons. The students’ IEPs must be carefully followed to meet
achievement goals. As many general education teachers have limited training in inclusive
learning, it is important for the special education teacher to help the instructor understand why
certain accommodations are needed and how to incorporate them.

Classroom Instruction

Many inclusive classrooms are based on a co-teaching model, where both teachers are present
all day. Others use a push-in model, where special education teachers provide lessons at
certain times during the day. It takes extensive cooperation between general and special
education teachers to implement a truly inclusive classroom. Special education teachers often
sit with or near students with IEPs to monitor their progress and provide any special
instructions or supplemental learning materials. Students require varying levels of individual
instruction and assistance, based on their unique needs.

Teachers might also pull students out of the classroom for one-on-one lessons or sensory
activities, or arrange for time with counselors, speech therapists, dyslexia coaches, and other
specialized personnel. Special education instructors may need to make sure that
paraprofessionals or therapists are present in the classroom at certain times to assist the
students. To help maintain a positive climate, they also might assist the general education
teacher in presenting lessons to the entire class, grading papers, enforcing rules, and other
classroom routines. General and special education teachers might break classes into smaller
groups or stations to provide greater engagement opportunities.

Learning Assessments

Another role of special education teachers in inclusive classrooms is to conduct regular

assessments to determine whether students are achieving academic goals. Lessons must be
periodically evaluated to determine whether they are sufficiently challenging without
overwhelming the students. Students should gain a feeling of self-confidence and
independence in general education settings but should also feel sufficiently supported. Special
education teachers also organize periodic IEP meetings with each student, their family, and
certain staff members to determine whether adjustments need to be made to the student’s
plan.

Advocating for Students

Special education teachers serve as advocates for students with disabilities and special needs.
This includes ensuring that all school officials and employees understand the importance of
inclusion and how to best implement inclusion in all campus activities. Advocacy might include
requesting inclusion-focused professional development activities—especially programs that
help general education teachers better understand inclusion best practices—or providing
information to community members about success rates of inclusive teaching.

Communication with parents is also essential for inclusive classroom success. Families
should receive regular updates on a child’s academic, social, and emotional development
through phone calls, emails, and other communication means. Parents can help students
prepare for classroom routines. Expectations for homework and classroom participation
should be established early on.

Assessment of individuals with ASD

3.1. Screening and Diagnosis: Criteria and Tools (e.g., Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual (DSM) 5, International Classification of Diseases (ICD 10). International Classification
of Functioning (ICF) Checklist, Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers
(MCHAT- R/F), Indian Scale for Assessment of Autism (ISAA), AIIMS-
Modified INCLEN Diagnostic Tool for Autism Spectrum Disorder (AIIMS Modified I
NDT- ASD). Childhood Autism Rating Scale 2nd edition (CARS-2),

3.2. Assessments of Learning Styles and Strategies (Behavioural, Functional, adaptive, Educa
tional, and vocational)

3.3. Differential Diagnosis

3.4. Assessment of associated conditions

3.5. Documentation of assessment, interpretation and report writing

3.1 Screening and Diagnosis: Criteria and Tools (e.g., Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual (DSM) 5, International Classification of Diseases (ICD 10). International Classification
of Functioning (ICF) Checklist, Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers
(MCHAT- R/F), Indian Scale for Assessment of Autism (ISAA), AIIMS-
Modified INCLEN Diagnostic Tool for Autism Spectrum Disorder (AIIMS Modified I
NDT- ASD). Childhood Autism Rating Scale 2nd edition (CARS-2),

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) 5

In 2013, the American Psychiatric Association released the fifth edition of its Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). The DSM-5 is now the standard reference that
healthcare providers use to diagnose mental and behavioral conditions, including autism.

A. Persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction across multiple contexts,
as manifested by the following, currently or by history (examples are illustrative, not
exhaustive, see text):

1. Deficits in social-emotional reciprocity, ranging, for example, from abnormal social

approach and failure of normal back-and-forth conversation; to reduced sharing of interests,
emotions, or affect; to failure to initiate or respond to social interactions.
2. Deficits in nonverbal communicative behaviors used for social interaction, ranging, for
example, from poorly integrated verbal and nonverbal communication; to abnormalities in eye
contact and body language or deficits in understanding and use of gestures; to a total lack of
facial expressions and nonverbal communication.

3. Deficits in developing, maintaining, and understanding relationships, ranging, for example,

from difficulties adjusting behavior to suit various social contexts; to difficulties in sharing
imaginative play or in making friends; to absence of interest in peers.

Specify current severity: Severity is based on social communication impairments and restricted
repetitive patterns of behavior. (See table below.)

B. Restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities, as manifested by at least

two of the following, currently or by history (examples are illustrative, not exhaustive; see
text):

1. Stereotyped or repetitive motor movements, use of objects, or speech (e.g., simple motor
stereotypies, lining up toys or flipping objects, echolalia, idiosyncratic phrases).

2. Insistence on sameness, inflexible adherence to routines, or ritualized patterns or verbal

nonverbal behavior (e.g., extreme distress at small changes, difficulties with transitions, rigid
thinking patterns, greeting rituals, need to take same route or eat food every day).

3. Highly restricted, fixated interests that are abnormal in intensity or focus (e.g, strong
attachment to or preoccupation with unusual objects, excessively circumscribed or
perseverative interest).

4. Hyper- or hyporeactivity to sensory input or unusual interests in sensory aspects of the

environment (e.g., apparent indifference to pain/temperature, adverse response to specific
sounds or textures, excessive smelling or touching of objects, visual fascination with lights or
movement).

Specify current severity: Severity is based on social communication impairments and restricted,
repetitive patterns of behavior. (See table below.)

C. Symptoms must be present in the early developmental period (but may not become fully
manifest until social demands exceed limited capacities or may be masked by learned
strategies in later life).

D. Symptoms cause clinically significant impairment in social, occupational, or other

important areas of current functioning.

E. These disturbances are not better explained by intellectual disability (intellectual

developmental disorder) or global developmental delay. Intellectual disability and autism
spectrum disorder frequently co-occur; to make comorbid diagnoses of autism spectrum
disorder and intellectual disability, social communication should be below that expected for
general developmental level.

Note: Individuals with a well-established DSM-IV diagnosis of autistic disorder, Asperger’s

disorder, or pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified should be given the
diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder. Individuals who have marked deficits in social
communication, but whose symptoms do not otherwise meet criteria for autism spectrum
disorder, should be evaluated for social (pragmatic) communication disorder.

Specify if:

• With or without accompanying intellectual impairment

• With or without accompanying language impairment
o (Coding note: Use additional code to identify the associated medical or genetic
condition.)
• Associated with another neurodevelopmental, mental, or behavioral disorder
o (Coding note: Use additional code[s] to identify the associated
neurodevelopmental, mental, or behavioral disorder[s].)
• With catatonia
• Associated with a known medical or genetic condition or environmental factor

Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder

Diagnostic Criteria

A. Persistent difficulties in the social use of verbal and nonverbal communication as

manifested by all of the following:

1. Deficits in using communication for social purposes, such as greeting and sharing
information, in a manner that is appropriate for the social context.

2. Impairment of the ability to change communication to match context or the needs of the
listener, such as speaking differently in a classroom than on the playground, talking differently
to a child than to an adult, and avoiding use of overly formal language.

3. Difficulties following rules for conversation and storytelling, such as taking turns in
conversation, rephrasing when misunderstood, and knowing how to use verbal and nonverbal
signals to regulate interaction.

4. Difficulties understanding what is not explicitly stated (e.g., making inferences) and
nonliteral or ambiguous meanings of language (e.g., idioms, humor, metaphors, multiple
meanings that depend on the context for interpretation).

B. The deficits result in functional limitations in effective communication, social participation,

social relationships, academic achievement, or occupational performance, individually or in
combination.

C. The onset of the symptoms is in the early developmental period (but deficits may not
become fully manifest until social communication demands exceed limited capacities).

D. The symptoms are not attributable to another medical or neurological condition or to low
abilities in the domains or word structure and grammar, and are not better explained by
autism spectrum disorder, intellectual disability (intellectual developmental disorder), global
developmental delay, or another mental disorder.
International Classification of Diseases (ICD 10)

Pervasive developmental disorders

A group of disorders characterized by qualitative abnormalities in reciprocal social interactions

and in patterns of communication, and by a restricted, stereotyped, repetitive repertoire of
interests and activities. These qualitative abnormalities are a pervasive feature of the
individual's functioning in all situations.

Childhood autism

A type of pervasive developmental disorder that is defined by: (a) the presence of abnormal or
impaired development that is manifest before the age of three years, and (b) the characteristic
type of abnormal functioning in all the three areas of psychopathology: reciprocal social
interaction, communication, and restricted, stereotyped, repetitive behaviour. In addition to
these specific diagnostic features, a range of other nonspecific problems are common, such as
phobias, sleeping and eating disturbances, temper tantrums, and (self-directed) aggression.

Autistic disorder

Infantile:

· autism

· psychosis

Kanner syndrome

Atypical autism

A type of pervasive developmental disorder that differs from childhood autism either in age of
onset or in failing to fulfil all three sets of diagnostic criteria. This subcategory should be used
when there is abnormal and impaired development that is present only after age three years,
and a lack of sufficient demonstrable abnormalities in one or two of the three areas of
psychopathology required for the diagnosis of autism (namely, reciprocal social interactions,
communication, and restricted, stereotyped, repetitive behaviour) in spite of characteristic
abnormalities in the other area(s). Atypical autism arises most often in profoundly retarded
individuals and in individuals with a severe specific developmental disorder of receptive
language.

· Atypical childhood psychosis

· Mental retardation with autistic features

Rett syndrome

A condition, so far found only in girls, in which apparently normal early development is followed
by partial or complete loss of speech and of skills in locomotion and use of hands, together
with deceleration in head growth, usually with an onset between seven and 24 months of age.
Loss of purposive hand movements, hand-wringing stereotypies, and hyperventilation are
characteristic. Social and play development are arrested but social interest tends to be
maintained. Trunk ataxia and apraxia start to develop by age four years and choreoathetoid
movements frequently follow. Severe mental retardation almost invariably results.

Other childhood disintegrative disorder

A type of pervasive developmental disorder that is defined by a period of entirely normal

development before the onset of the disorder, followed by a definite loss of previously acquired
skills in several areas of development over the course of a few months. Typically, this is
accompanied by a general loss of interest in the environment, by stereotyped, repetitive motor
mannerisms, and by autistic-like abnormalities in social interaction and communication. In
some cases the disorder can be shown to be due to some associated encephalopathy but the
diagnosis should be made on the behavioural features.

· Dementia infantilis

· Disintegrative psychosis

· Heller syndrome

· Symbiotic psychosis

Overactive disorder associated with mental retardation and stereotyped movements

An ill-defined disorder of uncertain nosological validity. The category is designed to include a

group of children with severe mental retardation (IQ below 35) who show major problems in
hyperactivity and in attention, as well as stereotyped behaviours. They tend not to benefit from
stimulant drugs (unlike those with an IQ in the normal range) and may exhibit a severe
dysphoric reaction (sometimes with psychomotor retardation) when given stimulants. In
adolescence, the overactivity tends to be replaced by underactivity (a pattern that is not usual
in hyperkinetic children with normal intelligence). This syndrome is also often associated with a
variety of developmental delays, either specific or global. The extent to which the behavioural
pattern is a function of low IQ or of organic brain damage is not known.

