General Awareness

History
Advent of Europeans:
European Arrival
First Settlement Key Personality Important Battles/Events
Power (Year)
Calicut (Vasco da - Captured Goa (1510) - Introduced
Portuguese 1498 Albuquerque
Gama) tobacco, pineapple - First to arrive
- Established VOC (1602) - Defeated in
Dutch 1605 Masulipatnam Pieter Both
Battle of Bedara (1759)
1600 (EIC Thomas Roe, - Battle of Plassey (1757) - Battle of
British Surat (1613)
formed) Robert Clive Buxar (1764) - Gained Bengal rights
Pondicherry - Carnatic Wars (1746–63) - Lost in Third
French 1664 Dupleix, Lally
(1674) Carnatic War (1763)
Tranquebar (Tamil - Settled at Serampore - Sold colonies to
Danish 1616 Ove Gjedde
Nadu) British in 1845

Quick Facts for SSC:

• First to come: Portuguese (1498)
• Last to leave: Portuguese (Goa, 1961)
• First factory by British: Surat (1613)
• British supremacy: After Plassey (1757) and Buxar (1764)
• French decline: After Third Carnatic War (1763)
• Dutch exit: After Battle of Bedara (1759)
• Danish exit: Sold possessions in 1845

Major Wars in Indian History

War Year(s) Fought Between Result / Outcome
French captured Madras; ended by Treaty of
1st Carnatic War 1746–1748 British vs French
Aix-la-Chapelle
British (Clive) vs French
2nd Carnatic War 1749–1754 British gained influence in South India
(Dupleix)
3rd Carnatic War 1756–1763 British vs French British victory; French lost political hold in India
1st Anglo-Mysore War 1767–1769 British vs Hyder Ali Treaty of Madras; no clear winner
British vs Hyder Ali & Tipu
2nd Anglo-Mysore War 1780–1784 Treaty of Mangalore; status quo maintained
Sultan
Treaty of Seringapatam; Tipu ceded half
3rd Anglo-Mysore War 1790–1792 British vs Tipu Sultan
territory
4th Anglo-Mysore War 1799 British vs Tipu Sultan Tipu Sultan killed; Mysore annexed
British vs Sikh Empire
1st Anglo-Sikh War 1845–1846 Treaty of Lahore; British gained Jullundur
(after Ranjit Singh)
2nd Anglo-Sikh War 1848–1849 British vs Sikh Rebels Punjab annexed by the British
1st Anglo-Afghan War 1839–1842 British vs Afghans British retreat; military disaster
2nd Anglo-Afghan War 1878–1880 British vs Afghans Treaty of Gandamak; British regained influence
3rd Anglo-Afghan War 1919 British India vs Afghanistan Afghanistan's independence recognized

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Major Socio-Religious Reform Movements in India

Movement / Organization Year Founder / Leader Main Objective / Focus

- Opposed idol worship, caste system, sati
Brahmo Samaj 1828 Raja Ram Mohan Roy
- Promoted monotheism & women’s rights
- Vedas are supreme
Swami Dayanand
Arya Samaj 1875 - Against idol worship, child marriage
Saraswati
- Promoted Shuddhi
- Based on teachings of Ramakrishna
Ramakrishna Mission 1897 Swami Vivekananda Paramhansa
- Social service & spiritual unity
1875 (US), Madame Blavatsky, - Revival of Hindu philosophy, support for
Theosophical Society
1879 (India) Annie Besant Indian self-rule
- Modern education for Muslims
Aligarh Movement 1875 Sir Syed Ahmad Khan
- Founded Aligarh Muslim University
- Reform within Islam, opposed jihad,
Ahmadiyya Movement 1889 Mirza Ghulam Ahmad
supported modern education
Henry Louis Vivian - Radical, westernized ideas
Young Bengal Movement 1830s
Derozio - Promoted liberty, equality, rationalism
- Reform Hinduism
Atmaram Pandurang,
Prarthana Samaj 1867 - Opposed caste & rituals, promoted
later R.G. Bhandarkar
monotheism
- Upliftment of lower castes
Satya Shodhak Samaj 1873 Jyotiba Phule - Opposed Brahmanical dominance, promoted
women’s rights
Sri Narayana Dharma - Social equality in Kerala
1903 Sri Narayana Guru
Paripalana (SNDP) - “One caste, one religion, one God for mankind”
- Social reform through education, health, and
Servants of India Society 1905 Gopal Krishna Gokhale
welfare work

Important Sessions of Indian National Congress

The Indian National Congress (INC) was founded in 1885 by A.O. Hume to provide a platform for Indian voices in
governance. It later became the principal organization leading India’s struggle for freedom from British rule.

Year Place President Significance / Resolution

1885 Bombay W.C. Bonnerjee 1st Session; 72 delegates attended
1907 Surat Rash Behari Ghosh Split between Moderates and Extremists (Surat Split)
1916 Lucknow Ambica Charan Mazumdar Lucknow Pact between INC and Muslim League
1917 Calcutta Annie Besant First woman president of INC
Adoption of Non-Cooperation Movement under Gandhi's
1920 Nagpur C. Vijayaraghavachariar
influence
1924 Belgaum Mahatma Gandhi Only session presided by Mahatma Gandhi
1925 Kanpur Sarojini Naidu First Indian woman president of INC
1927 Madras M.A. Ansari Demand for Complete Independence raised by Jawaharlal Nehru
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 Year Place President Significance / Resolution
Poorna Swaraj (Complete Independence) declared
1929 Lahore Jawaharlal Nehru
26 Jan 1930 to be celebrated as Independence Day
Resolution on Fundamental Rights and National Economic
1931 Karachi Vallabhbhai Patel
Program
Focus on economic planning through National Planning
1938 Haripura Subhas Chandra Bose
Committee
Subhas Chandra Bose (re-
1939 Tripuri Bose resigned; Rajendra Prasad became acting president
elected)
Last session before independence; supported Cabinet Mission
1946 Meerut J.B. Kripalani
Plan

Revolt of 1857:

Aspect Details
Date Started on 10 May 1857 in Meerut
Use of greased cartridges in Enfield rifles — rumoured to be made of cow and pig fat,
Main Cause (Immediate)
offensive to both Hindus and Muslims
- Doctrine of Lapse (introduced by Lord Dalhousie)
Political Causes - Annexation of Indian states
- Disrespect for native rulers and titles
- Exploitative land revenue policies (e.g., Permanent Settlement, Mahalwari)
Economic Causes - Destruction of traditional industries
- Peasant hardships
- Discrimination in promotions and salary
Military Causes - Indians barred from higher ranks
- Use of sepoys outside India without extra pay
- Spread of Christian missionary activities
Social & Religious Causes - Abolition of traditional practices (Sati, child marriage)
- Fear of forced conversions
• Delhi – Bahadur Shah Zafar – General John Nicholson, Lieutenant Hudson
• Kanpur – Nana Sahib – General Henry Havelock, later Colin Campbell
• Lucknow – Begum Hazrat Mahal – Henry Lawrence (initially), later Colin Campbell
Major Centres of Revolt and • Jhansi – Rani Lakshmibai – General Hugh Rose
leaders • Bareilly – Khan Bahadur Khan – Sir Colin Campbell
• Gwalior – Tantia Tope – General Hugh Rose
• Arrah (Bihar) – Kunwar Singh – William Taylor, Vincent Eyre
• Meerut – Mangal Pandey – General William Hewitt, later General Wilson
Brutal retaliation by the British; Delhi recaptured in September 1857; revolt ended by
Suppression of Revolt
mid-1858
- End of East India Company’s rule
Consequences of the Revolt
- Beginning of British Crown rule (Queen Victoria’s Proclamation in 1858)
- Viceroy appointed (Lord Canning was the first)
Changes After Revolt - Army reorganized to reduce Indian share
- Policies became more cautious towards Indians

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Partition of Bengal and activities during that period:
Event/Aspect Details
Date of Partition October 16, 1905
Initiated by Lord Curzon, the then Viceroy of India
Administrative convenience — Bengal was too large (80 million people) to govern
Reason Stated by British
efficiently.
"Divide and rule" — To weaken the nationalist movement by dividing Hindus and
Actual British Motive
Muslims.
- Western Bengal (Hindu majority): Bihar, Orissa, and western Bengal.
Regions Affected
- Eastern Bengal and Assam (Muslim majority): included Dacca, Chittagong, etc.
Capital of New Province (East
Dacca (now Dhaka)
Bengal & Assam)
- Boycott of British goods
Swadeshi Movement (1905–
- Promotion of Indian-made goods
1911)
- Mass mobilization, especially by students, women, and the intelligentsia
Key Leaders in Anti-Partition - Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai, Surendranath Banerjee,
Movement Rabindranath Tagore
- Composed songs (e.g., Amar Sonar Bangla)
Tagore’s Role
- Promoted Raksha Bandhan among Hindus and Muslims as a symbol of unity
Set up indigenous institutions (e.g., Bengal National College), promoting Indian values
National Education Movement
and rejecting British-controlled education
December 30, 1906 — British encouraged formation of All India Muslim League to
Muslim League Formation
counterbalance INC and nationalist movement
Annulment of Partition Announced on December 12, 1911 (Delhi Durbar); implemented in 1912.
New Capital Shifted from Calcutta to Delhi in 1911 to reduce Bengali influence
- Rise in communal politics
Aftermath - Hindu-Muslim divide deepened
- Foundation laid for Muslim separatism

Emergence of Mahatma Gandhi in India & Movements Led by Him

Aspect Details
Returned to India 1915 (from South Africa, after 21 years)
Initial Mentor in India Gopal Krishna Gokhale
- Toured India to understand the real conditions
Early Work in India
- Promoted use of Khadi and village industries
Tolstoy Farm Establishment (1910), Natal Indian Congress (NIC)
Famous movements led by him in South Africa
1894

Major Movements Led by Mahatma Gandhi

Movement Year(s) Place/Scope Cause/Issue Outcome/Impact
Champaran British forced to abolish the
1917 Bihar Indigo farmers' exploitation
Satyagraha oppressive system
Kheda Farmers demanded tax Tax was suspended; Gandhi gained
1918 Gujarat
Satyagraha relief after crop failure more support among peasants
Dispute over wages
Ahmedabad Mill Ahmedabad, Gandhi used hunger strike; mill
1918 between workers and mill
Strike Gujarat owners had to settle fairly
owners

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Movement Year(s) Place/Scope Cause/Issue Outcome/Impact
Protest against Rowlatt Act
Rowlatt Led to Jallianwala Bagh Massacre;
1919 Nationwide (arbitrary arrest without
Satyagraha first nationwide movement
trial)
Jallianwala Bagh tragedy,
Mass resignation from jobs/titles;
Non-Cooperation 1920– Khilafat issue,
All India ended after Chauri Chaura incident
Movement 1922 dissatisfaction with British
(1922)
rule
Salt Satyagraha Dandi, Gujarat Protest against British salt Massive participation; symbolic
1930
(Dandi March) (All India later) law defiance of British rule
Partial success; Gandhi-Irwin Pact
Civil Extension of Salt
1930– signed in 1931; movement
Disobedience All India Satyagraha to broader
1934 withdrawn and revived multiple
Movement defiance (taxes, laws)
times
Congress agreed to suspend Civil
Gandhi-Irwin Delhi Truce between Gandhi and
1931 Disobedience; Gandhi participated in
Pact (Agreement) British Government
Round Table Conference
Demand for immediate
Quit India “Do or Die” slogan; mass arrests
1942 All India British withdrawal during
Movement including Gandhi
World War II

Quit India Movement:

Aspect Details
Name of the Movement Quit India Movement (also known as Bharat Chhodo Andolan)
Date Launched 8 August 1942
Place of Launch Bombay (now Mumbai), at the Gowalia Tank Maidan (August Kranti Maidan)
Launched By Indian National Congress
Leader of the
Mahatma Gandhi
Movement
Gandhi’s Slogan "Do or Die"
- Failure of the Cripps Mission (1942)
Reason for Launch - Growing resentment against British rule
- Demanding immediate independence
Passed at the All India Congress Committee session on 8 August 1942, demanding British
Congress Resolution
withdrawal from India
- End British rule in India immediately
Main Demands
- Let Indians form their own government
Mass civil disobedience and non-violent protest; later turned violent in some parts due to lack
Nature of Movement
of leadership after arrests
- Massive crackdown
Government Response - Congress leaders arrested (including Gandhi, Nehru, Patel, Azad)
- Press banned, public gatherings outlawed
- Mahatma Gandhi
- Jawaharlal Nehru
Key Leaders Arrested - Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
- Maulana Azad
- Rajendra Prasad
Gandhi’s Place of
Aga Khan Palace, Pune
Detention
Duration August 1942 to 1944 (active mostly in 1942)

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 Aspect Details
Set up in some places (e.g., Ballia in UP by Chittu Pandey, Satara in Maharashtra, Tamluk in
Parallel Governments
Bengal)
Active participation from women like Aruna Asaf Ali, Usha Mehta (ran secret radio), and many
Role of Women & Youth
students and youth
- United Indians against colonial rule
Impact - British realized they couldn’t govern without Indian support
- Set tone for independence
Though suppressed violently, the movement became a turning point and laid groundwork for
Final Outcome
independence in 1947

Tripartite Struggle:
Aspect Details
What is the Tripartite A prolonged struggle for control over Kannauj in North India among three major powers
Struggle? during the 8th–10th centuries CE
1. Gurjara-Pratiharas (from western India)
Main Contenders 2. Palas (from eastern India/Bengal)
3. Rashtrakutas (from Deccan)
Important Region of
Kannauj – A symbol of imperial power in North India
Conflict
Period of Struggle Circa 750 CE to 1000 CE
Politically and strategically important city; controlling Kannauj meant controlling northern
Significance of Kannauj
India
Founder of Pal Dynasty Gopala
Famous Pala Ruler Dharampala – Took control of Kannauj and installed a puppet ruler
Nagabhata I – repelled Arab invasions
Gurjara-Pratihara Leader
Mihir Bhoja – strong ruler who contested Kannauj
Dhruva and Govinda III – made successful campaigns towards North and occupied
Rashtrakuta Leader
Kannauj briefly
No clear victor; power kept shifting among the three
Result of the Struggle
Eventually Pratiharas gained upper hand
- Led to political fragmentation
Impact on Indian Politics - Weakened all three empires
- Opened doors for regional powers
Cultural Impact Despite war, each dynasty contributed to art, architecture, and literature
By the end of 10th century, the struggle waned; new powers like Cholas and Delhi
End of the Struggle
Sultanate rose later

Delhi Sultanate:
Dynasty Period Important Rulers Key Contributions / Events
- Qutb-ud-din - Aibak built Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque, laid foundation of Qutub Minar-
Mamluk
1206–1290 Aibak- Iltutmish- Iltutmish introduced Iqtadari system and completed Qutub Minar-
(Slave)
Razia Sultana Razia Sultana: First and only female ruler of Delhi
- Introduced market reforms to control prices- Successfully defeated
Khilji 1290–1320 - Alauddin Khilji Mongols- Expanded empire to South India- Patronized art and
architecture