Asperger syndrome

A disorder of uncertain nosological validity, characterized by the same type of qualitative

abnormalities of reciprocal social interaction that typify autism, together with a restricted,
stereotyped, repetitive repertoire of interests and activities. It differs from autism primarily in
the fact that there is no general delay or retardation in language or in cognitive development.
This disorder is often associated with marked clumsiness. There is a strong tendency for the
abnormalities to persist into adolescence and adult life. Psychotic episodes occasionally occur
in early adult life.

· Autistic psychopathy

· Schizoid disorder of childhood

Other pervasive developmental disorders

Pervasive developmental disorder, unspecified

International Classification of Functioning (ICF) Checklist

With a current worldwide prevalence of 1% Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) refers to a group
of conditions that are characterized by impairments of reciprocal social interaction, verbal and
non-verbal communication, as well as a preference for repetitive, stereotyped activities,
behaviors and interests. The age of onset is always prior to 36 months and the symptoms
persist throughout the lifespan. These features are associated with alternations in cognitive
and emotional functioning, high rates of psychiatric co-morbidity, relationship problems, poor
adaptive skills and lower reported quality of life. To capture this complex melange of
functioning experiences beyond the diagnosis, the ICF offers a tool to describe the lived
experience of a person with ASD in a comprehensive and standardized way.

To make the ICF, a classification of 1424 categories, more practical for use in clinical practice,
ICF Core Sets i.e. shortlists of ICF categories selected as most relevant for specific health
conditions, have been developed. Karolinska Institute and the ICF Research Branch in
collaboration with an international, multiprofessional Steering Committee have taken on the
challenge to develop ICF Core Sets that can be used in the assessment and follow-up of
persons with ASD. The project team has decided to use the ICF version for children and youth
(ICF-CY) for the study. The ICF-CY not only includes all of the categories of the reference
classification ICF, it also captures the particular characteristics of the developing child.

The preparatory phase includes:

• To identify research studies on the functioning and disability of persons with ASD, a
systematic literature review of peer-reviewed articles published from 2008-2013 was
performed.
• A qualitative study that aimed to identify relevant aspects of functioning and contextual
factors from the perspective of patients/clients, caregivers, spouses, teachers was
conducted. Persons from Canada, India, Saudi Arabia, South Africa and Sweden
participated in the study either in focus groups or individual interviews. A manuscript is
currently being written and will be submitted to a peer-review journal by the end of
2016.
• An internet-based international survey was also conducted. This study that included 225
experts from 10 different disciplines and all six WHO world regions aimed to gather the
opinion of international experts on which aspects of functioning and health are relevant
to persons with ASD.
• To describe common problems experienced by individuals with ASD from a clinical
perspective, a multicentre cross-sectional study was conducted in 6 European
countries, 2 South American countries, one Asian country, and one country in the
Middle East. A case record form, that covered among other things the domains of an
extended ICF Checklist, was used to collect the data.

Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (MCHAT- R/F)

The Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers, Revised (M-CHAT-R) is a screener that will ask a
series of 20 questions about your child’s behavior. It's intended for toddlers between 16 and 30
months of age. The results will let you know if a further evaluation may be needed. You can use
the results of the screener to discuss any concerns that you may have with your child’s
healthcare provider.

The Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (M-CHAT) was designed to screen for autism
spectrum disorder (ASD) in children between 16 months and 30 months. Validation studies
have reported moderate psychometric properties across various populations, potentially
supporting the use of the M-CHAT as part of universal screening. The purpose of ASD
screening using a standardized tool is to systematically identify early signs of ASD, and the
American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that it should take place at 18 months and 24
months for all children. Whether screening should take place for all children and with which
screening tool, however, are currently being debated.

The original M-CHAT consists of 23 questions about behaviors that are potential early signs of
ASD in very young children. Parents or caregivers complete the checklist on the basis of their
child's current skills and behaviors. Its brevity is one of its advantages, as is the fact that it
does not require responses based on clinical observation by a trained clinician. A child is
considered to be at-risk if they fail more than two of the six critical items (Critical6) or three of
the 23 items (Total23) on the checklist. Among the 1293 children screened in the original study,
132 screened positive and 39 were later diagnosed with ASD. The M-CHAT follow-up interview,
a 5- to 20-minute structured telephone interview used to confirm items endorsed by the parent,
can be performed in addition for children who screen positive before full developmental
assessment. The follow-up interview was reported to improve positive predictive value (PPV). A
revised with follow-up version, M-CHAT-R/F, excluded three items from the original M-CHAT
and was validated in a low-risk sample with a PPV of 0.14.

The M-CHAT™ (Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers) is a parent-report screening tool to
assess the risk for Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). In approximately 10 minutes, parents can
complete the 20 questions and receive an autism risk assessment for their child.

Age of Child: The M-CHAT is most appropriate for 16 to 30 month old children.

The primary goal of M-CHAT is to detect as many cases of ASD as possible (“maximizing
sensitivity” in scientific parlance), so there will be some false-positives: cases where a child is
assessed as being “at risk” but in fact will not be diagnosed with ASD. However, any child that
receives a “high-risk” score should receive an evaluation from an autism specialist.

Indian Scale for Assessment of Autism (ISAA)

Though autism is a well documented developmental disability, most of the screening and
diagnostic tools for assessment and diagnosis of autism are intended for western population.
As one cannot undermine the importance of cultural influence in the understanding of any
disorder or disability, it was imperative that a tool for assessment of persons with autism be
developed considering the Indian socio-cultural context. ISAA is an individually administered
instrument which encompasses six domains measuring the characteristic triad of impairments
in social relationship, communication and behavior patterns of persons with autism. The test
items of the tool were constructed from the range of activities generally performed by the
persons with autism. Comparison group of normal and individuals with mental retardation &
other psychiatric illnesses were tested to determine the uneven development characteristic of
this type of disability.
Indian Scale for Assessment of Autism (ISAA): The ISAA is a 40 item scale divided into six
domains- Social Relationship and Reciprocity (9 questions); Emotional Responsiveness (5
questions); Speech — Language and Communication (9 questions); Behavior Patterns (7
questions); Sensory Aspects (6 questions) and Cognitive Component (4 questions). The scores
for the each item of ISAA range from 1-5, depending on the intensity, frequency and duration of
a particular behavior with the following anchors: score 1 = Rarely (up to 20%), score 2 =
Sometimes (21-40%), score 3 = Frequently (41-60%), score 4 = Mostly (61-80%), and score 5 =
Always (81%-100%). Scoring is based on information from parents and observation of the child
following guidelines from the Manual of the ISAA. In the speech- language and communication
domain the child should be rated 5 if he/she never developed speech or communication. Total
ISAA scores range from 40-200. The lowest score represents no symptoms or symptoms
which were present only rarely, and the maximum score indicates the most severe presentation
of AD. The following categories are recommended; mild AD: 70-107, moderate AD: 108-153,
severe AD: 153.

AIIMS-Modified INCLEN Diagnostic Tool for Autism Spectrum Disorder

The Modified INCLEN tool was validated by a team of experts by modifying the existing tools
(2–9 years) to widen the age range from 1 month to 18 years and include broader
symptomatology in a tertiary care teaching hospital of North India between January and June
2015. A qualified medical graduate applied the candidate tool which was followed by gold
standard evaluation by a Pediatric Neurologist (both blinded to each other).

The construct and its sub-construct were adapted for its appropriateness in the Indian cultural
context and converted into symptoms clusters for the clinicians and psychologists to rate
during the diagnostic workup. The tool was named as INCLEN Diagnostic Tool for ASD (INDT-
ASD). The tool has two sections: Section A has 29 symptoms/items and Section B contains 12
questions corresponding to B and C domains of DSM-IV-TR, time of onset, duration of
symptoms, score and diagnostic algorithm. It takes approximately 45-60 minutes to administer
the instrument and score. A trichotomous endorsement choice (‘yes’, ‘no’, ‘unsure/not
applicable’) is given to the assessor/ interviewer. In addition, the clinician/psychologist has to
make behavioral observations on the child and score the item as well. For any discrepancy in
parental response and interviewer’s assessment, it is indicated for each question whether
parental response or assessor’s observation should take precedence. Each symptom/item is
given a score of ‘1’ for ‘Yes’ and ‘0’ for ‘No’ or ‘unsure/not applicable’. Presence of ³ 6
symptoms/item (or score of ³ 6), with at least two symptom/item each from impaired
communication and restricted
repetitive pattern of behavior, is used to diagnose ASD.

Childhood Autism Rating Scale 2nd edition (CARS-2)

The Childhood Autism Rating Scale–Second Edition (CARS2) is a 15-item rating scale used to
identify children with autism and distinguishing them from those with developmental
disabilities. It is empirically validated and provides concise, objective, and quantifiable ratings
based on direct behavioral observation. It was normed on a sample of 1,034 individuals with
autism spectrum disorders.

This second edition of CARS expands the test’s clinical value, making it more responsive to
individuals on the “high functioning” end of autism spectrum disorders. The clinician rates the
individual on each item, using a 4-point rating scale. Ratings are based on frequency of the
behavior in question, its intensity, peculiarity, and duration.

Physicians, special educators, school psychologists, speech pathologists, and audiologists will
all find the CARS-2 easy to give and score.

The CARS-2 includes three forms:

1. Standard Version Rating Booklet (CARS2-ST): Equivalent to the original CARS; for use with
individuals younger than 6 years of age and those with communication difficulties or below-
average estimated IQs

2. High-Functioning Version Rating Booklet (CARS2-HF): An alternative for assessing verbally

fluent individuals, 6 years of age and older, with IQ scores above 80
3. Questionnaire for Parents or Caregivers (CARS2-QPC): An unscored scale that gathers
information for use in making CARS2ST and CARS2-HF ratings

The standard and high-functioning forms each include 15 items addressing the following
functional areas:

• Relating to People
• Imitation (ST); Social-Emotional Understanding (HF)
• Emotional Response (ST); Emotional Expression and Regulation of Emotions (HF)
• Body Use
• Object Use (ST); Object Use in Play (HF)
• Adaptation to Change (ST); Adaptation to Change/Restricted Interests (HF)
• Visual Response
• Listening Response
• Taste, Smell, and Touch Response and Use
• Fear or Nervousness (ST); Fear or Anxiety (HF)
• Verbal Communication
• Nonverbal Communication
• Activity Level (ST); Thinking/Cognitive Integration Skills (HF)
• Level and Consistency of Intellectual Response
• General Impressions

The parent or caregiver of the individual being assessed completes this unscored form. Its
primary purpose is to give the clinician more information on which to base the CARS2-ST or
CARS2-HF ratings. The questionnaire covers an individual’s early development; social,
emotional, and communication skills; repetitive behaviors; play and routines; and unusual
sensory interests.

3.2 Assessments of Learning Styles and Strategies (Behavioural, Functional, adaptive, Ed

ucational, and vocational)

Teachers need to find out how their students learn. There are three main different learning
styles: visual, auditory, and tactile/kinesthetic learners. In order to assess students’ learning,
you can give them a learning styles assessment at the beginning of the school year. Not only
will this help the teacher, but it gives the students insight into how they learn. Here is a simple
assessment that you can do. The easiest way to do it is to separate the assessment into three
sections, each for the different learning styles, but don’t tell the students which section is
which.

Styles of Learning

We define a learning modality as a sensory pathway in which students learn. They take in,
share, and store information through their modalities or learning styles. There are many
opinions about the quantity of learning styles. Most educators agree on these three as styles of
learning found in most classrooms:

• Visual learners like to see things and understand spatial relationships

• Auditory learners prefer to hear lessons
• Kinesthetic/tactile learners like using the body for learning
Visual, auditory, and kinesthetic/tactile are the three learning modalities. You may not be aware
of the impact your learning style has on your experiences, both in and out of the classroom.
How can you figure out your learning style?

What's Your Modality?

Using your strengths as a teacher can help accommodate styles of learning in your students.
How can you determine your own learning modality? Think of yourself in these situations.

• Spelling - When trying to spell a new word, do you try to picture the word (visual), use your
phonics skills to rely on letters and sounds (auditory), or write the word down
(kinesthetic/tactile)?
• Bumping into an acquaintance - When you bump into someone you met once or twice, are
you good at remembering the faces but not names (visual), remember names but not
faces (auditory), or remember the things you did with this person (kinesthetic/tactile)?
• Doing something new - Do you need to see diagrams or pictures (visual), need verbal
instructions (auditory), or do you prefer to just get busy and figure it out as you go
(kinesthetic/tactile)?
• Receiving information from administration - When your principal wants to give you
information, do you prefer to read it in a memo or email (visual), hear it in a voicemail
(auditory), or attend a face-to-face meeting (kinesthetic/tactile)?
Why Should We Assess Our Student's Learning Styles?

The people that we encounter in life are usually different than we are and likewise have
experienced different things than we have. In fact, it can be said that the same is true of the
learning process. Everyone learns differently, therefore it would seem to make sense that
schools adjust according to this. However, this has not been the case. In general, educators
have been accustomed to grouping students into two tracks- linguistic and mathematical. In
the process, educators may fail to recognize that students learn differently, therefore
instruction should be adjusted to accommodate these needs. Tomlinson (1999) states that
educators should meet a student at his or her level in order to maximize potential. This,
however, has not been the case up to this point. Instead, education is geared to teaching to
linguistic abilities (Peterson, 1994). In the essence, the current system does not seem to
accommodate the needs of all learners. Oftentimes, the children who do not do well
linguistically, are the same children who do not do well in school (Peterson, 1994). The
literature suggests (Campbell, Milbourne, & Silverman, 2001; Williams, 1983; & Armstrong,
2001) that children who do not fit into this continuum are those left behind. In fact, many of
these same children are viewed as having a weakness, thus this results in them being placed in
special classrooms (Tomlinson, 1999).

Assessment practices may need to focus on adapting instruction to include the different ways
a student learns. It is necessary to assess the strengths and limitations of young children, as
this may provide useful information before a child enters school (Buffalo University).
Assessments can be a desired tool to help meet students before they begin developing
problems. However, it is suggested that a good assessment will include information on what a
child knows, what the child can do, how the child learns, and where any concerns or problems
lie (Rudolph, 1999).

3.3 Differential Diagnosis

As the name implies, Autism Spectrum Disorder is a varied condition, that means, the above
clinical features are present on a continuum with very mild impairment at the top end of the
scale to more severe impairment of the above functions at the bottom end.

More importantly, there are several clinical conditions, described below, that share some the
features of ASD. Hence it is unsurprising that they can mistakenly be labelled as ASD. To
complicate things further, many of the below-mentioned conditions can commonly co-occur
with ASD. Therefore, as you can appreciate, because of the complexities involved, even the
experts can get it wrong.

Moreover, as ASD is a lifelong diagnosis and since a wrong diagnosis can lead to suboptimal or
poor outcomes for the child and the family, it becomes imperative to undertake a detailed
evaluation to arrive at the diagnosis of ASD, and to rule out the possibility of the below-
mentioned conditions that can mimic as ASD.

Differential diagnosis simply means that there is more than one possibility for a
diagnosis. Oxford Dictionary describes ‘differential diagnoses’ (plural noun) as ‘the process of
differentiating between two or more conditions which share similar signs or symptoms.’

Some conditions may be confusingly similar to ASD and one must be careful when making a
final determination about a child’s disorder and its management. Any condition that may be
associated with language delay, especially those that are treatable, must be considered.

Following are some of the conditions that can mimic or present as ASD. I have listed them in no
particular order. However, conditions in the top half of the list need to be considered more
often than the conditions in the bottom half.

1. Learning Disability/Intellectual Disability (LD/ID): Learning disability is the term more

commonly used in the UK (and our colleagues in the US, use the term ID or intellectual
disability), for any child with significant global developmental delay. Reflecting on my
experience, LD/ID must be at the top of my list because of at least two crucial reasons. Firstly,
many children with ASD can have a degree of LD, making the need for carrying out a
developmental assessment as part of ASD evaluation, vital. Second, it is common to get
children with LD confused as having ASD, as children with LD engage in repetitive behaviours
for a variety of reasons. Carrying out a developmental assessment will reveal that the language
abilities of children with LD are in keeping with their cognitive ability. Moreover, children with LD
have better non-verbal communication ability and a reasonable degree of emotional reciprocity,
while children with ASD do not.

2. ADHD: It is common for children with ASD to be confused with ADHD. Temper tantrums
and repetitive behaviours can be mistaken with hyperactivity. And avoidance of eye contact can
be confused with inattention. However, children with ADHD are likely to be impulsive and
domineering. They have better abilities for imaginative play and have the intent to
communicate their needs. Children with ASD, on the other hand, are likely to be remote, aloof
and have impaired intent and ability to communicate their needs. It is crucial to remember that
both ASD and ADHD can co-occur.

3. Social Communication Disorder (SCD): It is easy to confuse children with SCD as having
ASD because children in both these conditions have impaired verbal and non-verbal
communication abilities. However, as DSM-5 manual has specified, unlike children with ASD,
SCD children do not have restricted and repetitive patterns of behaviour and activities.

4. Gifted and Talented: Children who are gifted and talented have high intelligence and
incredibly good memory. These children, when they have co-existing anxiety, can mimic ASD.
Nevertheless, children who are gifted and talented seek social interactions and have good
ability to understand and use language appropriate to social context.

5. Anxiety: Anxiety can be a common co-morbidity in children with ASD. Children with a
social anxiety disorder or selective mutism can have several features that overlap with ASD.
However, unlike children with ASD, these children have good imaginative play skills and are
better able to communicate their needs to their parents and carers.

6. Language Disorder: Children with language disorder differ from ASD, in that, they have
better motivation and intention to communicate their needs. Their non-verbal communication
abilities are not impaired to the same extent as children with ASD. Also, unlike ASD, they have a
better imaginative play.

7. Hearing Impairment: It is common for parents of children with ASD, to wonder whether
their child is deaf or hearing impaired. This is because, like children with ASD, children with
hearing impairment display a lack of response to their name being called, have minimal
babbling, and have difficulty in using language to communicate their needs. But unlike ASD,
children with hearing impairment can have a good imaginative play, have good eye contact, and
can express themselves with a range of gestures, facial expressions, and body language.

8. Attachment Disorder: A history of significant parental deprivation and or neglect in early

months and years is an important feature in the history of children with attachment disorder,
that is absent in children with ASD. Also, children with attachment disorder develop their social
interaction and language abilities when they are placed in a suitable caregiving environment.

9. Regression and Rett’s: The term ‘regression’ is used, when there is a history of a child
losing hand skills and or speech and language abilities, they had previously acquired. This can
understandably be genuinely concerning to parents. Rett’s syndrome is a clinical condition that
occurs specifically in girls, because of a mutation in a specific gene called MECP2. In this
condition, girls who appeared to be developing typically, lose speech and their ability to use
hands for daily activities. Rett’s syndrome, along with childhood disintegrative disorder, are no
longer classed under Autism Spectrum Disorder when DSM was revised, in 2013.

10.Genetic disorders and Syndromic: There are over a dozen syndromes that have overlapping
features with ASD. Also, ASD tends to occur more commonly with certain conditions such as
Fragile X, Foetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder, Down Syndrome, etc. A detailed assessment by a
neurodevelopmental paediatrician can identify these conditions.

11.Inherited Metabolic Disorder (IMD): Children with disorders of carbohydrate and protein
metabolism could present with a learning disability, hearing impairment, vision impairment,
developmental regression, and food intolerance. Presence of an IMD in children with ASD is
fortunately rare.

12.Epilepsy: Certain epilepsy such as Landau Kleffner Syndrome (LKS), though rare, can
present with the child losing the ability to understand language, display behavioural outbursts
and have temper tantrums. An EEG (electroencephalogram/tracing of the brain) can help
identify seizures, as the cause of ASD like symptoms.

13.Tourette’s: Children with Tourette’s syndrome and accompanying ADHD symptoms can be
misinterpreted to have ASD, because of impaired social interaction skills and social
communication skills secondary to sudden utterances, brief but repetitive tics, etc.

14.Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): Both ASD and OCD can have similar symptoms.
However, unlike ASD, children with OCD have better social interaction and social
communication skills. Also, unlike children with ASD, children with OCD tend to find their
symptoms distressing.

15.Sensory Processing Difficulties (SPD): SPD was not part of the diagnostic criteria for ASD
until the latest revision to DSM in 2013. Inclusion of SPD as one of the features for the
diagnosis of ASD has been helpful, as I encounter some degree of sensory difficulties almost
universally in children with ASD. Children with SPD can be either hypersensitive or
hyposensitive to a variety of sensations of sound, sight, smell, touch, and movement. Hence,
children with SPD can be sensory seeking or extremely avoidant of certain sensations, resulting
in some to mistakenly think them as having ASD. SPD is not recognised as a separate clinical
disorder in DSM-5.

16.Vision Impairment (VI): Children with vision impairment can have features that mimic ASD
because of certain qualitative differences in their social approach, social interaction,
communication, and restrictive behaviours. However, it is important to note that VI and ASD
can co-occur.

As you can see, the above list includes many conditions that need to be thought of, considered,
and ruled out, before a diagnosis of ASD can be made. Nevertheless, this list is by no means
exhaustive. Therefore, a comprehensive diagnostic evaluation is essential for an accurate
diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorder.

3.4 Assessment of associated conditions

Despite the heterogeneity of ASD manifestations in affected children, they share core deficits
delineated in the DSM-5 of the American Psychiatric Association. It includes descriptors of ASD
symptoms with severity level criteria and symptoms of social (pragmatic) communication
disorder (SPCD) although without assigned severity levels. A diagnosis of ASD requires
evidence of impairment in three features of social communication and social interaction and
two features of restricted repetitive patterns of behavior (RRPB). Symptoms must be present in
early development and cause impaired everyday function. Both social communication and
social interaction, and RRPB severity levels are based on the degree of support the individual
needs in order to function: mild, substantial, and very substantial support. The diagnosis should
also specify presence or absence of accompanying intellectual impairment, language
impairment, or whether there are associated known medical, genetic, or other conditions.