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Dynasty Period Important Rulers Key Contributions / Events
- Muhammad bin - Muhammad bin Tughlaq introduced token currency (failed) and
Tughlaq 1320–1414 Tughlaq- Firoz shifted capital to Daulatabad (unsuccessful)- Firoz Shah built canals,
Shah Tughlaq madrasas, and public works projects
- Weak rulers who were vassals of Timur (Tamerlane)- Limited
Sayyid 1414–1451 - Khizr Khan
territory and influence- No major expansion or development
- Bahlol Lodi- - Last Afghan dynasty in India- Sikandar Lodi developed Agra as a
Lodi 1451–1526 Sikandar Lodi- cultural center- Ibrahim Lodi defeated by Babur in the First Battle of
Ibrahim Lodi Panipat (1526), marking end of Sultanate

Vijaynagar Empire

Aspect Details
Founded In 1336 CE
Founders Harihara I and Bukka Raya I (Sangama Dynasty)
Capital Vijayanagara (modern Hampi, Karnataka)
Purpose of Foundation To resist Muslim invasions and protect Hindu culture in South India
Dynasties 1. Sangama 2. Saluva 3. Tuluva 4. Aravidu
Greatest Ruler Krishnadeva Raya (Tuluva dynasty)
Reign of Krishnadeva Raya 1509–1529 CE
Military Strength Strong cavalry, usage of elephants, fortifications
Administration Centralized monarchy, Nayankara system (feudatory chiefs called Nayakas)
Language & Literature Telugu, Sanskrit, Kannada, Tamil literature flourished
Famous Books Amuktamalyada (Krishnadeva Raya), Rajatarangini (historical work)
Architecture Dravidian style temples (e.g., Vittala Temple, Hampi)
Foreign Visitors Niccolò de Conti, Abdur Razzaq, Domingo Paes, Barbosa
Decline Reason Defeated in Battle of Talikota (1565) by Deccan Sultanates

Bahamani Kingdom

Aspect Details
Founded In 1347 CE
Founder Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah (Hasan Gangu)
Capital(s) Gulbarga (original), shifted to Bidar
Important Rulers Muhammad Shah I, Firuz Shah Bahmani, Humayun Shah, Mahmud Gawan (PM)
Famous Prime
Mahmud Gawan – Scholar and reformer, strengthened central authority
Minister
Administrative - Provincial divisions (taraf system) - Revenue reforms - Madrasas & promotion of Persian
Reforms education
Conflict With Vijayanagar Empire (multiple wars for territory)
Indo-Islamic style; Persian influence; buildings in Gulbarga and Bidar; Mahmud Gawan
Architecture
Madrasa in Bidar
Political infighting, execution of Mahmud Gawan, fragmentation into 5 Deccan Sultanates in
Decline
1518

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The 5 Deccan Sultanates (Post-Bahamani)
Sultanate Capital Notable Rulers Architectural Contributions
Yusuf Adil Shah, Ibrahim Gol Gumbaz (whispering dome), Ibrahim Rauza,
Bijapur Bijapur (Karnataka)
Adil Shah II Jama Masjid
Hyderabad Quli Qutb Shah, Muhammad
Golconda Charminar, Golconda Fort, Qutb Shahi tombs
(Telangana) Quli Qutb Shah
Ahmadnagar Malik Ahmad Nizam Shah, Farah Bagh, tombs at Ahmednagar, Chand Bibi’s
Ahmadnagar
(Maharashtra) Burhan Nizam Shah fort
Ellichpur Less architectural activity; known for Islamic
Berar Fathullah Imad-ul-Mulk
(Maharashtra) calligraphy and modest regional structures
Qasim Barid I (Barid Shahi
Bidar Bidar (Karnataka) Bidar Fort, Barid Shahi tombs, Rangin Mahal
dynasty founder)

Bhakti and Sufi Movements

Aspect Bhakti Movement Sufi Movement
South India (7th–8th century), spread to North Arab world (8th century), India by 11th–12th
Origin
India in 15th century century
Devotion to a personal god; emotional and Love and devotion to God (Allah); mystical
Main Idea
spiritual connection Islamic path
Regional languages (Hindi, Marathi, Tamil,
Language Used Persian, Urdu, local dialects
Kannada, etc.)
Prominent Ramanuja, Kabir, Tulsidas, Meera Bai, Ravidas, Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti, Nizamuddin Auliya,
Saints Namdev, Chaitanya Sheikh Salim Chishti
- Monotheism - Inner spirituality
Key Features - Against caste system - Music (Qawwali)
- Inner purity & devotion - Against materialism
Philosophy Nirguna Bhakti (Kabir, Nanak – formless God)
Chishti, Suhrawardi, Qadiri, Naqshbandi orders
Schools Saguna Bhakti (Meera, Tulsidas – God with form)
Bhajans, Dohas, Ramcharitmanas (Tulsidas), Bijak Malfuzat (discourses), Qawwalis, Fawaid-ul-
Texts / Writings
(Kabir) Fuad
- Upliftment of lower castes - Religious tolerance
Impact on
- Use of local languages - Communal harmony
Society
- Hindu-Muslim unity - Spread of Islam with Indian traditions

Mughals
Cultural &
Mughal Key Contributions &
S.No. Reign (AD) Major Wars / Events Architectural
Emperor Policies
Achievements
- First Battle of Panipat
- Founded Mughal Empire - (1526) – Defeated Ibrahim Wrote Baburnama in
1 Babur 1526–1530
Introduced artillery in India Lodi - Battle of Khanwa Turkish
(1527) vs Rana Sanga
- Battle of Chausa (1539) -
1530– - Weak ruler- Lost to Sher Built Dinpanah
Battle of Kannauj (1540) -
2 Humayun 15401555– Shah Suri- Regained throne (Delhi); patron of
Died after falling from
1556 with Persian help Persian culture
stairs

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 Cultural &
Mughal Key Contributions &
S.No. Reign (AD) Major Wars / Events Architectural
Emperor Policies
Achievements
- Expanded empire widely- - Second Battle of Panipat Fatehpur Sikri,
Introduced Mansabdari (1556) vs Hemu- Buland Darwaza,
3 Akbar 1556–1605
System, Din-i-Ilahi, Sulh-i- Conquests: Gujarat, Akbarnama by Abul
Kul- Abolished Jizya Bengal, Rajputana, Deccan Fazl
- Continued Akbar’s policies- - Rebellion by son Khusrau Shalimar Garden
4 Jahangir 1605–1627 Strong justice system- - Captured Rana Amar (Kashmir), patron of
Allowed British to trade Singh of Mewar painting
- Peak of Mughal - Fought Deccan
Taj Mahal, Red Fort,
architecture- Stable campaigns - War of
5 Shah Jahan 1628–1658 Jama Masjid, Peacock
administration- Decline in succession among sons
Throne
military focus (Dara, Aurangzeb)
- Orthodox Sunni Muslim- - Battles with Marathas Built Badshahi
6 Aurangzeb 1658–1707 Re-imposed Jizya- Expanded (Shivaji) - Revolts: Jats, Mosque (Lahore),
to south India- Longest ruler Satnamis, Sikhs, Rajputs Bibi Ka Maqbara
- Tried to consolidate
Bahadur - Decline of central
7 1707–1712 empire- Peace with Rajputs None significant
Shah I authority began
and Marathas
- Nadir Shah (1739) and
- Weak rulers- Empire
Ahmad Shah Abdali
Later disintegrated- Became Zafar: poet; Red Fort
8 1712–1857 (1757) invasions- 1857:
Mughals symbolic under British used by British
Bahadur Shah Zafar
control
deported to Rangoon

Marathas
Key Contributions /
S.No. Ruler Reign Period Major Wars / Events Important Notes
Achievements
- Fought Mughals,
- Founder of Maratha Coronated in 1674 at
Bijapur- Treaty of
Shivaji 1674–1680 Empire- Introduced Ashta Raigad; known for
1 Purandar (1665)-
Maharaj (Coronation) Pradhan Council, forts, guerrilla warfare and
Escaped from Agra
disciplined army administration
(1666)
- Son of Shivaji- Continued - Captured and
Strong-willed leader but
2 Sambhaji 1681–1689 resistance against executed by
faced betrayal
Aurangzeb Aurangzeb in 1689
- Continued struggle after
- Deccan wars with Fought from South; kept
3 Rajaram 1689–1700 Sambhaji- Shifted base to
Aurangzeb Maratha movement alive
Ginjee Fort
Tarabai - Wife of Rajaram- Ruled as - Continued resistance Able administrator and
4 1700–1707
(Regent) regent for son Shivaji II against Mughals military leader
- Won Battle of Khed
- Grandson of Shivaji- Empire expanded under
Shahu against Tarabai
5 1707–1749 Released by Mughals after Peshwa rule during his
Maharaj (1707)- Appointed
Aurangzeb’s death reign
Baji Rao I as Peshwa
Ramaraja
- Puppet king under - Era dominated by Based in Satara; no real
6 (Nominal 1749–1777
Peshwas powerful Peshwas power
King)

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Peshwas (Prime Ministers) – De Facto Rulers After Shahu

S.No. Peshwa Name Term Key Contributions / Notes Major Events

- First hereditary Peshwa- Laid
1 Balaji Vishwanath 1713–1720 Treaty with Sayyid brothers
foundation for Peshwa dominance
- Greatest Peshwa- Expanded
Defeated Nizam; won Battle of
2 Baji Rao I 1720–1740 Maratha Empire northward - Never
Palkhed (1728)
lost a battle
Third Battle of Panipat
Balaji Baji Rao - Empire reached greatest extent-
3 1740–1761 (1761) vs Abdali – Massive
(Nanasaheb) Weak leadership at Panipat
defeat
- Restored Maratha power after Revived administration,
4 Madhav Rao I 1761–1772
Panipat disaster economy, and military
- Murdered in conspiracy by uncle
5 Narayan Rao 1772–1773 Shortest reign
Raghunath Rao
Raghunath Rao 1773–1774 - British-supported claimant during
6 Treaty of Surat (1775)
(Claimant) (Contested) First Anglo-Maratha War
Madhav Rao II - Puppet Peshwa- Ruled under First & Second Anglo-Maratha
7 1774–1796
(Posthumous) regency of Nana Fadnavis Wars
- Last Peshwa- Defeated by British in Exiled to Bithoor after defeat
8 Baji Rao II 1796–1818
Third Anglo-Maratha War (1818); end of Peshwa rule

Chola Empire

Category Details
Time Period 9th to 13th century CE
Founder Vijayalaya Chola (mid-9th century CE)
Capital Cities 1. Thanjavur (Tanjore) 2. Gangaikonda Cholapuram
Language & Culture Tamil language; Shaivism major religion; tolerant to Vaishnavism and Buddhism
• Rajaraja I (985–1014 CE) – Expanded empire, built Brihadeshwara Temple
Important Rulers • Rajendra I (1014–1044 CE) – Naval expeditions to SE Asia
• Kulottunga I – Trade reforms and temple patronage
South India, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Andaman-Nicobar, and Southeast Asia (Srivijaya kingdom
Territorial Extent
– Sumatra)
Centralized monarchy; village self-governance (ur & sabha); local bodies had autonomy
Administration
in revenue and justice
Thriving maritime trade with China, Southeast Asia, Arabia; major exports: spices, textiles,
Economy & Trade
pearls
Flourishing Tamil literature; support to Saiva and Vaishnava Bhakti poets (e.g., Appar,
Literature
Sundarar)
1. Brihadeshwara Temple (Thanjavur) – by Rajaraja I
Major Temples Built 2. Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple – by Rajendra I
3. Airavatesvara Temple (Darasuram) – by Rajaraja II
Dravidian style with large vimanas (temple towers), gopurams (gateways), and granite
Architectural Style
sculptures

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 Category Details
UNESCO World Heritage
Great Living Chola Temples: Brihadeshwara, Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Airavatesvara
Sites
• Tall vimanas (e.g., 66m at Brihadeshwara)
Temple Features • Massive stone sculptures
• Bronze casting (e.g., Nataraja idol)
Chola bronze sculptures (esp. Nataraja – cosmic dancer); advanced lost-wax casting
Notable Art Contribution
technique
Weakened by Pandya rise and Hoysala conflict; Delhi Sultanate invasion (Malik Kafur, 1311
Decline
CE) ended the dynasty

Important South Indian Dynasties – Medieval Period

Time
Dynasty Capital Founders / Key Rulers Key Achievements Temples / Architecture
Period
Brihadeshwara Temple,
Strong navy,
9th– Gangaikonda
Thanjavur, overseas expeditions
13th Vijayalaya Chola, Cholapuram,
Cholas Gangaikonda to SE Asia, village
century Rajaraja I, Rajendra I Airavatesvara Temple;
Cholapuram administration
CE Dravidian style; bronze
system
sculptures
Patrons of
Shore Temple & Pancha
Simhavishnu, architecture and
6th–9th Rathas (Mahabalipuram),
Mahendravarman I, Sanskrit-Tamil
Pallavas century Kanchipuram Rock-cut temples;
Narasimhavarman I culture; constant
CE beginning of Dravidian
(Mamalla) conflicts with
temple architecture
Chalukyas
6th– Fought with Pallavas Cave Temples of Badami,
Pulakeshin I (Early),
12th Badami (Early), and Rashtrakutas; Virupaksha Temple at
Chalukyas Vikramaditya VI
century Kalyani (Later) introduced Vesara Pattadakal (UNESCO);
(Later)
CE style architecture Vesara style
8th– Kailasa Temple at Ellora
Ruled large parts of
10th Manyakheta Dantidurga, Govinda (Rock-cut, monolithic
Rashtrakutas Deccan; patrons of
century (Malkhed) III, Amoghavarsha I marvel); Sanskrit &
literature and art
CE Kannada literary works
Chennakesava Temple
11th– Known for intricate
(Belur), Hoysaleswara
14th Dwarasamudra Nripa Kama II, temple sculpture;
Hoysalas Temple (Halebidu);
century (Halebidu) Vishnuvardhana patrons of Kannada
intricate soapstone
CE literature
carvings
Last great Hindu
Vittala Temple (stone
empire of South
chariot), Virupaksha
1336– Harihara I & Bukka I India; resisted
Vijayanagara Hampi Temple; Hampi (UNESCO
1646 CE (Sangama dynasty) Muslim invasions;
site); blend of Indo-
administrative
Islamic-Dravidian styles
excellence

11 | |
Stone Age (Complete Overview)
Category Details
The Stone Age is the prehistoric period when humans primarily used stone tools. It marks the
Definition
beginning of human history.
1. Paleolithic Age (Old Stone Age)
Major Divisions 2. Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age)
3. Neolithic Age (New Stone Age)
• Paleolithic: 2 million – 10,000 BCE
Timeline • Mesolithic: 10,000 – 8,000 BCE
• Neolithic: 8,000 – 1,000 BCE
• Paleolithic: Crude stone tools
Tool Material • Mesolithic: Microliths (small tools)
• Neolithic: Polished stone tools
Tool Usage Used for hunting, cutting, scraping, and digging.
Discovery of Fire Discovered in Paleolithic Age – used for cooking, protection, and warmth.
• Bhimbetka cave paintings (MP)
Art and Culture • Engravings on stones
• Religious practices in Neolithic Age
• Paleolithic: Hunter-gatherers
Food Habits • Mesolithic: Semi-nomadic, fishing
• Neolithic: Agriculture and domestication
• Paleolithic: Nomadic
Settlements • Mesolithic: Temporary shelters
• Neolithic: Permanent mud-brick houses
Animal
Began in Neolithic Age – dog, sheep, goat, cattle.
Domestication
Start of Agriculture Started in Neolithic Age – wheat and barley cultivation.
• Absent in Paleolithic
Pottery • Began in late Mesolithic
• Fully developed in Neolithic Age
Burial Practices Present in Neolithic Age – graves with goods, indicating belief in afterlife.
Cave Art (India) Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh) – red and white cave paintings depicting animals and humans.
Transition to Metal
Around 2000 BCE, began the Chalcolithic Age (use of copper + stone tools).
Age

📍 Important Stone Age Sites in India

Age Site State Significance

Paleolithic Bhimbetka Madhya Pradesh Rock shelters, cave paintings (UNESCO site)
Hunsgi Karnataka Lower Paleolithic tools
Pahalgam Jammu & Kashmir Early stone tools
Mesolithic Bagor Rajasthan Largest Mesolithic site in India
Sarai Nahar Rai Uttar Pradesh Evidence of semi-nomadic culture
Neolithic Mehrgarh (Now in Pakistan) Balochistan region Earliest evidence of farming & domestication
Burzahom Jammu & Kashmir Pit dwellings, bone tools
Chirand Bihar Neolithic settlement with rice cultivation
Mahagara Uttar Pradesh Evidence of cattle domestication
Maski Karnataka Neolithic habitation and tools

12 | |
📝 Quick Revision Facts (SSC Oriented)
Fact Answer
First tool-using hominid Homo habilis
Discovery of fire Paleolithic Age
First animal domesticated Dog
First crops cultivated Wheat and barley
First permanent settlements Neolithic Age
Site with earliest cave paintings Bhimbetka (MP)
Mesolithic site with microlith tools Bagor (Rajasthan)
Neolithic site with pit dwellings Burzahom (J&K)
Start of metal use (Copper + Stone tools) Chalcolithic Age (~2000 BCE)

Indus Valley Civilization

Category / Aspect Details
Alternate Names Harappan Civilization / Bronze Age Civilization
Time Period 2500 BCE – 1750 BCE (Mature Phase)
Discovered By Daya Ram Sahni (Harappa, 1921) and R.D. Banerjee (Mohenjo-daro, 1922)
Geographical Extent Northwest India and Pakistan – Punjab, Sindh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana
Major Rivers Indus, Ravi, Sutlej, Ghaggar-Hakra, Saraswati (now dried)
Total Sites Excavated
Over 1,400 sites; 900+ in India
(India)
Nature of Civilization Urban, well-planned, drainage-based civilization
Important Cities Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, Lothal, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Banawali, Surkotada
City Planning Grid pattern – roads at right angles
Drainage System Covered underground drains with inspection holes
Building Material Burnt bricks and sun-dried bricks
Great Bath Mohenjo-daro – ritual bathing tank
Granaries Harappa and Mohenjo-daro – used for grain storage
Dockyard Lothal (Gujarat) – man-made dockyard indicating sea trade
Stadium Dholavira (Gujarat) – had a stadium-like structure
Fire Altars Kalibangan (Rajasthan) – evidence of fire worship
Largest Site (India) Rakhigarhi (Haryana)
Smallest Site Allahdino (Sindh, Pakistan)
Society Peaceful, no evidence of kings or palaces
Main Occupations Agriculture, trade, pottery, bead-making, seal carving
Agriculture Crops: Wheat, barley, peas, sesame, cotton (first in world)
Domesticated Animals Ox, buffalo, goat, sheep, elephant, dog (no confirmed horse evidence)
Trade Internal and external – traded with Mesopotamia (Sumerians)
Currency No coins; barter system
Weighing System Binary & decimal systems; cubical stone weights

13 | |
Category / Aspect Details
Pottery Wheel-made red and black pottery
Ornaments Gold, silver, copper, semi-precious stones; worn by men and women
Toys & Tools Terracotta toys, marbles, carts, tools of stone, bronze, and copper
Script Pictographic, written right to left (sometimes bidirectional); still undeciphered
Mother goddess, proto-Shiva (Pashupati seal), animal & tree worship (Peepal); no temples
Religion
or idols
Burial Practices Complete burial, urn burial, symbolic burial; grave goods suggest belief in afterlife
Dancing Girl (Bronze) Mohenjo-daro – metallic figurine, confident pose, right hand on hip
Priest King (Steatite) Mohenjo-daro – dignified bearded male figure
Terracotta Figurines Harappa & Mohenjo-daro – animals, toys, mother goddess statues
Water Reservoir Dholavira – earliest known water conservation structure
Ploughed Field Kalibangan – first evidence of agricultural field
First Site Discovered Harappa (1921) by Daya Ram Sahni
Most Developed City Mohenjo-daro
Port City Lothal (Gujarat)
Use of Cotton First in the world – Neolithic IVC
Trade Partner Mesopotamia (Sumerians)

VEDIC AGE (1500 BCE – 600 BCE)

Aspect Early Vedic Period (1500–1000 BCE) Later Vedic Period (1000–600 BCE)
Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda,
Main Source Rigveda (Oldest Veda)
Brahmanas, Upanishads
Geographical Punjab and Indo-Gangetic plains (Sapta Sindhu Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar (expansion
Area region) towards Ganga valley)
Emergence of Mahajanapadas, stronger
Polity Tribal kingdoms (Jana), no strong kingship
monarchies, hereditary kings
Popular Sabha (elderly) and Samiti (general) held political
Decline of assemblies; kings gained authority
Assemblies power
Patriarchal, no rigid varna system, women had Varna system became rigid, women's status
Society
freedom (education, remarriage allowed) declined
Pastoral economy, cows = wealth, limited Agriculture became primary, iron tools
Economy
agriculture improved farming
Emergence of coins (Nishka, Satamana), trade
Trade Barter system; internal trade
with distant regions
Nature worship: Indra (rain), Agni (fire), Varuna Rise of rituals and sacrifices (yajnas), priestly
Religion
(cosmic order), Soma dominance
Language Vedic Sanskrit Developed into Classical Sanskrit
Brahmanas (ritual texts), Aranyakas,
Literature Rigveda (hymns in praise of gods)
Upanishads (philosophy)
Education (e.g., Lopamudra, Gargi, Apala), could Declined: no right to education or property;
Status of Women
attend sabha child marriages rise
Became rigid and hereditary, untouchability
Caste System Flexible social groups (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, etc.)
emerged
Specialized professions emerged; agriculture
Occupation Animal rearing, limited farming
and crafts advanced
Widespread use of iron tools (Krishna
Iron Use Not known
Ayas)
14 | |
IMPORTANT POINTS FOR SSC CGL
Key Fact Detail
Oldest Veda Rigveda – 1028 hymns in Sanskrit, mostly praise of gods
Sanskrit Grammarian (Later) Panini (not in Vedic Age but asked in relation to language evolution)
Political Units Jana → Grama → Vish → Rashtra
Important Kings Divodasa, Sudas (Battle of Ten Kings or Dasarajna)
Battle of Ten Kings Fought on river Parushni (Ravi)
Assembly decline By Later Vedic Period, monarchy became stronger
Iron Age begins In Later Vedic Period (called Krishna Ayas = black metal)

BUDDHISM:
Aspect Details
Founder Gautama Buddha (Siddhartha), born in 563 BCE at Lumbini (now in Nepal)
Father / Clan Shuddhodana (chief of the Shakya clan), capital Kapilavastu
Mother / Stepmother Maya Devi (died 7 days after birth), Mahaprajapati Gautami (stepmother)
Wife and Son Yashodhara (wife), Rahul (son)
Renunciation At age 29, after witnessing four sights (old age, disease, death, ascetic)
Enlightenment At age 35, under Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya (on river Niranjana); became Buddha
At Sarnath (Deer Park), called Dharmachakra Pravartana (Turning the Wheel of
First Sermon
Law)
Death (Mahaparinirvana) At Kushinagar (Uttar Pradesh) at age 80 in 483 BCE
1. Buddha (The Enlightened One) 2. Dhamma (Teachings) 3. Sangha (Monastic
Three Jewels (Triratna)
Order)
1. Suffering exists 2. Cause of suffering is desire 3. End of suffering is possible 4.
Four Noble Truths
Follow Eightfold Path
Eightfold Path (Ashtangika
Right View, Intention, Speech, Action, Livelihood, Effort, Mindfulness, Concentration
Marga)
Five Precepts (Panchsheel) No killing, no stealing, no lying, no intoxicants, no sexual misconduct
1st: Rajgir (Ajatshatru)
2nd: Vaishali (Kalashoka)
Important Councils
3rd: Pataliputra (Ashoka)
4th: Kundalvan/Kashmir (Kanishka)
1. Hinayana: Original, conservative
Important Sects 2. Mahayana: Worship Buddha as God
3. Vajrayana: Tantric practices
1. Vinaya Pitaka (monastic rules)
Scriptures (Tripitaka) 2. Sutta Pitaka (teachings)
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka (philosophy) – all in Pali
Birth – Lotus & Bull
Renunciation – Horse
Symbols of Events Enlightenment – Bodhi Tree
Sermon – Wheel (Dharmachakra)
Death – Stupa
Spread by Ashoka (sent missionaries like Mahendra & Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka)
Revival of Brahmanism, Rise of Bhakti movement, Corruption in Sangha, Loss of
Decline Reasons
royal patronage
Important Monasteries Nalanda, Vikramshila, Takshashila, Vallabhi

15 | |
QUICK FACTS FOR SSC CGL
Topic Detail
Language of Early Buddhism Pali
Buddha’s real name Siddhartha Gautama
Title "Tathagat" means One who has attained truth
"Light of Asia" Title given to Buddha
First image of Buddha Appeared during Kushan rule (Mahayana period)
Major Buddhist Art Gandhara & Mathura Schools
Buddha’s preaching method Simple dialogue & examples (no Sanskrit)

JAINISM:
Aspect Details
Founder (Traditional Belief) Rishabhdeva (Adinatha) – 1st Tirthankara (mentioned in Rigveda & Bhagavat Purana)
Historical Founder Vardhamana Mahavira – 24th and last Tirthankara
Birth of Mahavira 540 BCE at Kundagrama near Vaishali (Bihar) in Ikshvaku dynasty
Father / Mother Siddhartha (king of Kundagrama), Trishala (sister of Lichchhavi king Chetaka)
Renunciation At age 30, became ascetic
Enlightenment (Kaivalya) At age 42, under a Sal tree at Jrimbhikagrama
Death (Mahaparinirvana) At age 72, in 468 BCE at Pavapuri (Bihar)
Title Given Jina (the conqueror), hence followers called Jains
Tirthankaras Total 24; 1st: Rishabhdeva, 23rd: Parshvanatha, 24th: Mahavira
Parshvanatha (23rd) Born in Benaras, lived ~250 years before Mahavira
1. Right Faith (Samyak Darshana)
Main Principles (Triratna) 2. Right Knowledge (Samyak Jnana)
3. Right Conduct (Samyak Charitra)
1. Ahimsa (Non-violence)
2. Satya (Truth)
Five Vows (Mahavratas) 3. Asteya (Non-stealing)
4. Brahmacharya (Celibacy)
5. Aparigraha (Non-possession)
Philosophy Atheistic, believes in karma, soul, moksha
Scriptures Called Agamas or Siddhantas, originally in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit
Important Concepts Syadvada (relative truth), Anekantavada (pluralism of views), Non-absolutism
1. Digambaras (Sky-clad): no clothes, strict ascetics
Sects
2. Shvetambaras (White-clad): wear white robes
Women in Religion Shvetambaras allow female monks, Digambaras do not
Symbols of Tirthankaras Ex: Rishabhdeva – Bull, Mahavira – Lion, Parshvanatha – Serpent
Royal Patrons Chandragupta Maurya (became Jain monk), Kharavela (Kalinga), some Guptas
Council 1st Jain Council: Patliputra (300 BCE, Bhadrabahu), compilation of Purvas lost later
2nd Jain Council Valabhi (Gujarat), c. 512 CE – Canon finalized by Shvetambaras
Sacred Places Pavapuri, Shravanabelagola, Girnar, Mount Abu, Palitana, Rajgir
Decline of Jainism Strict asceticism, competition from Buddhism & Bhakti, limited royal support

16 | |
QUICK SSC CGL FACTS
Topic Key Point
Jain Language Ardhamagadhi (original scriptures), also Prakrit used
Jainism’s Aim Liberation of soul through self-discipline and non-violence
Mahavira’s Symbol Lion
Jain Text Preservation Site Valabhi, during 2nd council
Syadvada Doctrine of sevenfold relative predication
Important Statue Gommateshwara (Bahubali) at Shravanabelagola, built by Chavundaraya
Mahavira's First Disciple Jamali (also his son-in-law)

Mahajanapadas– Comprehensive Overview

Feature Details
Meaning of Mahajanapada 'Maha' = Great, 'Janapada' = foothold of a tribe/people; Great territorial states
Period Circa 600 BCE – 345 BCE
Total Number 16 Mahajanapadas
Source Mention Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya
Political System Two types: Monarchies and Republics (Ganasanghas)
Prominent Monarchies Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa, Avanti
Prominent Republics Vrijji (or Vajji), Malla, Shakya, Kamboja
Economic Base Agriculture, trade, taxes on land and commerce
Capital Cities Each Mahajanapada had its own capital
Religion Influence Rise of Jainism and Buddhism during this period
Military Development Standing armies and fortified capitals became common

List of 16 Mahajanapadas
No. Mahajanapada Capital Type Modern Location
1 Anga Champa Monarchy Parts of Bihar and Jharkhand
2 Magadha Rajagriha / Pataliputra Monarchy South Bihar
3 Vajji (Vrijji) Vaishali Republic North Bihar
4 Malla Kusinara & Pava Republic Eastern Uttar Pradesh
5 Kasi Varanasi Monarchy Eastern Uttar Pradesh
6 Kosala Shravasti / Ayodhya Monarchy Central & Eastern Uttar Pradesh
7 Vatsa Kausambi Monarchy Near Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh
8 Avanti Ujjain / Mahishmati Monarchy Western Madhya Pradesh
9 Chedi Suktimati Monarchy Bundelkhand region
10 Kuru Indraprastha / Hastinapur Monarchy Delhi & Haryana region
11 Panchala Ahichhatra / Kampilya Monarchy Western Uttar Pradesh
12 Matsya Viratanagara Monarchy Jaipur region, Rajasthan
13 Surasena Mathura Monarchy Western Uttar Pradesh
14 Assaka (Asmaka) Potana / Paithan Monarchy Southern Maharashtra / Telangana
15 Gandhara Taxila Monarchy Parts of Pakistan and Afghanistan
16 Kamboja Rajapura Republic Northern Pakistan / Afghanistan border area

17 | |
Mauryan Empire (322 BCE – 185 BCE)
Aspect Details
Founder Chandragupta Maurya (322 BCE)
Capital Pataliputra
Source Texts Arthashastra (by Kautilya), Indica (by Megasthenes), Buddhist & Jain texts
Dynasty Duration ~137 years
Extent at its peak From Afghanistan in NW to Karnataka in South and Bengal in East
Administration Centralized, highly organized bureaucracy under Kautilya’s guidance
Army Standing army with infantry, cavalry, elephants, and navy
Revenue System Land tax as main source; state control over resources
Provincial Administration Provinces ruled by princes or governors
Decline Cause Successors weak; financial burden; invasions; pushback after Ashoka’s Dhamma