Often in children with autism there are signs and symptoms which are not readily explained by
a diagnosis of autism alone. Other medical and psychiatric conditions may co-exist with autism
including;

1. Learning difficulties

2. Epilepsy

3. Speech and Language problems

4. Attention Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

5. Developmental Co-ordination Disorder (DCD)

6. Tourette’s Syndrome and Tics

7. Feeding and Eating problems

This is not an exhaustive list, but we will briefly consider some of the most common conditions
and difficulties that a child with autism may also be diagnosed with.

Learning Difficulties: As noted above, approximately 70% of children with classic autism also
have an IQ below 70 and are therefore recognised to have mild, moderate or severe learning
difficulties.

Epilepsy: As with learning difficulties, epilepsy is more common among children diagnosed
with classic autism, with around 30% being affected into adulthood. Epilepsy is less common
among children with Asperger’s Syndrome, but may be more prevalent than in typically
developing children.

Speech and Language Problems: Most children with an ASD have slower language
development than their peers. It is not only expressive language that may show problems,
receptive language may also appear delayed in young children, and children may appear to be
less responsive to their own name. Some children with autism also appear to lose words that
they had previously learnt. This regression is described in approximately 25% of children with
classic autism, and is usually a gradual process where a child fails to learn new words, and may
stop using previously learnt words altogether.

ADHD: ADHD is the most common psychiatric disorder to occur alongside an ASD and there
are clinical benefits from receiving a dual diagnosis. Children are likely to benefit from receiving
treatment aimed specifically at their ADHD symptoms, as well as having both impairments
recognized by parents and teachers.

DCD: Developmental Co-ordination Disorder (or Dyspraxia) describes the motor co-ordination
problems and clumsiness typical in AS. Such difficulties may benefit from intervention from an
Occupational Therapist or Physiotherapist.

Tics and Tourette’s syndrome: Several reports have documented the co-occurrence of tics in
Asperger’s Syndrome. Tourette’s syndrome has also been observed in children with autism.
Tics may be verbal or motor.

Feeding and Eating Problems: Problems with food including food refusal, selective eating,
hoarding, pica and overeating have all been observed among children with an ASD. Some
children have difficulties coping with mixed textures, may eat their food in a certain order and
may even ask for their food on different plates.

ASSESSMENT

A general assessment should cover the following areas:

· The child’s developmental history.

· Observations of the child in structured and semi-structured situations.

· Nursery/School report.

· Assessment of cognitive level.

· Assessment of problem behaviours.

· Speech and language assessment.

· Audiology and visual tests if indicated. Chromosomal screen is needed if there are
dysmorphic (abnormal) features.

Physical investigations may be specifically indicated in some cases including the need for an
EEG, or screening for Fragile X and other chromosomal abnormalities. It is still debatable as to
whether these investigations are worth performing routinely as the yield of positive results is
relatively low.

Diagnostic Interviews: A number of interviews exist that help clarify the diagnosis and are also
used in research. These include the Autism Diagnostic Interview, the Diagnostic Interview for
Social and Communication Disorders, the Childhood Autism Rating Scale and a new
computerised interview, the Developmental, Dimensional and Diagnostic Interview (3Di).

3.5 Documentation of assessment, interpretation and report writing

Documentation is an essential element of reflective practice. It makes children’s play and
learning experiences visible…to children, parents and teachers. It is a way to visibly
demonstrate the competence of the child.

Documentation simply means keeping a record of what is observed while students are engaged
in a learning experience while playing and exploring. Records might include teacher
observations which focus on specific skills, concepts, or characteristics outlined in the
kindergarten curriculum. Daily observations may be both planned and spontaneous to ensure
that all learning experiences that may emerge from a particular activity are included.

There are various forms of documenting a student’s learning experiences. It might include the
use of student’s artwork and writing, photographs, videotapes and/or tape-recordings.
Documentation can be as simple as an attractive display of children’s work on a wall or it can
be a more elaborately crafted display board that tells the story of an experience of a child or a
group of children. Various types of documentation may include display boards, scrap books,
photo albums, web sites (accessible only to parents), and emails to parents, bulletin board
displays and newsletters to parents. All types of documentation should include a title, photos
or sketches of children’s work with written captions, children’s illustrations of the experience
and additional written descriptions of the learning.

Documentation pulls it all together for the students, teachers, and the parents. It provides
students with the opportunity to revisit their work which, in turn, provides teachers with the
opportunity to discuss with them their interests, their ideas and their plans. By becoming
involved in the documentation of their own learning experiences, students become more
reflective and more engaged in the learning that is happening all around them.

Report Writing

Many different professionals may provide input in the assessment of a child with a suspected
disability. When this occurs, a comprehensive report based on the findings must be written.

The purpose of this report is to communicate results in such a way that the reader will
understand the rationale behind the recommendations, and will be able to use the
recommendations as practical guidelines for intervention.

This report may be presented to the parent, sent to an outside doctor or agency, or presented to
the Eligibility Committee. In any case, the report needs to be professional, comprehensive, and
practical.

Writing a good report is a real skill. The fact is, all the wonderful data collection becomes
useless if it cannot be interpreted and explained in a clear and concise manner. For example,
being too general or explaining results poorly creates many problems and confusion for
readers. Also, citing numerous general recommendations will not be practical for the school,
teacher, or parents.

Writing a report that contains jargon that no one other than you understands is also
useless. Completing an extremely lengthy report in an attempt to be too comprehensive
will result only in losing your reader.
Assessment of students with ID

4.1. Purpose and significance of assessment for students with Intellectual disability

4.2. Assessment tools at Pre-school level: (e.g., Upanayan, Portage Guide to early
Education, and Aarambh)

4.3. Assessment tools at School ages: (e.g., Madras developmental Programming system- M
DPS, Behavioural Assessment Scale for Indian Children (BASIC-MR), Grade
Level Assessment Device for Children with Learning Problems in Schools (GLAD), and Functio
nal Assessment checklist for Programming (FACP), FACP -PMR

4.4. Preparation of material for assessment of various skills.

4.5. Documentation of Assessment Result, Interpretation, Report Writing.

4.1 Purpose and significance of assessment for students with Intellectual disability

The term 'intellectual disability' refers to a group of conditions caused by various genetic
disorders and infections. Intellectual disability is usually identified during childhood, and has an
ongoing impact on an individual’s development. Intellectual disability can be defined as a
significantly reduced ability to understand new or complex information, learn new skills and to
cope independently including social functioning. As with all disability groups, there are many
types of intellectual disability with varying degrees of severity. These include considerable
differences in the nature and extent of the intellectual impairments and functional limitations,
the causes of the disability, the personal background and social environment of the individual.
Some people have genetic disorders that impact severely on their intellectual, social and other
functional abilities. Others with mild intellectual impairment may develop adequate living skills
and are able to lead relatively independent adult lives. Approximately 75 per cent of people
with intellectual disability are only mildly affected, with 25 per cent moderately, severely or
profoundly affected.

Children can start preschool at any age, usually around age two or three, usually finishing up
around age four or five. While there is usually only three years difference between the youngest
preschool child and the oldest preschool child, they are three important, critical years for all
different types of growth — think about what is "normal" for a 2-year-old and what is "normal"
for a 5-year-old, from basic academics to physical capabilities, from emotional growth to social
skills.

To offer assistance, guidance, and a baseline for teachers, parents, guardians, pediatricians,
and any other medical or education professionals that your preschooler may encounter, many
preschools often conduct internal preschool assessments.

And while there are standard tests available to preschool teachers and early childhood
development experts, many preschools and daycares have their own assessments and
qualifiers that they use.
Preschool teachers and early childhood development experts usually use some form of
preschool assessment to evaluate how a preschool student is doing in various skill areas
including:

• Gross motor skills

• Fine motor skills
• Eye-hand coordination
• Recognition of letters
• Recognition of shapes
• Recognition of numbers
• Recognition of colors
• Speech skills including articulation and how well the child expresses him or herself
• Social skills, including the ability to cooperate, take turns, make friends, etc.
• How a child is able to transition between activities
• Knowledge of personal information, including address, phone number, and names of
parents and/or caregivers

Depending on the method used, the assessment can be formal or informal, but in most cases,
your child won't notice anything different going on as they are usually conducted in the course
of classroom activities.

Early childhood educators need to become aware of children’s individual interests and
strengths and find ways to engage and expand them. They can do so by arranging for a rich
variety of learning experiences that appeal to all the senses — visual, auditory, and physical —
and by alternating individual, partnered, small group, and large group activities so that children
experience various kinds of social interaction.

In early childhood programs, assessment takes place by observing children in daily activities
and taking note of their skills, understandings, interests, vocabulary, and attitudes toward
various tasks. It includes communicating with families regularly to learn about the
circumstances that may affect classroom behaviors or interactions, such as personal or family
illness, injury, and child-rearing beliefs and practices. While children exhibit a broad range of
individual differences and personal interests, assessment should ensure that both boys and
girls have opportunities to participate in a range of activities, from block building to musical,
artistic, or dramatic play, in order to stimulate the development of spatial, artistic, musical, and
verbal abilities in all children.

Students with intellectual disability may need particular adjustments to assessment tasks.
Once you have a clear picture of how the disability impacts on learning, you can consider
alternative assessment strategies. In considering alternative forms of assessment, equal
opportunity is not a guaranteed outcome, it is the objective. You are not expected to lower
standards to accommodate students with disability but rather are required to give them a
reasonable opportunity to demonstrate what they have learned:

• Allow extensions to assignment deadlines

• Use technology to record students work, e.g. digital photography, tape and video.
• Students may take longer to organise thoughts and sequence material. They will benefit
from discussing their outlines, with particular attention being paid to appropriate
relationships and connections between points.
 • Encourage the student to submit an early draft of assignments to allow the opportunity for
feedback to the student as a formative process.
• Students with an intellectual disability will need extra time in an examination for reading
and analysing questions and for planning their answers. Some students will request
that examination questions be read to them. Some students may prefer to dictate their
answers to a scribe. They will need a venue which is quiet and distraction-free.
• Keep short your written examination instructions and sentences within examination
questions. Questions using bullet points, lists or distinct parts are more likely to be
correctly interpreted.
• Because students with intellectual disability find it difficult to read multiple choice
questions in a way that allows them to appreciate subtle changes in the arrangement of
words, short answer questions will be a better test of their knowledge.
• Students may benefit from an exam timetable that features a number of days between
exams to assist in exam preparation.
• Many students with intellectual disability are chronic misspellers and use dictionaries only
with great difficulty.

Assessment for individuals with ID involves multiple professionals due to the varying and far-
reaching needs across developmental domains. Team models may be multidisciplinary,
interdisciplinary, or transdisciplinary.

The particular collaborative team model that is selected depends on the needs of the individual
with ID. Team members determine strengths and limitations in adaptive functioning and
collaboratively determine the levels of supports needed across conceptual, social, and practical
domains.

The role of SLPs and audiologists is to assess the individuals speech, language, and hearing
skills. Assessments are sensitive to cultural and linguistic diversity and address components
within the ICF (WHO, 2001) framework, including body structures/functions,
activities/participation, and contextual factors. Findings from the communication and hearing
assessments should be analyzed in the context of findings from other professionals (e.g.,
psychologist) for whom an ID diagnosis is within their purview.