Major Mauryan Rulers

Ruler Reign Notable Contributions
Chandragupta
322–297 BCE Overthrew Nandas, founded Maurya dynasty; converted to Jainism
Maurya
Conquered South India (except Kalinga); known as "Amitraghata" (Slayer of
Bindusara 297–273 BCE
enemies)
Ashoka the Great 273–232 BCE Kalinga War; embraced Buddhism; spread Dhamma; rock and pillar edicts
Dasaratha, Samprati Successors of Ashoka; relatively weak; last ruler Brihadratha assassinated by
232–185 BCE
etc. Pushyamitra Shunga

Ashoka’s Dhamma (धम्म)

Features Explanation
Non-violence (Ahimsa) Avoidance of war and animal sacrifice
Respect for elders and tolerance Promoted religious harmony and social ethics
Welfare measures Hospitals, roads, rest houses, veterinary clinics
Edict Inscriptions Found in Brahmi script (north), Kharosthi (northwest), Greek & Aramaic
Edict Locations Sanchi, Sarnath, Dhauli, Kalsi, Girnar, Shahbazgarhi, Kandahar

Post-Mauryan Dynasties (After 185 BCE to ~300 CE)

Time
Dynasty Founder Capital Key Rulers / Contributions Religion/Art
Period
Overthrew last Maurya king; Supported
Pushyamitra 185–73 revived Brahmanism; patronized Brahmanism;
Shunga Pataliputra
Shunga BCE Sanskrit drama (Kalidasa: resisted Buddhism
Malavikagnimitram) (as per texts)
Minister of last Shunga king;
Vasudeva 73–28 Supported
Kanva Pataliputra weak dynasty, ended by
Kanva BCE Brahmanism
Satavahanas
~1st
Gautamiputra Satakarni: resisted Patronized Prakrit,
century Pratishthana
Satavahana Simuka Shakas; promoted trade and Amaravati art,
BCE–3rd (Paithan)
Buddhism Buddhist stupas
CE

18 | |
 Time
Dynasty Founder Capital Key Rulers / Contributions Religion/Art
Period
Menander (Milinda): converted Hellenistic
Demetrius I 2nd BCE –
Indo-Greek Taxila to Buddhism (text: influence; Greek
(in India) 1st BCE
Milindapanha) coins; Gandhara art
Shaka Rudradaman I: Junagadh rock Used Sanskrit; mix
Maues (or 1st BCE –
(Western Ujjain inscription in Sanskrit; repaired of Iranian-Greek-
Chashtana) 4th CE
Kshatrapas) Sudarshana Lake Indian elements
Kanishka the Great: patron of Supported
Kujula 1st CE – Peshawar, Mahayana Buddhism; started Gandhara &
Kushana
Kadphises 3rd CE Mathura Saka Era (78 CE); 4th Buddhist Mathura schools of
Council in Kashmir art

Gupta Empire Rulers & Key Facts (319 CE – 550 CE)

Ruler Reign Period Important Facts & Achievements
Sri Gupta (Founder) ~240–280 CE Founded the Gupta dynasty; little known about his rule
Ghatotkacha ~280–319 CE Son of Sri Gupta; ruled as Maharaja
Assumed title of Maharajadhiraja (Great King of Kings); began the
Chandragupta I 319–335 CE
Gupta Era (319 CE)
Napoleon of India; Allahabad Pillar Inscription by Harisena; military
Samudragupta 335–375 CE
genius and poet
Chandragupta II Defeated Shakas; patron of Kalidasa and Aryabhata; Ujjain as second
375–415 CE
(Vikramaditya) capital
Kumaragupta I 415–455 CE Founded Nalanda University; performed Ashvamedha yajna
Skandagupta 455–467 CE Repelled Hun invasions; last great Gupta ruler
Later Guptas 467–550 CE Decline began due to Hun invasions and weak successors

Other Important Facts of Gupta Period

Aspect Details
Administration Decentralized but efficient; provinces known as Bhuktis, districts as Vishayas
Coinage Gold coins called Dinaras
Literature Kalidasa’s Abhijnanasakuntalam, Meghadutam; Sanskrit revived
Science Aryabhata (mathematician & astronomer); invention of zero
Art & Architecture Ajanta caves, Dashavatara Temple (Deogarh), Iron Pillar (Mehrauli)
Religion Flourishing of Hinduism; revival of Brahmanism; tolerance to Buddhism

Sangam Age (circa 300 BCE – 300 CE)

Category Details
Time Period Approximately 300 BCE – 300 CE
Region Tamilakam (present-day Tamil Nadu, Kerala, parts of Andhra Pradesh & Sri Lanka)
Meaning of 'Sangam' Assembly or gathering of Tamil poets and scholars
Number of Sangams Three (as per tradition)
Capital Cities Madurai (Pandya), Uraiyur (Chola), Korkai (early Pandya), Vanji (Chera)
Dynasties Involved Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas
Major Port Cities Puhar (Kaveripattinam), Muziris, Tondi, Korkai
Literary Language Tamil

19 | |
Category Details
Religion Animism, Ancestor worship, later Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism
Famous Sangam Works Tolkappiyam (grammar), Ettuthogai (Eight Anthologies), Pattupattu (Ten Idylls)
Important Poets Kapilar, Avvaiyar, Nakkeerar, Paranar
Social Structure Based on profession and clan; women held respectable positions
Economy Agriculture (rice), trade (internal and external), handicrafts
Major Trade Partners Roman Empire, Southeast Asia, Egypt, China
Coins Used Roman coins, punch-marked Indian coins, gold and silver coins
Military Maintained armies with elephants, cavalry, and infantry
Sources of Information Tamil Sangam literature, Roman accounts (Pliny), inscriptions
Decline Around 3rd century CE due to invasions and political instability
Art and Culture Early Dravidian culture, emphasis on poetry, dance, and music
Important Deities Murugan (war god), Mayon (early form of Vishnu), Kotravai (war goddess)

1. Chera Dynasty (Sangam Age)

Category Details
Territory Present-day Kerala and western Tamil Nadu
Capital Vanji (Karur)
Port Cities Muziris, Tondi
Famous Kings Uthiyan Cheralathan, Nedunjeral Adan, Senguttuvan
Senguttuvan's Fame Known for ‘Pattini cult’ and building a temple for Kannagi (pattini)
Trade Strong trade with Rome and West Asia
Symbol Bow
Literary References Described in Pattupattu, particularly Pathitrupathu
Contribution Promoted Tamil poetry and maritime trade

2. Chola Dynasty (Sangam Age)

Category Details
Territory Central and northern parts of Tamil Nadu
Capital Uraiyur
Port Cities Puhar (Kaveripattinam), Arikamedu
Famous Kings Karikala Chola (most famous), Nedunkilli
Karikala's Achievement Constructed Kallanai (Grand Anicut) across river Kaveri
Symbol Tiger
Literary References Mentioned in Pattinappalai and Porunaratruppadai
Contribution Infrastructure development, patronage to poets

3. Pandya Dynasty (Sangam Age)

Category Details
Territory Southern Tamil Nadu
Capital Madurai
Famous Kings Nedunjeliyan I, Mudukudumi Peruvazhuthi

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 Category Details
Symbol Fish
Patron of Literature Actively supported Tamil Sangams
Literary References Many poets associated with Pandyas, such as Avvaiyar, Nakkeerar
Trade Active traders, especially in pearls
Contribution Promoted Sangam Assemblies, literature, religious and educational activities

Sangam Literature Classification

Category Details
Tolkappiyam Earliest Tamil grammar book; also discusses society, ethics, and love
Ettuthogai (Eight Anthologies) Collection of 8 books of short poems (e.g., Ainkurunuru, Purananuru)
Pattupattu (Ten Idylls) Long poems (e.g., Maduraikkanchi, Pattinappalai)
Pathinenkilkanakku Eighteen Minor Works; mostly post-Sangam, but moralistic in nature
Silappadikaram Epic attributed to Ilango Adigal; story of Kannagi, written after Sangam era
Manimekalai Sequel to Silappadikaram, authored by Sattanar
Themes in Literature Akam (love, private life) and Puram (war, public life)
Language Classical Tamil

Chalukyas of Ancient India

Category Details
Dynasty Name Chalukyas
Time Period 6th to 12th Century CE
Regions Ruled Deccan region: Present-day Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh
Founder (Badami Chalukyas) Pulakeshin I (established rule around 543 CE at Badami)
Capital (Badami Chalukyas) Vatapi (modern-day Badami) in Karnataka
Most Famous Ruler Pulakeshin II
Pulakeshin II's Achievement Defeated Harshavardhana on the banks of the Narmada River
1. Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi
Branches
2. Western Chalukyas of Kalyani
Eastern Chalukya Founder Kubja Vishnuvardhana (brother of Pulakeshin II)
Capital (Eastern Chalukyas) Vengi (in modern Andhra Pradesh)
Western Chalukya Founder Tailapa II
Capital (Western Chalukyas) Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan, Karnataka)
Religion Primarily Hinduism (Shaivism & Vaishnavism); also supported Jainism, Buddhism
Architecture Rock-cut cave temples at Badami, Aihole, Pattadakal
Art Style Blend of Nagara (North) and Dravidian (South) styles
Important Temples Durga Temple (Aihole), Virupaksha Temple (Pattadakal), Lad Khan Temple
Inscriptions Aihole Inscription by Ravikirti (praises Pulakeshin II)
Literary Contributions Patronage to Sanskrit and Kannada literature; notable poet: Ravikirti
Decline of Badami Chalukyas Defeated by the Rashtrakutas in the 8th century CE
Chalukya-Rashtrakuta Rivalry Prolonged conflict for control of the Deccan
Legacy Great contributors to temple architecture, Deccan culture & governance

21 | |
Branches of Chalukyas – Summary Table
Branch Founder Capital Region Famous Ruler
Badami Chalukyas Pulakeshin I Badami Karnataka Pulakeshin II
Eastern Chalukyas Kubja Vishnuvardhana Vengi Andhra Pradesh Rajaraja Narendra
Western Chalukyas Tailapa II Kalyani Karnataka & Maharashtra Vikramaditya VI

Geography
Solar System
Aspect Details
Sun A medium-sized star, center of the Solar System, accounts for 99.86% of its mass
Planets (in order) Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
Terrestrial Planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars (solid & rocky)
Jovian (Gas Giant) Planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
Largest Planet Jupiter
Smallest Planet Mercury
Hottest Planet Venus (due to thick CO₂ atmosphere)
Coldest Planet Neptune
Dwarf Planet Pluto (demoted in 2006)
Number of Moons Earth (1), Mars (2), Jupiter (79+), Saturn (83+), Uranus (27), Neptune (14)
Asteroid Belt Between Mars and Jupiter
Kuiper Belt Beyond Neptune; contains Pluto
Oort Cloud Hypothetical shell of icy bodies surrounding the solar system
Rotation Direction Most planets rotate counter-clockwise; Venus & Uranus rotate clockwise

Longitude and Latitude

Term Definition / Details
Latitude Angular distance north or south of the Equator (0° to 90°)
Longitude Angular distance east or west of the Prime Meridian (0° to 180°)
Equator 0° Latitude; divides Earth into Northern & Southern Hemispheres
Prime Meridian 0° Longitude; passes through Greenwich, UK
Tropic of Cancer 23.5° N; passes through India
Tropic of Capricorn 23.5° S
Arctic Circle 66.5° N
Antarctic Circle 66.5° S
International Date Line ~180° Longitude; zigzag line that separates calendar days
Total Longitudes 360 (180° E and 180° W)
Total Latitudes 181 (from 90° N to 90° S including Equator)
Each Longitude = 4 minutes of time difference
Earth rotates 360° in 24 hours = 15° per hour

22 | |
Earth’s Interior
Layer Details
Crust Outermost layer, 5–70 km thick, made of silica and alumina (SIAL)
Continental Crust Thicker, less dense, granitic composition
Oceanic Crust Thinner, denser, basaltic composition
Mantle Below crust (up to 2900 km), made of silicate rocks rich in magnesium (SIMA)
Asthenosphere Upper part of mantle; semi-liquid & allows plate movement
Core (Outer) Liquid, made of iron & nickel (NIFE), responsible for magnetic field
Core (Inner) Solid due to immense pressure
Temperature Increases ~1°C per 32 meters in depth
Seismic Discontinuities Mohorovicic (crust–mantle), Gutenberg (mantle–core), Lehmann (outer–inner core)
Radius of Earth ~6371 km

Plate Tectonics
Term / Concept Description / Example
Lithosphere Rigid outer shell of Earth (crust + upper mantle)
Tectonic Plates Large slabs of lithosphere that float on asthenosphere
Major Plates Pacific, Eurasian, Indo-Australian, North American, South American, African, Antarctic
Plate Boundaries Regions where plates interact
Divergent Boundaries Plates move apart → Mid-ocean ridges (e.g., Mid-Atlantic Ridge)
Convergent Boundaries Plates move towards each other → Mountains or trenches (e.g., Himalayas)
Transform Boundaries Plates slide past each other (e.g., San Andreas Fault)
Continental Drift Theory Proposed by Alfred Wegener; all continents were once a supercontinent (Pangaea)
Sea-floor Spreading New crust forms at mid-ocean ridges, pushing plates apart
Subduction Zone One plate sinks below another, causes earthquakes & volcanoes
Ring of Fire Earthquake-prone zone around the Pacific Ocean

Rocks
Additional Notes
Type of Rock Formation Process Key Features Examples
(SSC Specific)
- Basalt: Dark,
- Crystalline structure heavy, found in
Cooling & solidification of - No fossils Deccan Plateau
Granite (intrusive),
Igneous Rocks molten magma (intrusive or - First formed rocks - Granite: Used in
Basalt (extrusive)
extrusive) - Can be coarse or construction
fine-grained - No stratification or
layering
- Limestone:
- Layered (strata) Formed from shells,
Deposition, compaction, and
- Often fossiliferous Limestone, coral
Sedimentary cementation of sediments
- Soft, porous Sandstone, Shale, - Shale: Fine-
Rocks (mechanical, chemical or
- Shows bedding & Chalk grained, splits easily
organic origin)
cross-bedding - Covers ~75% of
Earth’s surface

23 | |
 Additional Notes
Type of Rock Formation Process Key Features Examples
(SSC Specific)
- Marble:
Crystalline, used in
sculpture
(Rajasthan)
- Hard, compact
- Slate: Fine-
Alteration of pre-existing rocks - Often shows Marble (from
grained, splits easily
Metamorphic under heat, pressure, and banding, foliation, limestone), Slate
(roof tiles)
Rocks chemically active fluids lineation (from shale), Gneiss,
- Gneiss: Shows
(without melting) - No fossils due to Schist
banding (light &
recrystallization
dark minerals)
- Schist: Shows
foliation due to platy
minerals

Additional Metamorphic Processes (Important for SSC)

Term Meaning Key Point / SSC Relevance
Repetitive layering in metamorphic rocks due to Found in slate, schist – common exam
Foliation
pressure term
Seen in gneiss – often asked in theory-
Banding Alternating dark and light mineral bands
based MCQs
Indicates direction of stress during
Lineation Linear alignment of minerals or structures
metamorphism
Minerals re-form into new textures without Common in marble – improves hardness
Recrystallization
melting and gloss
Regional Large area, caused by mountain building (high
Produces slate, gneiss, schist
Metamorphism pressure/temp)
Contact
Local, near magma intrusion (mainly heat) Produces marble, quartzite
Metamorphism