4.2 Assessment tools at Pre-school level: (e.g., Upanayan, Portage Guide to early
Education, and Aarambh)

Upanayan – A programme of developmental training for children with mental retardation

This is an assessment tool for young children. This programme covers children in the age
group of 0-6 years. The programme consists of a checklist, a user manual, a set of activity
cards and material for assessment and training.

Content
The checklist covers five areas of development viz., motor, self-help, language, cognitive and
socialization. Each domain has 50 items totaling upto 250. The items are arranged in a
sequence based on normal development.

Format
The activity cards are colour coded to separate each domain from the others. The manual
contains a list of materials to be used during assessment. The record formats are provided to
note the background information and the assessment data periodically. If a child performs an
activity it is marked “A” and the child does not perform the task it is marked “B”.

The Upanayan Checklist

This list covers broadly the five areas of development and is arranged in the normal
developmental sequence of a child.

It comprises a total of 250 skills as indicated below.

• Motor - 50 skills

• Self help- 50 skills

• Language - 50 skills

• Cognition - 50 skills

• Socialisation- 50 skill

This checklist is used to assess the child as to the skills he performs and those he is yet to
perform.

The Activity Card

These are in five parts , one part for each of the five developmental areas for easy
identification, cards of the different areas are coloured differently.

THESE CARDS CONTAIN:

• Step by step instruction to carry out various activities to train the child to acquire the
required skills listed in the checklist.

• Illustrations of the child/ the teacher performing the activities.

• A list of materials required for each activity.

• A long with activity cards on self help, a set of cards giving the linkages to the pre requisite
skills relating to each of the skills in that area are provided.

• MATERIALS FOR ASSESSMENT AND TRAINING CONSIST of easily available toys and
other materials for use in the assessment and the training of the child.

• The computer programme is an optional item of the package.

• It is inclined to assist the training programme a personal computer is required for using
this programme.
The programme is computerized so that the parent can be given the respective activity cards
needed for training their child. The programme is intended for home training in home based
and center based intervention.

AARAMBH

Arambh package has alternate activities suggested the child with disabilities in the age group 3
years to 6 years was developed by NIMH an funded by UNICEF . In 2002

The Arambh package contains

• Calendar

• Activity cards

• Kit material

• Policy make booklet

• Teachers manual
Primary School

Portage Basic Training Course for Early stimulation of pre-school children in India
This is an Indian adaptation as well as translain in Hindi of “Portage Guide to Early Education”
by S.M.Bluma, M.Shearer, A.H.Frohman and Jean M.Hilliard (USA). It has also been translated
in 9 Indian languages by CBR Network, Bangalore and is available in the form of CD.

Portage guide is basically a system for teaching skills to pre-school children with
developmental delays. The portage project is a home based training system which directly
involves parents in the education of their children in the early childhood ie., 0-6 years of age.
The training is provided by a specially trained teacher or a public health worker with a special
training and experience in the field of child development. However, the key person in the home
based programme is parents/family members.

It can be used by para-professionals like the staff of anganwadis, balwadis, non-professionals

like parents, siblings, professionals such as pre-school educators, psychologists, and doctors.
Content
The portage checklist covers areas such as infant stimulation, self-help, motor, cognitive,
language and socialization. In each area, the activities are listed in a sequential order
corresponding to the age. In addition to the checklist, there are activity cards for each skill
which explains the materials and procedure to be used to train the child. The checklist also
provides age norms for each task on the margin which help the trainer estimate the age
equivalence of the child’s functioning.

Format
The first step is to check through the listed skills in all the areas and record the performance of
the student against each skill under the column entry behaviour. There is also the provision to
mark date of achievement and remarks. A separate provision is made (Activity chart) to record
activities, achievement and targets. As the format accommodates daily and weekly recording
of progress, there is close monitoring.

The checklist, activities and record formats are in the form of a booklet in English and Hindi.

4.3 Assessment tools at School ages: (e.g., Madras developmental Programming system
- MDPS, Behavioural Assessment Scale for Indian Children (BASIC-MR), Grade
Level Assessment Device for Children with Learning Problems in Schools (GLAD), and Functio
nal Assessment checklist for Programming (FACP), FACP -PMR

Madras Developmental Programming System (MDPS)

Madras Developmental Programming System (MDPS) is a criterion referenced scale, which is
used for assessment and programme planning for persons with mental retardation.

Content
The scale contains 360 items grouped under 18 areas or domains, each domain having 20
items. They are motor skills (gross motor and fine motor), self-help skills (eating, dressing,
grooming, toileting), communication skills (receptive, expressive), social interaction, functional
academic skills (reading, writing, number, time, money), domestic behaviour, community
interaction, recreation and leisure time activities, and vocational activities. Each domain has 20-
items. The items are developmentally sequenced. The activities are sequenced in such a way
that simple activities are listed first followed by complex ones. Items are stated as positive
statements which are observable and measurable. The items listed are functional activities
which normally occur in routine life of an individual.

Format
There is a format which is used for recording the performance of the student periodically (I
quarter, II quarter, III quarter) and the same can be communicated to family members and
others who are involved in education of the student. On assessment, if student performs the
activity, it is marked A, and if he does not perform the activity, it is marked B. The scale has
provision for colour coding, i.e., `A’ marked in blue and `B’ in red. Each quarter the red can be
covered by blue based on the progress. The tool also has a manual which helps in grouping and
programming. This is useful for special teacher for periodic assessment and planning IEP.

Behavioural Assessment Scale for Indian Children with Mental Retardation (BASIC-MR)
This assessment tool is used for assessing the current level of behaviour and for programmme
planning for children with mental retardation between the ages 3 to 16 years (or 18 years).
Content
The assessment tool is divided into two parts - Part A and Part B.

The BASIC-MR Part A includes 180 items grouped under seven domains – motor, activities of
daily living, language, reading and writing, number-time, domestic-social, prevocational-money.
Each domain consists of 40 items. All items are written in clear observable and measurable
terms and are arranged in increasing order of difficulty.
The BASIC-MR Part-B consists of 75 items grouped under ten domains – violent and
disruptive behaviour, tempertantrums, misbehaves with others, self injurious behaviours,
repetitive behaviours, odd behaviours, hyperactive behaviours, rebellious behaviours, antisocial
behaviours and fears. The number of items in each domain varies.

Format of BASIC-MR (Part-A)

Each child with mental retardation may show different levels of performance on every items on
the BASIC-MR, Part A. The six possible levels of performance under which each items can be
scored are as follows. Use the record booklet to enter the scores obtained by the child on each
item.
Level One: Independent (score 5) - If the child performs the listed behaviour without any kind of
physical or verbal help, it is marked as independent and given a score of 5.
Level Two: Clueing (Score 4) - If the child performs the listed behaviour only with some kind of
verbal hints. It is marked as “clueing” and given a score of 4.
Level Three: Verbal Prompting (score 3) - If the child performs the listed behaivour with some
kind of accompanying verbal statements. It is marked as verbal prompting and given a score of
3.
Level Four: Physical Prompting (Score 2) - If the child performs the listed behaviour only with
any kind of accompanying physical or manual help, it is marked as physical prompting and
given a score of 2.
Level Five: Totally dependent (Score 1) If the child does not perform the listed behaviour
currently, although he can be trained to do so. It is marked as totally dependent and given a
score of 1.
Level Six: Not applicable (Score 0) - Some children may not be able to perform listed behaviour
at all, owing to sensory or physical handicaps. Wherever an items is marked “not applicable”, it
gets a score of 0.

Format of BASIC_MR (Part B)

The following is the criteria of scoring which need to be used for BASIC-MR (Part-B):

For any given child with mental retardation, check each items of the scale and rate them along
a three point rating scale, viz. never (n), occasionally (o) or frequently (f) respectively given in
the record booklet against each items on the scale.

· If the stated problem behaviour presently does not occur in the child, mark “never” (n) and
give a score of zero.

· If the stated problem behaviour presently occurs once in a while or now and then, it is
marked ”Occasionally” and given a score of one.

· If the stated problem behaviour presently occurs quite often or, habitually, it is marked
“frequently” and given a score of two.
Thus, for each item on the BASIC-MR, Part B, a child with mental retardation may get any score
ranging from zero to two depending on the frequency of that problem behaviour. Enter the
appropriate score obtained by the child for each item in the record booklet.

GLAD (Grade level Assessment Device)

Grade level Assessment Device (GLAD) is used for find out processing problem in children with
learning problems in regular school who, many a time are suspected as mentally retarded. All
the educational assessment tools described above are popularly used criterion referenced
tools and have provision for programming and progress monitoring. In some schools, similar
tests are developed by themselves and used to suit their needs. The point to keep in mind is
that such tests should lead towards assessment of educational needs and provide link to
training and formative evaluation. The teacher must be well trained and competent to use the
tests.

Functional Assessment Checklist for Programming (FACP)

Functional Assessment Checklists for Programming (FACP) is an activity based checklist used
for assessment and programming of children with mental retardation. The activities listed in
the checklist are easy to understand, necessary for daily living, easily observable, age
appropriate as far as possible and ultimately contribute to living independently in the
community.
Grouping of students
The checklist covers content for various groups namely pre-primary, primary-I, primary-II,
secondary, prevocational-I, prevocational-II and care group. The grouping is done based on
ability and chronological age of the children. Keeping the principle of `zero reject’ in mind, the
grouping is made for children of all degrees of mental retardation in the school going age ie., 3
to 18 years.

Preprimary - This group consists of children between 3-6 years of age. The coverage of content
in the areas of personal, social and academic is more than with occupational area in this level.

Primary-I - Student who achieve 80% of the items in preprimary checklist are promoted to
primary-I level and the age of the students entering in this class may be 7 years approximately.
In some cases the students may continue one more year in preprimary to fulfill the pass criteria
(For example, if a student who is 7 years has achieved about 60% on evaluation in primary
checklist he may continue in the same class for a longer time and see whether he/she can
achieve the said pass criteria, ie., 80%).

Primary-II - The students who do not achieve 80% of the items in the checklist in Preprimary
level even after 8 years of age are placed in Primary-II. Presumably there are children with low
functioning abilities. The content in the academic area is minimal for this group. This group
covers children from 8-14 years. When they achieve 80% of the items in the primary-II checklist
they are promoted to Prevocational-II. In some cases they may achieve 80% before the age of
14 years and may be promoted to secondary group. Even if they achieve less than 80%, at the
age of 15, they will be promoted to Prevocational level II.

Secondary group - This group includes students between 11-14 years. It is a mixed group (ie.,
students promoted from both Primary I and II). On achieving 80% of the items in this class
including the items in academic area, the student will be promoted to prevocational-I and those
who achieve less than 80% will be promoted to prevocational-II.
Pre-Vocational I and II - Both the groups consist of students in the age group 15-18 years. The
primary focus of training is on preparing students in basic work skills and domestic activities.
Hence, the major content covered in the checklist are in the areas of occupational, social, and
academics. However, the content coverage under academic area will be minimal or need based
for prevocational-II group of students.

Mentally retarded persons over 18 years will be sent to vocational training units with their
summative evaluation reports for further programming. This curriculum checklist does not
cover the vocational area.