Continents
Area Population
Continent Key Physical Features Major Countries SSC-Relevant Facts
(approx) (approx)
Largest & most
populous continent
Mt. Everest (8849 m)
44.58 Himalayas, Plateau of – world’s highest peak
~4.8 billion China, India,
Asia million sq. Tibet, Gobi Desert, River Yangtze –
(1st) Japan, Russia
km (1st) Yangtze River longest in Asia
Countries like Russia
and Turkey are
transcontinental
Sahara – world’s
30.37 Sahara Desert, Nile Nigeria, Egypt, largest hot desert
~1.5 billion
Africa million sq. River, Great Rift Valley, South Africa, Nile – traditionally
(2nd)
km (2nd) Congo Basin Kenya known as world’s
longest river

24 | |
 Area Population
Continent Key Physical Features Major Countries SSC-Relevant Facts
(approx) (approx)
Equator passes
through middle
Rich in natural
resources (gold,
diamonds)
Panama Canal links
to South America
Mississippi – major
24.71 Rocky Mountains, Great
North USA, Canada, river
million sq. ~600 million Plains, Mississippi
America Mexico Niagara Falls –
km (3rd) River, Great Lakes
between US & Canada
Longest land border:
USA–Canada
Andes – longest
mountain range
Amazon – largest
17.84 Andes Mountains, river by volume
South Brazil, Argentina,
million sq. ~430 million Amazon Rainforest, Atacama – driest
America Colombia, Chile
km (4th) Atacama Desert desert
Angel Falls
(Venezuela) – world’s
tallest waterfall
Coldest, driest,
windiest continent
90% of world’s ice,
~1,000 Ice Sheets, Polar
14.2 million No permanent 70% of freshwater
Antarctica (scientific staff Plateau, Transantarctic
sq. km (5th) countries No time zone, no
only) Mountains
permanent population
Surrounded by
Southern Ocean
Separated from Asia
by Ural Mountains
Industrially
10.18 Alps, Ural Mountains,
Germany, France, developed
Europe million sq. ~750 million Danube River, North
UK, Italy, Ukraine Alps – highest
km (6th) European Plain
mountain system
Danube – longest
river in EU
Smallest continent
Only continent that is
also a country
Great Dividing Range, Australia, New
Australia 8.6 million (Australia)
~42 million Great Barrier Reef, Zealand, Papua
(Oceania) sq. km (7th) Great Barrier Reef –
Outback Desert New Guinea
largest coral system
Least populated
(excluding Antarctica)

25 | |
Oceans
Area Average Location & SSC-Relevant Facts
Ocean Key Features
(Approx) Depth Boundaries (Integrated)
Mariana Trench –
- Largest & deepest Deepest point (11,034
ocean m)
- Ring of Fire Ocean with most
168.7 Between Asia/Australia (volcano belt) islands (Philippines,
Pacific
million sq. ~4,280 m (west) and Americas - Home to coral reefs Micronesia)
Ocean
km (1st) (east) like Great Barrier Kuroshio Current
Reef – warm current near
- Most island-rich Japan
ocean Rich in marine
biodiversity and reefs
Gulf Stream –
warm current
- S-shaped ocean Busiest
Between Americas - Mid-Atlantic Ridge commercial ocean
Atlantic 85.1 million
~3,646 m (west) and (longest undersea route
Ocean sq. km (2nd)
Europe/Africa (east) mountain chain) Sargasso Sea – no
- Important for trade coastline
Bermuda
Triangle lies here
Only ocean
named after a
country (India)
Sunda Trench –
Deepest point (7,725
- Warmest ocean
Bounded by Africa m)
Indian 70.6 million - Influences Indian
~3,741 m (west), Asia (north), Agulhas Current
Ocean sq. km (3rd) monsoon
Australia (east) (South Africa)
- Busy oil trade route
Coral-rich
(Lakshadweep,
Maldives)
Key strategic
route for oil trade
Circulates
clockwise around
Antarctica
- Coldest ocean
Influences global
- Covered with pack
climate and heat
Southern 21.9 million Surrounds Antarctica; ice
~4,500 m distribution
Ocean sq. km (4th) south of 60°S latitude - Has Antarctic
Circumpolar No permanent
Current population
Recent
recognition (2000) as
an ocean

26 | |
 Area Average Location & SSC-Relevant Facts
Ocean Key Features
(Approx) Depth Boundaries (Integrated)
Smallest and
shallowest ocean
Northwest
- Ice-covered most of Passage opens due to
Surrounds North Pole;
Arctic 15 million ~1,205 m the year melting
bordered by Europe,
Ocean sq. km (5th) (Shallowest) - Rich in marine life Major oil and gas
Asia, and North America
and oil reserves deposits
Plays a key role in
global temperature
regulation

Geomorphology – Detailed Table for SSC CGL

Topic / Concept Explanation Key Examples / Features SSC Exam Facts
Study of landforms, their origin, Involves study of mountains, Frequently asked in SSC under
Geomorphology
evolution, and structure plateaus, plains, valleys, etc. Physical Geography
Endogenic Internal forces from within the Volcanism, Earthquakes, Create mountains, rift valleys,
Forces Earth Diastrophism (folding, faulting) island arcs
External forces on Earth’s Modify existing landforms,
Exogenic Forces Weathering, erosion, deposition
surface create valleys and dunes
Disintegration of rocks without Weakens rocks before erosion;
Weathering Physical, chemical, biological
movement no transport involved
Wearing away of earth’s surface Erosion removes material and
Erosion River, wind, glacier, sea
by natural agents reshapes landforms
River delta, sand dunes, Forms new landforms like
Deposition Settling of eroded material
moraines plains, deltas, beaches
Large-scale deformation of Folding (e.g. Himalayas), Creates new landforms like
Diastrophism
Earth’s crust Faulting (e.g. Rift Valley) block mountains, grabens
Movement of magma onto Active, dormant, extinct Creates volcanic mountains
Volcanism
Earth’s surface volcanoes (e.g. Mt. Fuji, Mauna Loa)
Sudden release of energy in Measured by Richter Scale / Focus = origin point; Epicenter
Earthquake
Earth's crust Seismograph = point on surface
Explains formation of
Theory of movement of Convergent, Divergent,
Plate Tectonics mountains, earthquakes,
lithospheric plates Transform boundaries
volcanoes
Continuous transformation Igneous → Sedimentary → Basis of physical structure of
Rock Cycle
between rock types Metamorphic → back to Igneous Earth
Fold (Himalayas), Block
Large landforms that rise above Fold mountains are youngest
Mountains (Vosges), Volcanic (Mt.
surroundings and highest (e.g. Himalayas)
Kilimanjaro)
Deccan Plateau, Colorado Formed by volcanic or tectonic
Plateaus Elevated flat-topped areas
Plateau activity
Result from sediment
Plains Low, flat lands with fertile soil Indo-Gangetic Plain
deposition by rivers
Depressions between hills or V-shaped (river), U-shaped Indicates type of erosional
Valleys
mountains (glacier) agent
Formed by faulting, where land East African Rift, Narmada Common in tectonically active
Rift Valley
sinks Valley zones

27 | |
Topic / Concept Explanation Key Examples / Features SSC Exam Facts
Triangular deposit at river Largest delta in the world;
Delta Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta
mouth formed by deposition
Terminal, lateral, medial Common in glaciated regions
Moraine Deposits left by glaciers
moraines like Himalayas
Wind-deposited mounds of Barchans are crescent-shaped
Sand Dunes Found in deserts (Thar Desert)
sand dunes
Karst Landscape formed by chemical Stalactites, stalagmites, Found in areas like Meghalaya
Topography weathering of limestone sinkholes (India), Slovenia

Landforms
Type of
Formation Agent Sub-Types / Features Key Examples SSC-Relevant Facts
Landform
- Fold Mountains
Himalayas –
(formed by - Fold: Himalayas, Andes
youngest, highest
compression) - Block: Vosges (France),
Endogenic (internal Aravallis – oldest fold
Mountains - Block Mountains Sierra Nevada (USA)
tectonic forces) mountains
(formed by faulting) - Volcanic: Mt.
- Volcanic Mountains Kilimanjaro, Mt. Fuji Andes – longest
(from volcanism) mountain chain
Tibet – "Roof of the
- Deccan Plateau (India)
Uplift due to Elevated flat-topped World"
- Colorado Plateau (USA)
Plateaus endogenic forces or areas; may be Deccan – formed by
- Tibet Plateau (world’s
lava flow dissected or volcanic volcanic lava
highest)
Often rich in minerals
Most densely
Exogenic agents Flat and low-lying, populated regions
- Indo-Gangetic Plain
Plains (rivers, wind, fertile due to Ideal for agriculture
- Great Chinese Plain
glaciers) deposition Formed by alluvial
deposition
- Erg: Sand seas Barchans: Crescent-
- Reg: Stony deserts - Thar (India), Sahara shaped dunes
Deserts Wind (Aeolian)
- Dunes: Barchans, Seif (Africa), Gobi (Asia) Found in rain shadow
dunes zones
- Ganga Valley (V-shaped) Rift valleys = Block
- V-shaped (river)
- Kashmir Valley (U- mountains & faults
Valleys Rivers or Glaciers - U-shaped (glacier)
shaped) River valleys =
- Rift Valleys (faulting)
- Narmada Rift Valley Agricultural zones
Ganga-Brahmaputra:
Triangular or fan- - Ganga-Brahmaputra
Deposition by rivers World’s largest delta
Delta shaped depositional Delta (India/Bangladesh)
at mouth Rich in sediments and
land - Nile Delta
biodiversity
Kali Gandaki –
- Grand Canyon (USA)
Canyons / River erosion in hard Deep, narrow valleys deepest gorge
- Kali Gandaki Gorge
Gorges rock areas with steep sides Shows river’s
(Nepal)
erosional power

28 | |
Type of
Formation Agent Sub-Types / Features Key Examples SSC-Relevant Facts
Landform
- Cirque, Arete, Horn, Moraines = glacial
Glacial Glacier erosion and Moraines, Drumlin - Moraines in Himalayas deposits
Landforms deposition - Fjords (submerged - Fjords in Norway U-shaped valleys,
glacial valleys) Horn peaks (Matterhorn)
Features formed by
Chemical weathering
Karst Sinkholes, caves, - Meghalaya (India), underground water
of limestone
Landforms stalactites, stalagmites Slovenia, Karst Plateau Stalactites (ceiling),
(carbonation)
Stalagmites (floor)
Formed by marine
Coastal - Cliffs, sea caves, - Marina Beach (India), erosion/deposition
Sea waves and tides
Landforms arches, stacks, beaches Durdle Door (UK) Constantly changing
by wave action
Aeolian Wind erosion and Mushroom rocks, - Thar Desert, Sahara Wind is active in
Landforms deposition yardangs, dunes Desert arid/semi-arid zones
Lacustrine Formed in or around Lakes, oxbow lakes, - Dal Lake (India), Lake Oxbow lakes = old
Landforms lakes lake terraces Victoria (Africa) river meanders

Structure of the Atmosphere

Layer Altitude Range Key Characteristics Importance
- Weather phenomena occur here
- Contains 75% of total atmospheric mass - Life exists here
Troposphere 0 – 12 km
- Temperature decreases with height - Aircraft fly in lower troposphere
(6.5°C/km)
- Contains Ozone layer
- Protects Earth from UV radiation
Stratosphere 12 – 50 km - Temperature increases with height due to
- Ideal for jet aircraft
ozone absorption
- Coldest layer
Mesosphere 50 – 80 km - Temperature decreases with height - Protects Earth from meteors
- Meteors burn here
- Temperature increases rapidly
- Radio communication is possible
Thermosphere 80 – 500 km - Auroras occur
due to ionosphere
- Space shuttles orbit here
- Outer most layer
500 km &
Exosphere - Very thin gases - Contains hydrogen and helium
beyond
- Gradually merges with space

Composition of Atmosphere (by Volume)

Gas Percentage (%) Role
Nitrogen (N₂) 78.08% Maintains pressure & dilutes oxygen
Oxygen (O₂) 20.95% Essential for respiration
Argon (Ar) 0.93% Inert gas
Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) 0.04% Controls Earth’s temperature (greenhouse effect)
Others (Ne, He, CH₄, etc.) Trace Affect climate, radio signals, etc.
Water Vapour 0–4% (variable) Responsible for weather processes

29 | |
Atmospheric Pressure Zones
Zone Latitude Range Pressure Type Winds Associated
Equatorial Low 0° Low Pressure Trade Winds
Subtropical High 30° N/S High Pressure Westerlies
Subpolar Low 60° N/S Low Pressure Polar Easterlies
Polar High 90° N/S High Pressure Polar Winds

Atmospheric Phenomena & Instruments

Phenomenon / Term Definition / Tool Notes
Barometer Measures atmospheric pressure Mercury or aneroid
Hygrometer Measures humidity Used in weather stations
Rain Gauge Measures rainfall Simple cylinder type
Ozone Layer Absorbs UV rays Found in Stratosphere
Greenhouse Effect Warming of Earth due to gases CO₂, CH₄, H₂O are key gases
Aurora Light display in polar skies Occurs in Thermosphere
Ionosphere Reflects radio waves Part of Thermosphere

Temperature-Related Terms
Term Meaning Effect
Inversion of Temperature Temperature increases with height Found in winter/nights/valleys
Albedo Reflectivity of Earth’s surface Snow = high albedo, forests = low
Isotherm Line joining places with same temperature Used in climate maps

Water in the Atmosphere

Concept Definition / Description Important Facts & SSC Points
Measured by hygrometer or
Humidity Amount of water vapor present in the air
psychrometer
Actual amount (grams) of water vapor in 1 cubic meter
Absolute Humidity Unit: g/m³
of air
Relative Humidity % of moisture in the air compared to its capacity at that RH = (Actual humidity / Saturation
(RH) temperature humidity) × 100
Temperature at which air becomes saturated and dew
Dew Point If RH = 100%, dew forms
begins to form
Faster in high temperature, wind,
Evaporation Process by which liquid water turns into vapor
and low humidity
Condensation Process by which water vapor turns into liquid Forms dew, fog, clouds, etc.
Precipitation Any form of water that falls from clouds to Earth Includes rain, snow, hail, sleet
Mass of condensed water vapor floating in the
Clouds Formed by condensation of moist air
atmosphere
1. Cirrus – high, feathery, no rain
2. Cumulus – puffy, fair weather “Nimbus” = precipitation clouds like
Types of Clouds
3. Stratus – layered, can bring drizzle nimbostratus
4. Nimbus – rain-bearing

30 | |
Concept Definition / Description Important Facts & SSC Points
1. Convectional – due to surface heating
2. Orographic – due to mountains India gets monsoonal & orographic
Rainfall Types
3. Cyclonic (Frontal) – due to meeting of hot & cold air rainfall
masses
Reduces visibility; common in
Fog Condensed water vapor near Earth’s surface
winter
Mist Lighter than fog; visibility more than 1 km Occurs in slightly humid conditions
Common on grass during early
Dew Water droplets formed by condensation on cool surfaces
morning
Common in winter in temperate
Frost Frozen dew due to below-zero temperatures
zones
Spherical ice pellets; damaging to
Hail Frozen raindrops that form during thunderstorms
crops
Snow Ice crystals formed when temperature is below freezing Common in high altitudes and poles
Combined with evaporation =
Transpiration Release of water vapor from plants
Evapotranspiration
Continuous circulation of water through evaporation, Also called water cycle; crucial for
Hydrological Cycle
condensation, precipitation, and collection life
Latent Heat of Energy absorbed to convert water to vapor without Important for cloud formation and
Vaporization temperature change rainfall