Care group - This group includes children with very low ability (bed ridden-profoundly retarded)
and the items in the checklist focus on training them in performing partially, the basic skills
such as drinking, eating, toileting, and basic meaningful motor movements and
communication. If they continue to stay non-ambulatory as the age advances, the
parent/caretaker may find it difficult to bring the child to school. In such cases, simultaneously
preparation of caretaker for maintaining learned skills is necessary. It is good to have the
children of this group distributed one each in each class starting from prevocational group.
This would provide a stimulating environment for them. However, they should be assessed
using care group checklist, irrespective of in which group they are placed.

Content
The content in each checklist consists of the core areas of personal, social, academic,
occupational and recreation. As children come from different cultures and ecological
backgrounds, there is a provision for deletion and addition of curricular items in each area
depending on the individual needs of a student. By doing so, the teacher plans an appropriate
individualized curriculum for every student in her class.

Format
The format is so designed that the programmer can enter assessment information (entry level)
and the progress periodically (at every quarter) for about three academic years, as it is
assumed that a student stays a maximum of 3 years in a given level. At the end, a table is given
to note the progress of individual child in all the areas periodically after evaluation which may
be transferred directly on to a progress report, which is also a component of FACP.
The checklist has a provision for recording the performance of a student on a continuum of 3
years. If a student performs an activity it is marked `+’ and if he does not perform it is marked `-
‘. However, the student is provided with assistance in terms of prompts to assess the current
level of a student. The prompts such as visual prompt, gestural prompting, modeling, physical
prompt are provide during the assessment to see with which prompt he is able to perform. For
example, if he is performed an activity with gestural prompt it is marked GP against that
specific activity.

Items marked `Yes” (or +) are counted as a point, while the others such as PP, VP, NE are noted
but not counted for points. As the ultimate aims is that of achieving independence in a given
activity area, those activities the child performs independently or with occasional cueing only
will be considered for quantifying into scores. The items marked NA are deleted from the total
items to be learned while calculating percentage. Similarly, specific items added should be
included for calculating percentage. Achievement of 80% of items in the checklist will be
considered for promotion fro one level to the next level. For example, the children who achieve
80% of the items, in preprimary checklist will be promoted to the primary level. It is however,
cautioned here that poor teaching should not reflect on the child’s lack of progress or inability
to learn.

The items listed under recreation need not be counted for quantification as these items are
interest based. The grades given include A = Takes initiative and participates effectively, B =
Participates when others initiates, C = Involves self but not aware of rules, D = Observes with
interest, E = Not interested (indifferent), NE = No Exposure. The grades as noted below
illustrate the involvement of recreational activities in the child. Such scoring is in line with the
system in regular schools. The cumulative score on the last page can be the grade that is
obtained maximum among the recreational items. If more than one grading gets equal scores,
the teacher may use her judgment and decide.

Writing progress report

Along with the provision of recording facility for recording the assessment and evaluation data
periodically, there is also a provision for reporting the progress made by the student. This tool
is comprehensive and easy to use by teachers as it has periodic monitoring facility and a
simple format for writing brief programme also.

4.4 Preparation of material for assessment of various skills.

Teachers need to:

· decide what is going to be learnt in a particular session p define the learning goals

· communicate the learning goals to the learners

· compile questions and design tasks to check learner understanding of the learning goals

· explain to the learners the criteria which will be used to assess their work

· decide how feedback is going to be provided

· define how learners will take an active part in the assessment process
· plan opportunities for learners to use the feedback provided on the assessment decision to
further progress.

Implications for design

These may be summarized as follows:

· Provide examples of questions or tasks that can engage students in expressing and
exchanging their ideas about a phenomenon or topic.

· Provide samples of classroom dialogue that teachers might analyse to develop deeper
understanding of their own classroom style.

· Give examples of various types of question that could be effective in stimulating students
to review and re-consider their own understanding.

· Provide summative tests, explaining the purposes for which the results of these would be
valid evidence, perhaps with tests in equivalent pairs to promote predictions and/or analysis by
students.

· Specify outlines designed to develop the skills of collaborative group work amongst
students.

These are only examples, and it is clear that for most of them the materials would have to be
different for each curriculum subject.

4.5 Documentation of Assessment Result, Interpretation, Report Writing.

Documentation simply means keeping a record of what is observed while students are engaged
in a learning experience. (while playing, learning and exploring)

Records might include teacher observations which focus on specific skills, concepts, or
characteristics outlined in the curriculum.

Daily observations may be both planned or spontaneous to ensure that all learning experiences
that may emerge from a particular activity are included.

There are various forms of documenting a student’s learning experiences.

· Photographs, Videotapes and Audio Recordings: It might include the use of student’s
artwork and writing, photographs, videotapes and/or tape-recordings.

· Checklists: Checklists are most effective and efficient as an assessment tool when they
assess specific curriculum outcomes pertaining to a topic.

· Work Samples and Portfolios: Portfolios show a progression of growth in a child’s

development during a period of time through a collection of student work samples.

· Documentation can be as simple as an attractive display of children’s work on a wall or it

can be a more elaborately crafted display board that tells the story of an experience of a child
or a group of children.
· All types of documentation should include a title, photos or sketches of children’s work
with written captions, children’s illustrations of the experience and additional written
descriptions of the learning.

· Documentation helps all together for the students, teachers, and the parents.

· It provides students with the opportunity to revisit their work which, in turn, provides
teachers with the opportunity to discuss with them their interests, their ideas and their plans.

· By becoming involved in the documentation of their own learning experiences, students

become more reflective and more engaged in the learning that is happening all around them.

RESULT INTERPRETATION AND REPORT WRITING

Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences (making conclusion based on evidences
and reasoning) from the collected facts after an assessment.

Report writing is documenting the summarized and interpretative information of assessment

which was done using various procedures by an individual or a group.

· The interpretation of assessment results involves the practitioner in a series of analyses

that lead to one or more explanations of the student’s performance and behavior.

· Analyzing and interpreting information includes synthesizing information in text or graphic

displays.

· Special educators need to know how to analyze and interpret information to share the
results with others, including family members and students, too.

· Result interpretation can be done in various methods: such as Scores, Standard deviation,
Percentiles, Standard error of measurement.

· These are helpful when setting goals with students, monitoring student growth and
learning patterns over time

· Offer at-a-glance insight into the strengths and weaknesses of student learning.

· Useful to understand how students in a class are performing relative to their peers,
particularly when setting goals with students, creating flexible groupings, or evaluating program
effectiveness.

· Can be useful when determining how diverse student performance is within a group. An
important factor for understanding why an average (mean) score is higher or lower for a group,
and whether whole group or small group instruction might be more effective.

In addition to assessment reports, there is a variety of other ways to share assessment

information with different audiences, including websites, brochures, presentations, and
social media. In particular, finding ways to share assessment results with students
 contributes to their increased understanding of why they are asked to participate in
assessment and how they benefit from it.

Assessment of students with SLD

5.1. Assessment of perceptual, memory skills and cognitive skills and readiness skills

5.2. Assessment of attention, listening and speaking skills

5.3. Assessment of reading and writing skills

5.4. Assessment of math skills – computation and application

5.5. Assessment using various tools (e.g., First Screen, Behaviour Checklist for
Screening students with SLD (BCSLD), Grade Level Assessment Device for Children with Lear
ning Problems in Schools (GLAD), Diagnostic Test of Reading Disorders
(DTRD), Diagnostic Test of Learning Disability (DTLD). Documentation of assessment, interpre
tation and report writing, DALI)

5.1 Assessment of perceptual, memory skills and cognitive skills and readiness skills

Assessment of perceptual skills

1. Visual Discrimination (VD): the individual is shown a picture or design and asked to identify
the matching design at the bottom of the page.

2. Visual Memory (VM): the individual is shown a picture or design for 5 s, the page is turned,
and the child is asked to identify the matching design on the new page.

3. Spatial Relationships (SR): the individual is shown a series of pictures or designs and asked
to identify the one that is different, they are advised that it “may differ in detail or in the rotation
of all or part of the design.”

4. Form Constancy (FC): the individual is asked to identify one picture or design on the page, it
can be larger, smaller, or rotated.

5. Sequential Memory (SM): the individual is shown an arrangement of pictures or designs for 5
s and then asked to identify the matching design on the next page. The number of items in the
arrangement increases throughout the test.

6. Figure-Ground (FG): the individual is asked to identify an image or design within a more
complex shape.

Assessment of memory skills

Psychological research has shown that memory is not a unitary construct. Instead, memory
consists of a coordinated collection of processes and abilities that work together to enable
individuals’ day-to-day functioning. Furthermore, one aspect of memory can be impaired while
another remains intact. For that reason, psychologists do not rely on a single procedure for
assessing memory. Many assessment measures exist, and commonly used assessment
procedures contain multiple subcomponents, each aimed at assessing a particular type of
memory.

Children exhibiting signs of developmental delay will benefit from professional, comprehensive
assessment in some or all of the following areas:

• Background information about family, early development, health, language, literacy and
educational experiences. A record of early developmental milestones will provide
information about rate of learning, and note should be made of the age at which
parents or teachers first observed “problems.”
• Hearing and vision. Some physiological causes affect developmental delays. For example,
a hearing impairment can interfere with language acquisition; a child with a visual
impairment may be unable to interpret and interact with his or her environment
appropriately.
• Perception, memory, language, thinking skills, and problem solving. Assessment of
these skills and aptitudes can assist in distinguishing between children delayed in all
aspects of development and those slow in a few areas, who otherwise perform as well
or better than their age peers.
• Listening comprehension and expressive language. Observation of the child as he or she
communicates with parents, teachers and peers demonstrates his or her ability to
comprehend single words, sentences, questions and short stories. A child should be
able to use words previously learned, express ideas in an organized way, manipulate
the sounds that make words, and play rhyming games, as appropriate. Constraints
associated with formal testing may be less evident during observation, revealing more
of what a child knows or can express. This is a significant area of observation because
other symbolic systems, such as reading, writing, and mathematics are based largely
on oral language.
• Awareness and manipulation of sounds in words, letter names, and picture names. These
are good predictors of early reading.
• Writing mechanics and early content. A child’s pencil grasp during the writing process,
samples of drawings, invented spellings, and pretend messages can effectively
supplement the results of more constrained formal testing.
• Mathematics. Testing instruments assess a child’s verbal, visual and cognitive skills by
his or her ability to recognize numerals and perceive quantitative and qualitative
characteristics (more, less, bigger, similar, different). Additional informal observation is
also valuable.
• Reasoning. A child’s ability to sort, group, classify objects and attributes, solve problems,
and understand cause and effect can be determined by the performance of various
tasks and by careful observation.
• Social and self-help skills and use of non-verbal communication. Children should
demonstrate the ability to put on articles of clothing in the correct order, tie shoes,
button buttons, select clothes that are appropriate for different activities and weather
conditions, and feed themselves. A child should learn to take turns, as play progresses
from sensory exploration to a combination of exploration and representational play.
Observing the child perform tasks that require careful observation and other visual-
spatial skills can be beneficial.
• Attention. Younger children may be expected to lack sustained attention and be
overactive, while kindergartners should develop the ability to remain on-task for a
sustained period. Observation can reveal problems in this area.
 • Maturation. Parents can provide information about a child’s ability to care for himself or
herself and for others. From this information, along with observation, a child’s level of
general independence can be determined.

Finally, periods of diagnostic testing should reveal a child’s rate and style of learning and
insight into beneficial forms of instruction by providing valuable data on his or her performance
over time and across contexts.

5.2 Assessment of attention, listening and speaking skills

Testing someone's ability to pay attention is more complicated than it sounds. Attention is
composed of four major components:
1. selective attention: the ability to attend to stimuli while ignoring distractions;
2. sustained attention: the ability to maintain attention over an extended period of time;
3. divided attention: the ability to attend to more than one task simultaneously; and,

4. alternating attention: the ability to shift attention from one task to another without losing
focus.

Measuring each facet of attention can be extremely helpful in pinpointing relative strengths and
weaknesses. Tests can also indicate methods for dealing with the identified attention problem.

The benefits of accurately identifying areas of need in relation to attention, concentration and
hyperactivity can be seen in multiple areas of an individual’s life. Benefits include:

· Increased self-confidence

· Reduced anxiety

· Greater progress within education

· Targeted support strategies

Benefits can be seen through a comprehensive understanding of needs in addition to

adaptations to the learning environment.

Even though many students have mastered basic listening and speaking skills, some students
are much more effective in their oral communication than others. And those who are more
effective communicators experience more success in school and in other areas of their lives.
The skills that can make the difference between minimal and effective communication can be
taught, practiced, and improved.

Two methods are used for assessing speaking skills. In the observational approach, the
student's behavior is observed and assessed unobtrusively. In the structured approach, the
student is asked to perform one or more specific oral communication tasks. His or her
performance on the task is then evaluated. The task can be administered in a one-on-one
setting -- with the test administrator and one student -- or in a group or class setting. In either
setting, students should feel that they are communicating meaningful content to a real
audience. Tasks should focus on topics that all students can easily talk about, or, if they do not
include such a focus, students should be given an opportunity to collect information on the
topic.

Both observational and structured approaches use a variety of rating systems. A holistic rating
captures a general impression of the student's performance. A primary trait score assesses the
student's ability to achieve a specific communication purpose -- for example, to persuade the
listener to adopt a certain point of view. Analytic scales capture the student's performance on
various aspects of communication, such as delivery, organization, content, and language.
Rating systems may describe varying degrees of competence along a scale or may indicate the
presence or absence of a characteristic.

A major aspect of any rating system is rater objectivity: Is the rater applying the scoring criteria
accurately and consistently to all students across time? The reliability of raters should be
established during their training and checked during administration or scoring of the
assessment. If ratings are made on the spot, two raters will be required for some
administrations. If ratings are recorded for later scoring, double scoring will be needed.

Listening tests typically resemble reading comprehension tests except that the student listens
to a passage instead of reading it. The student then answers mulitiple-choice questions that
address various levels of literal and inferential comprehension. Important elements in all
listening tests are (1) the listening stimuli, (2) the questions, and (3) the test environment.

The listening stimuli should represent typical oral language, and not consist of simply the oral
reading of passages designed to be written material. The material should model the language
that students might typically be expected to hear in the classroom, in various media, or in
conversations. Since listening performance is strongly influenced by motivation and memory,
the passages should be interesting and relatively short. To ensure fairness, topics should be
grounded in experience common to all students, irrespective of sex and geographic,
socioeconomic, or racial/ethnic background.

In regard to questions, multiple-choice items should focus on the most important aspects of
the passage -- not trivial details -- and should measure skills from a particular domain. Answers
designated as correct should be derived from the passage, without reliance on the student's
prior knowledge or experience. Questions and response choices should meet accepted
psychometric standards for multiple-choice questions.

An alternative to the multiple-choice test is a performance test that requires students to select
a picture or actually perform a task based on oral instruction. For example, students might hear
a description of several geometric figures and choose pictures that match the description, or
they might be given a map and instructed to trace a route that is described orally.

The testing environment for listening assessment should be free of external distractions. If
stimuli are presented from a tape, the sound quality should be excellent. If stimuli are
presented by a test administrator, the material should be presented clearly, with appropriate
volume and rate of speaking

The abilities to listen critically and to express oneself clearly and effectively contribute to a
student's success in school and later in life. Teachers concerned with developing the speaking
and listening communication skills of their students need methods for assessing their
students' progress. These techniques range from observation and questioning to standardized
testing. However, even the most informal methods should embrace the measurement
principles of reliability, validity, and fairness. The methods used should be appropriate to the
purpose of the assessment and make use of the best instruments and procedures available.

5.3 Assessment of reading and writing skills

Reading skills are those necessary to read text, process the information and gather meaning.
Reading is truly essential for all other subject areas. Imagine you are an 8th-grade science
teacher. What would you do if your students could not read the textbook? Or could read, but got
no meaning from it? Reading is a skill that is universally used not only in all subject areas, but
nearly all workplaces.

Since reading is a very internal skill to develop, assessing it can be tricky. The overall purpose
of assessing for reading skills is to verify students are learning how to personalize and interpret
a variety of texts. Let's use a sample learning standard, or objective, to discuss ideas for
assessing reading skills.

• Trace the development of a writer's or poet's ideas, viewpoint and themes through a text
and relate these to other texts read.

This standard focuses on theme, which is the moral or message of the story. You can assess
for theme using a number of ways, including observation, group work, creative writing and
many more. You might follow these steps:

1. Spend some instructional time defining theme and finding examples in literature.

2. Assess each student, which could include a theme scavenger hunt. Give students different
themes to hunt for, like everlasting love or coping with loss.

3. Students must search the textbook, or other anthologies, to find other pieces of literature
that share that theme.

This type of assessment could be modified for any number of reading objectives and
standards. Basically, your assessments need to show that each student is processing and
gaining meaning from various texts.

Writing

The second major area of language arts is writing, which include skills needed to express ideas
using the written word. These include grammar, punctuation, spelling and sentence structure.
Like reading, writing is also essential across curriculums and in the workplace. Assessments
for writing should center on students producing quality writing samples. Here is a sample
writing standard:

• Demonstrate controlled use of a variety of simple and complex sentences to achieve

purpose and contribute to overall effect.

From this objective, you can do a variety of activities to assess your students. Let's say your
students have learned the basics of simple and complex sentences. Now you have to assess
whether your students can use both types in their own writing. One activity could be an analysis
of a famous speech. Have students identify the simple and complex sentences and explain why
the author used them. You can use observation or group work to assess this step. Furthermore,
after the analysis, have students write their own speeches on a different topic but mimicking
the structure of the original speech. This will allow you to assess if students can use simple
and complex sentences in their own writing. All assessments you create should involve
students using a specific writing concept in their own writing.

A teacher's first responsibility is to provide opportunities for writing and encouragement for
students who attempt to write. A teacher's second responsibility is to promote students'
success in writing. The teacher does this by carefully monitoring students' writing to assess
strengths and weaknesses, teaching specific skills and strategies in response to student
needs, and giving careful feedback that will reinforce newly learned skills and correct recurring
problems. These responsibilities reveal, upon inspection, that assessment is clearly an integral
part of good instruction. In their review of the existing research on effective instruction
Christenson, Ysseldyke, and Thurlow (1989) found that, in addition to other factors, the
following conditions were positively correlated to pupil achievement:

• The degree to which there is an appropriate instructional match between student

characteristics and task characteristics (in other words, teachers must assess the
student's prior knowledge and current level of skills in order to match them to a task
that is relevant and appropriate to their aptitudes);
• The degree to which the teacher actively monitors students' understanding and progress;
and
• The degree to which student performance is evaluated frequently and appropriately
(congruent with what is taught).

Assessment, therefore, is an essential component of effective instruction. Airasian (1996)

identified three types of classroom assessments. The first he called "sizing-up" assessments,
usually done during the first week of school to provide the teacher with quick information about
the students when beginning their instruction. The second type, instructional assessments, are
used for the daily tasks of planning instruction, giving feedback, and monitoring student
progress. The third type he referred to as official assessments, which are the periodic formal
functions of assessment for grouping, grading, and reporting. In other words, teachers use
assessment for identifying strengths and weaknesses, planning instruction to fit diagnosed
needs, evaluating instructional activities, giving feedback, monitoring performance, and
reporting progress. Simple curriculum-based methods for assessing written expression can
meet all these purposes.

5.4 Assessment of math skills – computation and application

Computational skills are the selection and application of arithmetic operations to calculate
solutions to mathematical problems.

Arithmetic encompasses a set of mathematic processes that include number sense, the
understanding of mathematic principles such as the associative and commutative properties,
and computational skills. Specifically, computational skills are defined as the abilities to
calculate basic addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division problems quickly and
accurately using mental methods, paper-and-pencil, and other tools, such as a calculator. This
requires the selection of the appropriate arithmetic operation. Also, computational skills require
the execution of the steps to calculate the solution.

Assessing Mathematical Understanding is a set of mathematics assessments for kindergarten

and first-grade students that provides both cumulative data about students’ progress over time
and in-depth diagnostic information. Aligned with the Common Core State Standards for
Mathematics, it is intended as a tool to help teachers track student progress, identify particular
difficulties, and generally inform instructional planning.

Goals of Assessing Mathematical Understanding

· To enhance teachers’ ability to meet individual student needs

· To facilitate teacher collaboration around student learning

· To promote student learning in mathematics

Features

· Individual assessment interviews are conducted by the teacher or another qualified staff
member two to three times during the school year. The student record provides a cumulative
report of mathematical progress during that period.

· The one-on-one interview structure allows the teacher to collect rich data about student
knowledge that is not limited to the answer the student gives, but also includes observations of
the strategies and explanations the student uses.

· The diagnostic assessment allows the teacher to ascertain an individual student’s

strengths, weaknesses, knowledge, and skills in a particular concept area.

· The content of each grade-level assessment is aligned with the Common Core State
Standards for Mathematics.

Using assessment tools and techniques that show student thinking requires:

• an understanding what different student responses might mean

• practical ideas to address the learning needs identified.

School based assessment may also contribute to building a clear picture of the learner.
Examples of assessment in mathematics and numeracy include:

• feedback and reflection

• student self-assessments
• student portfolios
• validated tools
• anecdotal evidence
• teacher moderated student assessment tasks
• student self-reflections, interests and surveys.
5.5 Assessment using various tools (e.g., First Screen, Behaviour Checklist for
Screening students with SLD (BCSLD), Grade Level Assessment Device for Children with Lear
ning Problems in Schools (GLAD), Diagnostic Test of Reading Disorders
(DTRD), Diagnostic Test of Learning Disability (DTLD). Documentation of assessment, interpre
tation and report writing, DALI)

First Screen

A first of its kind screening app for Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD) - ‘First Screen’ has been
developed by an city based NGO. The foundation provides remedial intervention to children
with special education needs, especially those with Specific Learning Disabilities in India and
operates in the Chandigarh, Haryana & Punjab regions as well.
Founder of Orkids Foundation, Dr. Geet Oberoi said, “The app aims at early identification of
children who may be at the risk of developing SLD (Specific learning disabilities). It also allows
for early intervention well before the formal age of diagnosis at 8years. It’s a free android app,
available in both languages, Hindi and English.” ‘First Screen’ app covers nine major domains;
reading & spelling, written expression, oral language, motor skills, attention, social skills,
mathematics, executive functions, and memory. The app includes a test of 90 scoring items
with 3-point answers; yes, maybe, no/NA.
It takes 20-25 minutes to complete the test after which visual feedback (as opposed to text) is
given with possible recommendations for the future. And for accuracy purposes, the test must
be filled by a parent or a teacher who has known the child for at least 6 months.