Wind System
Concept / Term Definition / Description Key SSC Notes / Examples
Horizontal movement of air from high pressure to Measured by anemometer (speed) and
Wind
low pressure wind vane (direction)
Uneven heating of Earth’s surface creates Influenced by temperature, Coriolis force,
Cause of Wind
pressure differences and Friction
Pressure Gradient
Force that moves air from high to low pressure Stronger gradient = faster winds
Force
Right in Northern Hemisphere, left in
Coriolis Effect Deflection of winds due to Earth's rotation
Southern
Resistance near Earth’s surface, reduces wind
Frictional Force Stronger near ground level
speed
Winds parallel to isobars due to balance of
Geostrophic Wind Found at higher altitudes
Coriolis & pressure gradient
1. Permanent (Planetary)
Types of Winds 2. Periodic Classified based on duration and cause
3. Local

Permanent (Planetary) Winds

Wind Type Direction & Region Important Facts
Blow from subtropical high (30°) to equatorial low (0°)
Trade Winds Important for monsoon formation in India
NE in NH, SE in SH
Westerlies From 30° to 60° latitudes Carry temperate cyclones; stronger in SH
Polar Easterlies From polar high (90°) to subpolar low (60°) Very cold and dry winds

31 | |
Periodic Winds
Wind Type Cause Key Examples
Monsoon Seasonal reversal due to differential heating of SW Monsoon in India (June–Sept); NE Monsoon
Winds land and sea (Oct–Dec)
Land Breeze Land cools faster at night → wind blows sea-ward Nighttime phenomenon
Sea cools slower → wind blows landward in
Sea Breeze Cools coastal areas during day
daytime
Mountain
Cooler, heavier air flows down at night Seen in hilly areas at night
Breeze
Valley Breeze Warm air rises from valley during day Opposite of mountain breeze

Local Winds (Important for MCQs)

Name Region Nature / Effect
Loo India, North-West plains Hot, dry summer wind (May–June)
Chinook USA-Canada (Rockies) Warm, dry wind — melts snow
Foehn Europe (Alps) Warm wind — snow-melting, similar to Chinook
Harmattan West Africa Dry and dusty northeast trade wind
Mistral France (Rhone Valley) Cold wind from Alps to Mediterranean
Sirocco North Africa to Southern Europe Hot, dry, dusty wind from Sahara
Nor’easter Eastern USA Cold and stormy wind with rain/snow

Other Important Wind-Related Concepts

Term Explanation Exam Focus
Jet Streams High-speed winds in upper troposphere (westerlies) Affect monsoon onset & aircraft speed
Doldrums Equatorial low pressure belt (0°) – calm area Rising air, weak surface winds
Horse Latitudes Subtropical highs (30° N & S) – calm and dry Area of descending air
Anemometer Measures wind speed Unit: km/h or m/s
Wind Vane Shows wind direction Always points into the wind

Major Ocean Currents

Ocean Current Temperature
Ocean Coast/Region Important Facts for SSC
Name Type
East coast of North America Increases temperature of Western
Gulf Stream Atlantic Warm
(Florida to Europe) Europe; most powerful warm current
West coast of North Africa
Canary Current Atlantic Cold Causes arid climate in Sahara region
(Morocco area)
North Atlantic East coast of Europe Moderates climate of Western Europe
Atlantic Warm
Drift (extension of Gulf Stream) (UK, France)
Meets warm Gulf Stream → forms
Labrador Current Atlantic East coast of Canada Cold foggy conditions (Grand Banks fishing
zone)
East coast of South America Warm counterpart to the cold
Brazil Current Atlantic Warm
(Brazil) Benguela current

32 | |
 Ocean Current Temperature
Ocean Coast/Region Important Facts for SSC
Name Type
West coast of Southern Brings cold water → supports desert
Benguela Current Atlantic Cold
Africa (Namibia) conditions in coastal regions
Atlantic,
South Equatorial Near equator (both Driven by trade winds, flows
Pacific, Warm
Current hemispheres) westward
Indian
North Equatorial Atlantic & Moves westward due to easterly
5°–20° N latitude Warm
Current Pacific winds
Kuroshio (Japan) Responsible for warm climate of
Pacific East coast of Japan Warm
Current southern Japan
North-east coast of Japan & Meets Kuroshio → creates rich fishing
Oyashio Current Pacific Cold
Russia grounds
Brings cold water → causes desert-
California Current Pacific West coast of USA Cold
like climate (e.g. Southern California)
Peru (Humboldt) West coast of South America
Pacific Cold Responsible for dry Atacama Desert
Current (Peru, Chile)
East Australian Moves warm water from Coral Sea
Pacific East coast of Australia Warm
Current southward
West Australian Causes desert-like conditions along
Indian West coast of Australia Cold
Current Australian coast
East coast of Africa
Agulhas Current Indian (Mozambique to South Warm Strong warm current in Indian Ocean
Africa)
Mozambique Channel between
Indian Warm Joins Agulhas current
Current Madagascar and Africa
Southern Around Antarctica (all Only current that flows uninterrupted
West Wind Drift Cold
Ocean oceans) around Earth
Antarctic
Southern
Circumpolar Surrounds Antarctica Cold Strongest ocean current globally
Ocean
Current
Seasonal Reverses direction with monsoon –
Somali Current Indian Coast of Somalia
(Warm/Cold) unique feature
Indian Monsoon Near India during SW Seasonal current, flows westward
Indian Warm
Current monsoon during monsoon

India and its Location

Topic Details Important Notes for SSC CGL
In Southern Asia, lies entirely in the Positioned in the south-central part of the Asian
Location of India
Northern & Eastern Hemisphere continent
Northernmost: Indira Col (Jammu & Kashmir)
Latitude (North–South Southernmost (mainland): Kanyakumari (Tamil
8°4'N to 37°6'N
extent) Nadu)
Overall southernmost: Indira Point (Great Nicobar)
Longitude (East–West
68°7'E to 97°25'E Determines time zones and sunrise variation
extent)
North to South: ~3,214 km
Length and Breadth Total area: 3.28 million sq. km (7th largest country)
East to West: ~2,933 km

33 | |
 Topic Details Important Notes for SSC CGL
Area Rank in the World 7th largest After Russia, Canada, China, USA, Brazil, and Australia
Standard Meridian of Passes through Mirzapur (Uttar Pradesh); used for
82°30'E longitude
India Indian Standard Time (IST)
IST vs GMT +5 hours 30 minutes ahead of GMT Uniform time for the entire country
Passes through 8 Indian states: Gujarat, Rajasthan,
Tropic of Cancer 23°30'N latitude MP, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura,
Mizoram
7 total:
India also shares maritime borders with Sri Lanka,
Neighboring Countries Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Nepal,
Maldives, Indonesia
Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar
Land Frontier Length 15,106 km Shared with 7 countries
Coastline Length 7,516.6 km (mainland + islands) Mainland coast: 6,100 km
Time Difference (East
Approx. 2 hours Due to longitudinal width of ~29°
to West India)
North: Indira Col
South: Kanyakumari
Mainland Extremes Important for map-based questions
East: Kibithu (Arunachal Pradesh)
West: Guhar Moti (Gujarat)
Southernmost Point Submerged during 2004 Tsunami; still officially
Indira Point (Nicobar Islands)
(India) recognized

The Himalayas
Category Details Important Points for SSC
Northern border of India, running in west-east direction from Acts as a natural barrier; separates
Location
Indus River (J&K) to Brahmaputra River (Arunachal Pradesh) Indian subcontinent from Tibet
From Jammu & Kashmir to
Length Approx. 2,400 km
Arunachal Pradesh
Wider in the west, narrower in the
Width 200–400 km
east
Formation Formed by collision of Indo-Australian and Eurasian plates Example of fold mountains
Age Youngest mountain range in the world Tectonically active and still rising

Three Parallel Ranges of the Himalayas

Range Other Name Location Key Features
Tallest and most continuous range
Contains Mount Everest (8,848.86 m) & Kanchenjunga
Greater
Himadri Northernmost (India’s highest peak - 8,586 m)
Himalayas
Composed mainly of granite
Source of major glaciers
Rugged terrain, more weathered
Lesser South of
Himachal Important hill stations: Shimla, Mussoorie, Nainital
Himalayas Himadri
Popular valleys: Kangra, Kullu
Youngest and most unstable
Outer
Shiwalik Southernmost Formed by unconsolidated sediments
Himalayas
Known for Duns (valleys) like Dehradun, Patli Dun

34 | |
Regional Divisions of the Himalayas (West to East)

Section Extent State(s) Covered Notes

Punjab Himalayas Indus to Satluj J&K, Himachal Pradesh Also called Kashmir Himalayas
Kumaon Himalayas Satluj to Kali River Uttarakhand Includes Nainital, Almora
Nepal Himalayas Kali to Tista River Runs through Nepal Contains major peaks like Everest, Makalu
Sikkim Himalayas Tista to Brahmaputra Sikkim, N Bengal Includes Kanchenjunga
Arunachal Himalayas East of Dihang gorge Arunachal Pradesh Highly dissected & covered with dense forests

Important Himalayan Passes

Pass Name State/Region Connects Significance

Zoji La J&K Srinagar to Leh Strategic military route
Shipki La Himachal Pradesh India–Tibet Trade route
Nathu La Sikkim India–Tibet Reopened for trade in 2006
Bomdi La Arunachal Pradesh India–Tibet Near Tawang
Banihal Pass J&K Jammu to Srinagar Road tunnel now built below it

Major Rivers Originating in the Himalayas

River Source Glacier Location

Ganga Gangotri Uttarakhand
Yamuna Yamunotri Uttarakhand
Indus Sengge Zangbu (Kailash Range) Tibet
Brahmaputra Chemayungdung Glacier Tibet (called Tsangpo)
Satluj Rakshastal Lake Tibet

Flora and Fauna Zones by Altitude

Altitude Zone Vegetation Type Examples

Up to 1000 m Tropical forests Sal, Teak
1000–2000 m Sub-tropical forests Pine, Oak
2000–3000 m Temperate forests Fir, Spruce
3000–4000 m Alpine Juniper, Rhododendron
Above 4000 m Tundra / Snow line Mosses, Lichens

Quick Facts for SSC CGL

• Young fold mountains formed by tectonic collision
• Kanchenjunga is India’s highest peak
• Shiwaliks are prone to landslides and erosion
• Duns are longitudinal valleys between Lesser and Shiwalik Himalayas
• Himalayas influence Indian monsoon and act as climatic barrier

35 | |
Peninsular Plateau of India
General Overview
Location | Lies south of Indo-Gangetic Plains; triangular in shape | Flanked by Western & Eastern Ghats |
Formation | Ancient igneous & metamorphic rocks | Part of Gondwana land – very old and stable |
Elevation | 600–900 m above sea level on average | Slopes from west to east |
States Covered | MP, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Telangana, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Jharkhand,
Rajasthan | One of the largest physiographic divisions of India |

Major Divisions of the Peninsular Plateau

Division Sub-Regions States Highest Peak
Central Malwa Plateau, Bundelkhand, MP, Rajasthan,
Parasnath (1,365 m) – Jharkhand
Highlands Baghelkhand, Chotanagpur Plateau Jharkhand
Deccan Maharashtra Plateau, Karnataka Maharashtra, Anaimudi (2,695 m) – Kerala (highest
Plateau Plateau, Telangana Plateau Karnataka, Telangana in Western Ghats & Peninsular India)

Plateau Name Part of Location / States Features Important Points for SSC
Volcanic origin, rich in black Lies between Aravalli and
Central Madhya Pradesh & parts
Malwa Plateau soil; drained by Chambal, Vindhya; fertile and
Highlands of Rajasthan
Betwa, and Ken rivers agriculturally important
Undulating, rocky terrain;
Bundelkhand Central Poor soil; mostly rain-fed
UP & MP border region made of granite and
Plateau Highlands agriculture; drought-prone
sandstone
Baghelkhand Central Eastern MP & parts of Rugged terrain with dense Source of Son and Tons
Plateau Highlands Chhattisgarh forest; sandstone base rivers; less populated
Jharkhand, N. Odisha, Rich in coal, iron ore, mica;
Chotanagpur Central Known as "Ruhr of India" due
parts of Chhattisgarh & formed of granite and
Plateau Highlands to rich mineral deposits
West Bengal gneiss
Lava-covered (Deccan Known for cotton cultivation;
Maharashtra Deccan
Maharashtra Trap); mostly black soil; major rivers: Godavari,
Plateau Plateau
gently sloping Bhima
Origin of rivers:
Karnataka Deccan North: dry, red soil; South:
Karnataka Tungabhadra, Kaveri,
Plateau Plateau undulating, better rainfall
Sharavati
Drained by Godavari &
Telangana Deccan Telangana & parts of Deccan lava origin; granite
Krishna; both agricultural
Plateau Plateau Andhra Pradesh base; red & black soil
and mineral significance

Western Ghats (Sahyadri Hills)

Aspect Details
Location Runs parallel to west coast (Gujarat to Kerala)
Nature Continuous and steep
Average Elevation 900–1,600 m
Importance Biodiversity hotspot; origin of rivers: Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, etc.
Divisions • Northern Ghats (Maharashtra, Goa)
• Nilgiri Hills (TN, Kerala, Karnataka)

36 | |
 Aspect Details
• Anaimalai Hills (Kerala-TN border)
• Cardamom Hills (Southern Kerala)
Anaimudi (2,695 m) – Kerala
Highest Peak
Also highest in entire Peninsular India
Other Important Peaks • Mahabaleshwar – Maharashtra
• Kudremukh – Karnataka
• Doddabetta – Tamil Nadu (2,637 m)
• Agasthyamalai – Kerala-TN border

Eastern Ghats

Aspect Details
Location Runs along east coast (Odisha to Tamil Nadu)
Nature Discontinuous and lower than Western Ghats
Average Elevation 600–900 m
Importance Broken by rivers like Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri
Divisions • Northern Eastern Ghats (Odisha)
• Central Eastern Ghats (Andhra Pradesh)
• Southern Eastern Ghats (TN)
Highest Peak Arma Konda / Sitamma Konda (1,690 m) – Andhra Pradesh
Other Peaks • Mahendragiri (1,501 m) – Odisha
• Nallamala Hills – AP
• Shevaroy Hills – TN

Important Rivers of the Plateau

River Origin Drainage Key Notes

Godavari Nasik (Trimbak Hills) Bay of Bengal Longest river in peninsular India
Krishna Mahabaleshwar Bay of Bengal Flows through MH, KA, AP
Kaveri Talakaveri (Brahmagiri Hills) Bay of Bengal Forms second-largest delta
Narmada Amarkantak Plateau Arabian Sea Rift valley river; west-flowing
Tapi Satpura Hills Arabian Sea Also west-flowing
Mahanadi Chhattisgarh Bay of Bengal Forms delta in Odisha

Additional Key Facts

Fact Details
Oldest part of India Peninsular Plateau – formed during Precambrian era
River Flow Most rivers flow eastward due to plateau slope
Soils Found Black (regur) soil, red soil, laterite soil
Famous Dams Nagarjuna Sagar (Krishna), Srisailam (Krishna), Koyna Dam (MH)
Economic Importance Rich in minerals (coal, iron, manganese) especially in Chotanagpur