Dr. Geet Oberoi underlined, “The Guidelines for Assessment of various Disabilities under the
‘Rights of Persons with Disabilities’ Act 2016, notification ‘Ministry of Social Justice and
Empowerment’ (MSJE) mentions a screening test for children to be used at 8 years, class 3 to
aid identification of children with SLD. However, no such screening test app is available so far.
And this lacuna could be addressed by 'First Screen' app.”

Dr. Geet Oberoi underlined that since 2016, SLD has been included in the ‘Rights of Persons
with Disabilities’ (RPwD Act) hence making all provisions for the children/individuals equally
accessible by them as well. Specific learning disorder (SLD) is one of the most common
neurodevelopmental disorders affecting 3% to10% of children.
Additionally, the level of awareness and professional training in SLD and related areas is almost
negligible, especially in tier 2 and tier 3 cities. The guidelines have given for ‘Children With
Special Needs (CWSN) in the RPWD Act 2016 state that no child can be diagnosed before the
age of 8.
Dr. Geet highlighted, “Since the ideal age for kids to enter school is 3 years, this is an
opportunity that gives a buffer to the kids to adjust and come up to the required milestones in
learning. However, the lack of timely intervention in the case of the kids who may be at a risk
puts them on the losing end because their issues are not identified in these 5 years. By the time
they turn 8, they face a learning gap as compared to their peers.”
She concludes, “Therefore, a screening tool which is not diagnostic and thus does not label, but
only screens to identify kids that maybe 'at risk' is the need of the hour. 'First Screen' would
ensure that these valuable 5 years can be utilized by providing extra support in terms of training
and providing resources to the kids to help their learning curve.”

Behaviour Checklist for Screening students with SLD (BCSLD)

It is a screening tool which advocates use of other diagnostic tools for the assessment and
determination of learning disability in the child. The checklists consist of 30 items, positive and
negative, to be filled in by the teacher. It covers eight areas, each representing a deficit in a
particular ability, and gives us insight into the mental make-up, attempting to explain the reason
for the child's under-achievement. It has been standardized on 1000 children from ages 8-11
years. 300 teachers also constituted the sample.

Grade Level Assessment Device for Children with Learning Problems in Schools (GLAD)

Grade Level Assessment Device for Children with learning problems in schools (GLAD) -This
device was developed by Jayanthi Narayan (1997) of NIMH, Secunderabad to assess the
learning problems of primary school children. The device had taken into account the standard
curricular content of class 1 to IVth in India and items were selected from the existing
curriculum. The co-efficient of 0.99 and 0.68 for IIIrd & IVth classes respectively indicates that
the test is highly reliable. Criterion validity of the test was established by taking a sample of 10
children who have been taken 65 from the class and tested with the content one class lower.
For each class from 1 to IV in each subject area the exercise was carried out. The correlations
of the scores obtained for class IIIrd and IVth are 0.76 and 0.74 respectively indicates that the
test is valid for respective classes.

Grade level Assessment Device (GLAD) is used for find out processing problem in children with
learning problems in regular school who, many a time are suspected as mentally retarded. All
the educational assessment tools described above are popularly used criterion referenced
tools and have provision for programming and progress monitoring. In some schools, similar
tests are developed by themselves and used to suit their needs. The point to keep in mind is
that such tests should lead towards assessment of educational needs and provide link to
training and formative evaluation. The teacher must be well trained and competent to use the
tests.
 Diagnostic Test of Reading
Disorders (DTRD)

Perceptual and cognitive deficits, assumed to be the underlying causes for the reading, writing
problems, in the learning disabled provided the base for the development of the Diagnostic
Test of Reading Disorders. The test identifies and diagnoses the process deficits that cause
disorders in both fluency and accuracy of reading. It is an individually administered instrument.
Each child has to be administered both Level I and Level II tests. It was standardized on a
sample of 1100 school going boys and girls in the age range of 8-11 years. It is a non-timed
test.

Diagnostic Test of Learning Disability (DTLD)

The authors of DTLD are Smriti Swaroop and Dharmishta Mehta. The test diagnoses learning
disability in ten areas-from Auditory/Visual Perception to Cognitive areas. It consists of 10 sub-
tests. It is to be individually administered on the age group 8-11 years old. A deficit in any of the
area or areas or a combination of any, would lead to a learning problem. Eye-hand Co-
ordination, Figure Ground Perception, Figure Constancy, Position-in-Space, Spatial Relations,
Auditory Perception, Memory, Cognitive Abilities, Receptive Language, Expressive Language. It
is the test to diagnose learning difficulty and other areas like language, spatial relations, eye
hand co-ordination etc. This test ranges from age 6 to 14 years.

Dyslexia Assessment for Languages of India) (DALI)

DALI is an assessment tool created by National Brain Research Centre, India in South Asian
languages.

Most tools for screening dyslexic children are available in English. As we have already seen,
that can be quite problematic and culturally inappropriate.

DALI is an assessment tool created by National Brain Research Centre, India in South Asian
languages.

It contains tools for school teachers and assessment tools for psychologists in Indian
Languages to identify dyslexia. For the first time, India will have indigenously developed
screening and assessment tools that have been standardized and validated across a large
population of nearly 4840 children.

The tools are available in Hindi, Marathi, Kannada and English and development in other
languages is in process. DALI contains two screening tools for dyslexia (for school teachers),
namely the JST (Junior Screening Tool) for classes (1-2) and the MST (Middle Screening Tool)
for classes (3-5) in four languages, Hindi, Marathi, Kannada and English. It also contains eight
standardized and validated assessment Batteries to be used by psychologists. It is further
being made available in 4 more South Asian languages.

DALI is the first screening and assessment tool for dyslexia in regional Indian languages. DALI
is developed at National Brain Research Centre and this study was supported by Department of
Science and Technology.

Nearly 1 in 6 children has reading problems. Dyslexia is a hidden learning disability wherein
children fail to achieve reading skills in regular classroom settings. Dyslexia has a biological
basis and occurs because of differences in brain wiring.

Children in India receive education at school in at least 2 languages. It is necessary that the
assessment of dyslexia be carried in all languages that the child is exposed to. India, the
diagnosis of dyslexia has been incomplete because of the absence of standardized, validated
assessment tools in regional Indian languages.

DALI (Dyslexia Assessment for Languages of India) contains screening tools for school
teachers and assessment tools for psychologists to identify dyslexia. The tools are currently
available in four languages as detailed below. Extension to other languages is in process.

The tool screens the children from classes 1 to 5 (five to 10 years) in six categories. These are
reading, writing, math, communication, memory, and motor coordination. Research shows that
children should be screened in all the languages in which they are taught, so the tool has to be
administered by a Language teacher and the Class teacher.

There is a detailed evaluation that follows once a child is screened positively, says Dr Singh.
“The parents are told to follow this up with a regular eye and hearing check-up to ensure there
are no sensory issues.”

This is followed by a formal assessment, based on the outcome of which an Individualised

Intervention Plan is worked out for the child. A special educator is then assigned to help the
child bridge the learning gaps, and the specific needs of the child are highlighted in the report.
The school is expected to provide for these accommodations.

DALI was used among 30,000 children studying in Delhi government schools and received
positive feedback “especially with teachers who were unable to understand some of the
underachievers,”, says Dr Oberoi. “Early intervention is facilitated and with timely inputs the
chances of mainstreaming the children in question have increased considerably.”

By launching the app in a range of regional languages, the aim is to enable more people to
access it. A welcome move say special educators.

“A regional language screening app makes a difference”, says Joyeeta Dutta, Senior Special
Educator and Program Manager-School Outreach with the Ummeed Child Development
Centre in Mumbai.

“A lot of children are more comfortable with their native tongue. There are many first
generation learners learning English and it becomes hard to gauge their levels. An assessment
tool in the native language will help intervene early. LD occurs across all languages and if a
child is struggling in a certain language it gives you an option of testing in the language spoken
at home”.

To ensure all children are empowered, DALI has to be taken to schools across India, points out
Dr Oberoi. “Screening of children in ALL schools needs to become mandatory. Leaving it up to
the school authorities more often than not does not result in much.”

Documentation of assessment, interpretation and report writing

An assessment plan's value to the department lies in the evidence it offers about overall
department or program strengths and weaknesses, and in the evidence it provides for change
(Wright, 1991). The key factors in achieving real value from all of your work is to make the most
out of the information you have collected by using effective analysis and interpretation
practices.

The Best Ways to Analyze and Interpret Assessment Information

· Present the data in relation to the program’s identified goals and objectives

· Use qualitative and quantitative methods to present a well-balanced picture of the

assessment goals and driving questions

· Vary your analysis and reporting procedures according to identified audiences

(accreditors, campus report etc)

· Develop recommendations based on the analysis of data and using identified goals as a
framework within which to accomplish suggested changes

Consider the extent to which your findings can help you answer the following questions:
· What does the data say about students' mastery of subject matter, research skills, or
writing?

· What does it say about meeting benchmark expectations?

· What does the data say about your students' preparation for taking the next step in their
careers?

· Are graduates of your program getting good jobs, accepted into reputable graduate
schools?

· Are there areas where your students are outstanding?

· Do you see weakness in any particular skills, such as research or critical thinking skills?

These are compelling questions for faculty, administrators, students, and external audiences
alike. If your assessment information can shed light on these issues, the value of your efforts
will become all the more apparent.

Remember that data can often be misleading, and even threatening, when used for purposes
other than originally intended and agreed upon. For example, data collected from the
assessment of student performance in a capstone course should be used to identify areas of
strengths and weaknesses in student learning “across the students' entire experience in the
major”. In this way, the data can guide curricular modifications and departmental pedagogical
strategies. The data should NOT be used to evaluate the performance of the capstone course
instructor.

Preparing Effective Assessment Plans & Reports

At its most basic, your report should have enough information to answer five basic questions:

· What did you do?

· Why did you do it?

· What did you find?

· How will you use it?

· What is your evaluation of the assessment itself?

Format of the Assessment Plans and Reports

A comprehensive program assessment plan and report could be as simple as a presentation to

departments on the major results or it could be a detailed report to the Provost on assessing
learning outcomes in the program. The reality is that a program rarely has only one purpose for
engaging in assessment. Therefore, you may want to develop reports that are tailored
specifically to the audiences you need to address.
Formal Reports

If you have decided to prepare a formal assessment report, your report should address each of
the identified audiences and might contain some or all of the following:

· A brief description of why the assessment activity was undertaken

· A brief description of the major, goals, objectives and intended learning outcomes

· An explanation of how the analysis was done and what methodology was used

· A presentation of major findings

· A discussion of how results are being used for program improvement

· An evaluation of the assessment plan/process itself

· An outline of next steps (programmatic, curricular, and assessment-related)

· An appendix containing a curriculum analysis matrix, relevant assignments and outcomes,

data collection methods, and other information or materials as appropriate

Assessment reports do not necessarily have to be pages and pages of text and graphs to be
effective. You may choose to prepare a report that briefly and succinctly outlines your
assessment program results. By highlighting the main points and significant results, you can
convey in a concise manner what you were trying to accomplish, what you did and did not
accomplish, and what changes you will implement as a result.