37 | |
Northern Plains of India – General Overview (Table Format)
Category Details Important SSC Points
Extends from Punjab (west) to Assam (east), between the Covers states like Punjab, Haryana, UP,
Location
Himalayas in the north and Peninsular Plateau in the south Bihar, West Bengal, Assam
From Indus Valley to Brahmaputra
Length Approx. 2,400 km (West to East)
Valley
Width Varies between 150 to 300 km Narrow in the east, broader in the west
One of the largest alluvial plains in the
Area Approx. 7 lakh sq. km
world
Formed by the deposition of alluvium by rivers from the Rivers: Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra
Formation
Himalayas and their tributaries
Very fertile; suitable for wheat, rice,
Soil Type Alluvial Soil – New (Khadar) & Old (Bhangar)
sugarcane cultivation
Influences river flow and formation of
Slope Slopes gently from northwest to southeast
floodplains

Longitudinal Divisions of Northern Plains

Division Location Features States Covered
Adjacent to foothills of Narrow belt of coarse sediments; rivers Uttarakhand, parts of Himachal,
Bhabar
Himalayas disappear underground Nepal border
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, North
Terai South of Bhabar Marshy and swampy land; rivers re-emerge
Bengal
Older alluvium, above Contains calcareous deposits (kankar); less
Bhangar Found throughout the plain
flood plains fertile than Khadar
Newer alluvium near Cultivated extensively in Punjab,
Khadar Very fertile; renewed annually by floods
riverbeds UP, Bihar

Regional Divisions of Northern Plains (Based on Rivers)

Region River System States Covered Key Features
Indus & its tributaries (Jhelum, Westernmost part; now shared with
Punjab Plains Punjab, Haryana
Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej) Pakistan
Ganga and its tributaries (Yamuna, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Largest part; most densely
Ganga Plains
Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi) West Bengal populated and fertile
Brahmaputra Prone to floods; rich alluvium;
Brahmaputra River Assam
Plains riverine islands like Majuli

Quick Facts & Key Points for SSC CGL

Topic Fact
Most Fertile Soil Khadar – used for intensive farming
Most Flood-Prone Area Brahmaputra Plains (especially Assam)
Most Populated Region Ganga Plains
Most Industrialized Part Punjab & Western UP
Kankar Deposits Found in Bhangar soil (old alluvium)
Major Crops Wheat, rice, sugarcane, pulses
Agriculture Type Mostly intensive subsistence farming
River Re-emergence In Terai region after disappearing in Bhabar

38 | |
Monsoon in India:
Aspect Details
Definition Seasonal reversal of winds that bring rain to the Indian subcontinent.
Origin of Term Arabic word 'Mausim' meaning season.
Monsoon Mechanism Caused by differential heating of land and sea; leads to pressure differences.
Intense heating of Indian landmass creates low-pressure area; draws in moist air from
Primary Cause
Indian Ocean.
June to September (South-West Monsoon); October to November (Retreating
Monsoon Season Duration
Monsoon)
1. South-West Monsoon (June–Sept)2. North-East Monsoon / Retreating Monsoon
Types of Monsoon in India
(Oct–Nov)
Branches of South-West 1. Arabian Sea Branch – Hits Western Ghats2. Bay of Bengal Branch – Moves
Monsoon towards North-East & Northern India
Arrival of Monsoon Kerala – around 1st June (earliest point in India)
Withdrawal of Monsoon Starts from NW India (Rajasthan) by September and completes by mid-October
Regions receiving maximum
1. Mawsynram (Meghalaya) – world’s highest2. Western Ghats (windward side)
rainfall
Regions with scanty rainfall 1. Western Rajasthan2. Ladakh3. Deccan Plateau (leeward side)
Monsoon Winds Direction (S-
From South-West to North-East (Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal branches)
W)
Monsoon Winds Direction
From North-East to South-West (dry and cold winds)
(N-E)
Importance of Monsoon 1. Agricultural backbone2. Impacts economy, water supply, hydro-power
El Niño Effect Causes weak monsoon; warming of Pacific Ocean affects Indian rainfall
La Niña Effect Often causes stronger than usual monsoon
Break in Monsoon Temporary halt in rainfall during the season; affects crops
Monsoon Trough Low-pressure area from Punjab to Bay of Bengal; shifts cause variation in rainfall
Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone – migrates northwards and helps draw monsoon
ITCZ Role
into India
Western Disturbances
Brings rain to North-West India during winter (not part of monsoon)
(Winter)
Heavy in Tamil Nadu, parts of Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka (main rainy season
Retreating Monsoon Rainfall
for TN)

Local Names of Pre-Monsoon Showers in India

Region / State Local Name of Pre-Monsoon Shower Description / Importance
Kerala & Karnataka Help in early ripening of mangoes; occur in
Mango Showers
(Coastal areas) April–May.
Violent thunderstorms with strong winds
West Bengal & Assam Kal Baisakhi (Nor'westers)
and rains in late April & May.
Odisha, Jharkhand & Same as Bengal region; known for
Kal Baisakhi
Bihar damaging effects on crops.
Andhra Pradesh & Cherry Blossom Showers or Coffee Help in blossom of coffee plants, important
Telangana Showers in hilly regions.
No specific name for pre-monsoon; gets most Pre-monsoon showers are generally weak
Tamil Nadu
rain from retreating monsoon. and scattered.
North India (Punjab, Rare pre-monsoon activity, mostly dry heat
No distinct local name
Haryana, Delhi) before monsoon sets in.
Maharashtra (Konkan Similar to Karnataka; pre-monsoon rains in
Mango Showers (occasionally used)
region) May.

39 | |
Agriculture in India – Complete Table for SSC Exams
Aspect Details
Share in GDP (2024) ~17–18% (approximate)
Share in Employment Over 50% of Indian population depends on agriculture
Nature Subsistence, labor-intensive, monsoon-dependent
1. Subsistence Farming – For self-consumption
2. Commercial Farming – For market
3. Plantation Farming – Single cash crop on large scale (e.g., tea, coffee)
Types of Agriculture
4. Mixed Farming – Crops + Livestock
5. Shifting Agriculture – Slash-and-burn (e.g., Jhumming in NE India)
6. Organic Farming – Without chemical fertilizers and pesticides
1. Kharif – Sown: June–July, Harvested: Sept–Oct
Agricultural Seasons 2. Rabi – Sown: Oct–Nov, Harvested: March–April
3. Zaid – Short summer crops (April–June)
Major Kharif Crops Rice, Maize, Cotton, Groundnut, Soybean, Jowar, Bajra
Major Rabi Crops Wheat, Barley, Mustard, Gram, Peas
Major Zaid Crops Watermelon, Muskmelon, Cucumber, Vegetables, Fodder
• Rice – West Bengal, UP, Punjab
• Wheat – UP, Punjab, Haryana
• Cotton – Gujarat, Maharashtra
Leading Crops & States
• Sugarcane – UP, Maharashtra
• Tea – Assam, West Bengal
• Coffee – Karnataka, Kerala
• Alluvial Soil – Northern Plains (good for rice, wheat)
• Black Soil – Deccan Plateau (ideal for cotton)
• Red Soil – South & Central India (less fertile)
Soil Types for Agriculture
• Laterite Soil – Hills, good for plantation crops
• Mountain Soil – Tea, Coffee
• Desert Soil – Sandy areas, poor fertility
1. Canal Irrigation
2. Well and Tube-well Irrigation
Irrigation Methods 3. Drip Irrigation
4. Sprinkler Irrigation
5. Tank Irrigation
Introduced in 1960s, led by M.S. Swaminathan
Green Revolution Focused on wheat & rice
High-yield variety (HYV) seeds, fertilizers, irrigation used
1970s – Operation Flood led by Verghese Kurien
White Revolution
Made India largest milk producer
Blue Revolution Increase in fish production
Yellow Revolution Increase in oilseed production
Pink Revolution Meat and poultry production
Golden Revolution Horticulture and honey
• PM-KISAN – ₹6000/year to small farmers
• PMFBY – Crop insurance
• Soil Health Card Scheme – Nutrient management
Major Government Schemes
• eNAM – Online Agri market
• PM Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) – Irrigation support
• Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) – Holistic development

40 | |
Aspect Details
• ICAR – Indian Council of Agricultural Research
Agricultural Institutions • IARI – Indian Agricultural Research Institute
• NABARD – Provides rural/agri finance
1. Dependence on Monsoon
2. Small and Fragmented land holdings
3. Poor irrigation facilities
Challenges in Agriculture 4. Lack of mechanization
5. Market access & middlemen exploitation
6. Post-harvest losses
7. Farmer indebtedness
• Promotion of natural farming
• Millet Mission – Declared 2023 as International Year of Millets
Recent Initiatives (2023–24)
• Digitization of land records
• Focus on Farmer Producer Organisations (FPOs)

MINERALS IN INDIA
Aspect Details
Naturally occurring substances with a definite chemical composition and physical
Definition
properties.
1. Metallic Minerals – Ferrous (with iron) & Non-ferrous (without iron)
Classification of Minerals 2. Non-Metallic Minerals
3. Energy Minerals (coal, petroleum, uranium)
• Iron Ore – Hematite & Magnetite
Metallic Minerals – Ferrous • Manganese
• Chromite
• Bauxite (Aluminium ore)
• Copper
Metallic Minerals – Non-
• Zinc
Ferrous
• Lead
• Gold
• Limestone
• Mica
Non-Metallic Minerals • Gypsum
• Asbestos
• Potash
• Coal
• Lignite
Energy Minerals • Petroleum (Crude Oil)
• Natural Gas
• Uranium & Thorium
1. Odisha (Kendujhar, Sundergarh)
2. Jharkhand (Singhbhum)
Major Iron Ore States
3. Chhattisgarh (Bastar)
4. Karnataka (Bellary)
1. Odisha (Koraput)
2. Gujarat
Bauxite Producing States
3. Maharashtra
4. Jharkhand

41 | |
Aspect Details
1. Jharkhand (Jharia, Bokaro)
2. Odisha (Talcher)
Coal Producing States
3. Chhattisgarh (Korba)
4. West Bengal (Raniganj)
1. Odisha
2. Maharashtra
Manganese Producing States
3. Madhya Pradesh
4. Karnataka
1. Kolar Gold Fields (Karnataka – now closed)
Gold Mining in India 2. Hutti Mines (Karnataka – active)
3. Ramgiri (Andhra Pradesh)
1. Rajasthan (Khetri)
Copper Producing States 2. Madhya Pradesh
3. Jharkhand
1. Assam (Digboi, oldest)
2. Gujarat (Ankleshwar)
Petroleum Producing States
3. Mumbai High (Offshore)
4. Rajasthan (Barmer – onshore)
1. Krishna-Godavari Basin (Andhra Pradesh)
Natural Gas Fields 2. Mumbai High
3. Assam
1. Jharkhand (Jaduguda – largest)
Uranium Deposits 2. Andhra Pradesh (Tummalapalle)
3. Meghalaya
1. Kerala Monazite Sands
Thorium Deposits 2. Andhra Pradesh
3. Tamil Nadu (Coastal sands)
1. Madhya Pradesh
2. Rajasthan
Limestone Producing States
3. Andhra Pradesh
4. Gujarat
1. Jharkhand (Hazaribagh)
Mica Producing States 2. Bihar
3. Andhra Pradesh
• National Mineral Policy (NMP) 2019
India’s Mineral Policy
• Encourages private sector participation, sustainability, and transparency
• Coal India Ltd (CIL) – coal
• NMDC – iron ore
Major Mining PSUs • NALCO – aluminium
• HCL – copper
• ONGC – oil & gas
1. Chhota Nagpur Plateau – Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh
2. Peninsular Belt – Karnataka, Goa
Important Mineral Belts
3. Western Belt – Rajasthan, Gujarat
4. North-Eastern Region – Assam (oil), Meghalaya (uranium)
• Iron – Steel
• Bauxite – Aluminium
• Coal – Fuel
Uses of Minerals • Mica – Electrical industry
• Limestone – Cement
• Copper – Electrical wires
• Gold/Silver – Jewellery & Electronics

42 | |
Making of Indian Constitution:

S.No. Concept / Topic Details

Demand for a Constituent Assembly was first made by M.N. Roy (1934); supported
1 Historical Background
by INC (1935)
Constituent Assembly
2 Formed under Cabinet Mission Plan (1946)
Formation
389 members (292 British Indian provinces + 93 Princely States + 4 Chief
3 Total Members Initially
Commissioner’s Provinces)
4 First Meeting 9 December 1946, presided by Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha (interim chairman)
5 Permanent Chairman Dr. Rajendra Prasad, elected on 11 December 1946
Boycott by Muslim Muslim League boycotted the Assembly initially; demanded a separate nation
6
League (Pakistan)
7 Number of Committees Total 22 committees, of which 8 were major committees
8 Drafting Committee Formed on 29 August 1947, chaired by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
1. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (Chairman) 2. N. Gopalaswami Ayyangar 3. Alladi Krishnaswami
Members of Drafting Ayyar 4. K.M. Munshi 5. Syed Mohammad Saadullah 6. B.L. Mitter (resigned later,
9
Committee replaced by N. Madhava Rao) 7. D.P. Khaitan (died later, replaced by T.T.
Krishnamachari)
Adoption Date of
10 26 November 1949
Constitution
11 Enforcement Date 26 January 1950 (chosen to honor Purna Swaraj Day of 1930)
12 Total Time Taken 2 years, 11 months, 18 days
13 Total Sessions 11 sessions held over the period
14 Total Days of Sitting 165 days
Initial Articles,
15 395 Articles, 8 Schedules, 22 Parts
Schedules, Parts
Current Articles,
16 ~470 Articles, 12 Schedules, 25 Parts (as amended)
Schedules, Parts
Adopted ideas from multiple constitutions: • UK: Parliamentary system • USA:
17 Source of Ideas
Fundamental Rights • Ireland: DPSPs • Canada: Federation with strong center
18 Objective Resolution Introduced by Jawaharlal Nehru on 13 December 1946 – Became Preamble’s base
19 Final Draft Submitted 21 February 1948
20 First Amendment 1951, dealt with land reforms and freedom of speech limitations
21 Nature of Constitution • Longest written constitution in the world • Partly rigid and partly flexible
Significance of 26
22 Commemorates the declaration of Purna Swaraj by INC at Lahore session in 1930
January
23 Language of Drafting Initially drafted in English, final version also available in Hindi
24 Total Signatories 284 members signed the Constitution on 24 January 1950
India became a 26 January 1950, when Constitution came into force and Dr. Rajendra Prasad
25
Republic became the first President

43 | |
Preamble

S.No. Topic / Concept Details / Explanation

Definition of An introductory statement that outlines the goals, objectives, and philosophy of the
1
Preamble Constitution.
Based on the Objective Resolution moved by Jawaharlal Nehru on 13 December
2 Inspired by
1946.
3 Adopted on 26 November 1949
4 Came into force on 26 January 1950
5 Preamble added by It is an integral part of the original Constitution; not added later.
6 Preamble begins with “We, the people of India…”
Nature of the State
7 • Sovereign • Socialist • Secular • Democratic • Republic
(keywords)
• Justice (Social, Economic, Political) • Liberty (of thought, expression, belief, faith,
Objectives
8 worship) • Equality (of status and opportunity) • Fraternity (assuring dignity of
mentioned
individual and unity of the nation)
Amendment to
9 Only one amendment: 42nd Amendment Act, 1976
Preamble
Words added in 42nd
10 • Socialist • Secular • Integrity (in “unity and integrity of the Nation”)
Amendment
Is Preamble a part of
11 Yes. Declared in Kesavananda Bharati case (1973) – it is part of the Constitution.
Constitution?
Can Preamble be Yes. Held in Kesavananda Bharati case (1973) that it can be amended without
12
amended? changing basic structure.
Cannot be amended
13 It alters the basic structure of the Constitution (as per Basic Structure Doctrine)
if...
Not enforceable in
14 Preamble is non-justiciable, i.e., not legally enforceable
court
An introduction, philosophical foundation, and guiding principle for interpreting
15 Serves as
Constitution
First word of
16 “We” – indicating popular sovereignty
Preamble
17 Republic meaning Head of the state is elected, not hereditary (President instead of monarch)
18 Democratic meaning Government by elected representatives by the people
19 Secular meaning State has no official religion; all religions treated equally
20 Socialist meaning Aims at reducing inequality, promoting social and economic justice
21 Fraternity meaning Promotes brotherhood, unity and dignity of individual
• Social – equal treatment without discrimination
22 Justice (3 types)
• Economic – equal wealth distribution • Political – equal voting rights
23 Liberty (5 areas) Thought, Expression, Belief, Faith, Worship
24 Equality (2 areas) Status and Opportunity

44 | |
Part I – The Union and Its Territory (Articles 1 to 4)
Article Title Explanation / Key Points
• India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States.
Article 1 Name and territory of the Union
• It includes states, UTs, and any acquired territories.
Admission or establishment of
Article 2 • Parliament can admit or establish new states into the Union.
new states
• Parliament can form new states, alter boundaries, names, areas of
Formation of new States and
Article 3 existing states.
alteration of areas
• President must recommend the bill.
• Any laws made under Article 2 or 3 shall not be considered a
Article 4 Laws under Articles 2 and 3
constitutional amendment under Article 368.

Part II – Citizenship (Articles 5 to 11)

Article Title Explanation / Key Points
Citizenship at the commencement of the • Provides citizenship rights to persons domiciled in India at the
Article 5
Constitution time of commencement (26 Jan 1950).
Rights of citizenship of certain persons • Grants citizenship to persons who migrated from Pakistan
Article 6
who have migrated from Pakistan before or after 19 July 1948 under certain conditions.
Rights of citizenship of certain migrants • Those who migrated to Pakistan but returned under permit
Article 7
to Pakistan system are eligible.
• Indian-origin persons residing outside India (like in UK) could
Article 8 Rights of citizenship of Indians abroad
register as citizens through Indian diplomatic missions.
Persons voluntarily acquiring
Article 9 • Such persons shall not be citizens of India.
citizenship of a foreign state
Article 10 Continuance of the rights of citizenship • Parliament has the power to regulate citizenship rights via law.
Parliament to regulate the right of • Empowers Parliament to make laws regarding acquisition,
Article 11
citizenship termination, and all other matters relating to citizenship.

Polity
Fundamental Rights
Article No. Fundamental Right
Article 14 Equality before law
Article 15 Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth
Article 16 Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment
Article 17 Abolition of untouchability
Article 18 Abolition of titles
Protection of six freedoms: speech and expression, assembly, association, movement, residence, and
Article 19
profession
Article 20 Protection in respect of conviction for offences (Ex-post-facto law, double jeopardy, self-incrimination)
Article 21 Protection of life and personal liberty
Article 21A Right to education (6–14 years) – inserted by 86th Amendment Act, 2002
Article 22 Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases
Article 23 Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour

45 | |
 Article No. Fundamental Right
Article 24 Prohibition of employment of children below 14 years in hazardous industries
Article 25 Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion
Article 26 Freedom to manage religious affairs
Article 27 Freedom from payment of taxes for promotion of any religion
Article 28 Freedom from attending religious instruction in certain educational institutions
Article 29 Protection of interests of minorities
Article 30 Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions
Right to constitutional remedies (to move Supreme Court directly in case of violation of Fundamental
Article 32
Rights)

Articles Related to Enforcement & Exceptions

Article No. Purpose
Article 33 Parliament's power to modify fundamental rights for armed forces
Article 34 Restriction of rights while martial law is in force
Article 35 Parliament’s authority to make laws to give effect to certain Fundamental Rights

Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSPs) – Articles 36 to 51

Article No. Directive Principle
Article 36 Definition of 'State' (same as in Part III)
Article 37 Application of DPSPs (Not enforceable by court but fundamental to governance)
Article 38 Promote welfare of people by securing a social order through justice
Article 39 • Adequate means of livelihood
• Equal pay for equal work
• Protection of children and youth from exploitation
• Economic justice
Article 39A Equal justice and free legal aid (added by 42nd Amendment)
Article 40 Organisation of Village Panchayats
Article 41 Right to work, education and public assistance in certain cases
Article 42 Just and humane conditions of work and maternity relief
Article 43 Living wage, etc., for workers
Article 43A Workers’ participation in management of industries (added by 42nd Amendment)
Article 44 Uniform Civil Code for the citizens
Article 45 Provision for early childhood care and education (amended by 86th Amendment)
Article 46 Promotion of educational and economic interests of SCs, STs, and other weaker sections
Article 47 Duty of the State to raise the level of nutrition and public health
Article 48 Organisation of agriculture and animal husbandry (prohibition of cow slaughter)
Protection and improvement of environment and safeguarding of forests and wildlife (added by 42nd
Article 48A
Amendment)
Article 49 Protection of monuments and places of national importance
Article 50 Separation of judiciary from the executive
Article 51 Promotion of international peace and security

46 | |
Fundamental Duties – Article 51A (Part IVA)

Article No. Fundamental Duty

To abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the National
Article 51A (a)
Anthem
Article 51A (b) To cherish and follow the noble ideals of the freedom struggle
Article 51A (c) To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity, and integrity of India
Article 51A (d) To defend the country and render national service when called upon
To promote harmony and brotherhood among all people and renounce practices derogatory to the
Article 51A (e)
dignity of women
Article 51A (f) To value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture
Article 51A (g) To protect and improve the natural environment (forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife)
Article 51A (h) To develop scientific temper, humanism and spirit of inquiry and reform
Article 51A (i) To safeguard public property and abjure violence
Article 51A (j) To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity
Parent/guardian to provide opportunities for education to children (6–14 years) – added by 86th
Article 51A (k)
Amendment, 2002

The President of India

Article No. Provision

Article 52 The President of India – There shall be a President of India
Article 53 Executive power of the Union shall be vested in the President
Article 54 Election of President (by electoral college: MPs + MLAs)
Article 55 Manner of election of President (Proportional Representation by Single Transferable Vote)
Article 56 Term of office of President (5 years)
Article 57 Eligibility for re-election of President
Article 58 Qualifications for election as President (Citizen of India, 35 years, eligible for Lok Sabha)
Article 59 Conditions of President’s office (no other office of profit, official residence, emoluments)
Article 60 Oath or affirmation by the President
Article 61 Procedure for impeachment of the President
Article 62 Time of holding election to fill a vacancy
Article 70 Discharge of President’s functions in other contingencies
Article 71 Matters relating to or connected with the election of a President
Article 72 Power of President to grant pardons, etc., in certain cases
Article 74 Council of Ministers to aid and advise the President
Article 75 Other provisions as to Ministers (appointed by President)
Article 76 Attorney General of India (appointed by President)
Article 77 Conduct of business of the Government of India (by President)
Article 123 Power of President to promulgate ordinances

47 | |
Vice-President of India
Article No. Provision
Article 63 The Vice-President of India – There shall be a Vice-President
Article 64 The Vice-President to be ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha
Article 65 The Vice-President to act as President in case of vacancy or absence
Article 66 Election of Vice-President (by electoral college: only MPs)
Article 67 Term of office of Vice-President (5 years)
Article 68 Time of holding election to fill vacancy in Vice-President’s office
Article 69 Oath or affirmation by the Vice-President
Article 71 Matters relating to or connected with election of Vice-President (also applies to President)

The Governor – Indian Constitution (Part VI: The States)

Article No. Provision Related to the Governor
Article 153 There shall be a Governor for each State (Note: one person can be Governor for two or more states)
Article 154 Executive power of the State shall be vested in the Governor
Article 155 Appointment of Governor by the President of India
Article 156 Term of office of Governor (normally 5 years, holds office at the pleasure of the President)
Article 157 Qualifications for appointment as Governor (must be citizen of India, 35+ years of age)
Article 158 Conditions of Governor’s office (no office of profit, official residence, emoluments, etc.)
Article 159 Oath or affirmation by the Governor (administered by Chief Justice of High Court)
Article 160 Discharge of functions in contingencies (President may make provisions)
Article 161 Power of Governor to grant pardons, reprieves, respites, or remissions of punishment
Article 162 Extent of executive power of the State
Article 163 Council of Ministers to aid and advise the Governor
Article 164 Other provisions as to Ministers (appointed by Governor, CM is appointed by Governor)
Article 165 Advocate-General for the State (appointed by Governor)
Article 166 Conduct of business of the Government of a State
Article 167 Duties of Chief Minister with respect to furnishing information to Governor
Article 174 Governor’s power to summon, prorogue and dissolve the State Legislature
Article 175 Right of Governor to address and send messages to the House or Houses of State Legislature
Article 176 Special Address by the Governor (customary address at the commencement of first session each year)
Article 200 Assent to Bills (Governor may give, withhold, or reserve for President’s consideration)
Article 201 Bills reserved for consideration of the President

Council of Ministers
Article No. Provision Title Description / Key Points
- There shall be a Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister to aid
Council of Ministers
and advise the President.
Article 74 to aid and advise the
- President shall act in accordance with such advice (44th Amendment
President
clarified this).

48 | |
 Article No. Provision Title Description / Key Points
- PM appointed by President; other ministers appointed on PM’s advice.
- Ministers hold office during the pleasure of the President.
Other provisions
Article 75 - Collective Responsibility to Lok Sabha.
regarding Ministers
- Minister must be a member of Parliament within 6 months of appointment.
- Salaries as determined by Parliament.
Conduct of business - All executive actions of the Government of India shall be expressed to be taken
Article 77 of Government of in the name of the President.
India - Allocation of business among ministers.
- PM communicates all decisions of CoM to President.
Duties of the Prime
Article 78 - PM furnishes information and submits matters for Presidential consideration
Minister
when required.
Rights of Ministers as - Ministers have the right to speak and take part in the proceedings of either
Article 88
Members House, any committee, but cannot vote if not a member of the House.

Council of Ministers – Additional Key Information

Category Details
Composition PM + Cabinet Ministers + Ministers of State (with/without independent charge)
As per 91st Amendment Act, 2003 – Total number of Ministers shall not exceed 15%
Maximum Limit
of the Lok Sabha strength.
Collective Responsibility The entire Council is collectively responsible to Lok Sabha (Article 75(3))
Ministers hold office during the pleasure of the President, implying dismissal on PM's
Individual Responsibility
advice.
Oath of Office Administered by the President under Third Schedule of the Constitution
- Cabinet is a smaller body within CoM, responsible for key decisions.
Difference: Cabinet vs CoM
- Council of Ministers includes all levels of ministers.

Parliament: Structure and Composition of Parliament

Article No. Title / Subject Key Provisions / Description
Constitution of
Article 79 Parliament = President + Lok Sabha + Rajya Sabha
Parliament
Max strength = 250
Composition of Rajya
Article 80 - 238 elected by states/UTs
Sabha
- 12 nominated by President
Composition of Lok Max strength = 552
Article 81
Sabha - 530 from states, 20 from UTs, 2 Anglo-Indians (removed by 104th Amendment)
Readjustment after
Article 82 Delimitation of constituencies after every census
census
Rajya Sabha: permanent, 1/3rd retire every 2 yrs
Article 83 Duration of Houses
Lok Sabha: 5 years (can be dissolved earlier)
Article 84 Qualifications for MP Must be Indian citizen, 25 yrs for LS, 30 yrs for RS, etc.
Sessions of
Article 85 President summons each House; max 6-month gap allowed
Parliament
Article 86 President’s Address Right to address and send messages to Parliament
President addresses both Houses at the start of first session each year and first
Article 87 Special Address
session after general elections

49 | |
Officers and Conduct of Business
Article No. Title / Subject Key Provisions / Description
Can speak in either House, but cannot vote unless
Article 88 Rights of Ministers
member
Article 89 Chairman and Deputy Chairman of Rajya Sabha Vice President = Ex-officio Chairman of RS
Vacation/resignation/removal of Deputy Details of how the Deputy Chairman vacates/removal
Article 90
Chairman process
Article 91 Powers of Deputy Chairman When Chairman absent, Deputy presides
Article 93 Speaker and Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha Elected by LS members
Article 94 Vacation/resignation/removal of Speaker Rules for Speaker/Deputy Speaker vacating or removal
Article 95 Powers of Deputy Speaker Acts in absence of Speaker

Legislative Process and Powers

Article No. Title / Subject Key Provisions / Description
Article 107 Introduction & Passing of Bills Defines Bill and procedure in both Houses
Article 108 Joint Sitting of Parliament Called by President if deadlock on a bill arises
Article 109 Money Bills – Rajya Sabha’s Role RS has only advisory role; must return in 14 days
Article 110 Definition of Money Bill Only Speaker certifies it; includes taxes, borrowings, etc.
Article 111 President’s Assent President can assent, withhold, or return (except Money Bill)

Parliamentary Privileges and Disqualifications

Article No. Title / Subject Key Provisions / Description
Powers and Privileges of
Article 105 Freedom of speech, immunity from court proceedings
Parliament
Article 102 Disqualification of MPs On grounds of defection, unsound mind, insolvency, office of profit, etc.

Miscellaneous and Financial Powers

Article No. Title / Subject Key Provisions / Description
Article 112 Annual Financial Statement Union Budget presented to Parliament
Describes the entire budget and financial
Article 113–117 Procedure for Money Bills, Appropriation Bills, etc.
process
Article 118 Rules of Procedure Each House can make its own rules
Ensures separation of powers & legislative
Article 122 Courts not to inquire into proceedings of Parliament
privilege

State Legislature – Important Articles

Article No. Title / Subject Key Provisions / Description
Provides for two types of legislature:
• Unicameral – only Legislative Assembly (most states)
168 Constitution of Legislatures in States
• Bicameral – Legislative Assembly + Legislative Council (e.g.,
UP, Bihar, Maharashtra)
Abolition or Creation of Legislative Parliament can abolish or create Legislative Councils via
169
Councils ordinary law on state’s resolution passed by special majority
Max strength = 500, Min = 60 (exceptions: Goa, Sikkim,
Composition of Legislative Assembly
170 Mizoram)
(Vidhan Sabha)
Members are directly elected

50 | |
 Article No. Title / Subject Key Provisions / Description
Composition of Legislative Council Max = 1/3rd of Assembly size; Min = 40
171
(Vidhan Parishad) Members elected from local bodies, teachers, graduates, etc.
• Legislative Assembly: 5 years unless dissolved sooner
172 Duration of State Legislatures
• Can be extended during national emergency
• Indian citizen
173 Qualifications for Membership
• 25 years for Assembly, 30 years for Council
Governor summons, prorogues, and dissolves the Assembly
174 Sessions of State Legislature
Max 6-month gap between sessions
175 Governor’s Address to the House Governor can address and send messages to either/both Houses
176 Special Address by Governor At the first session of each year or after a general election
Rights of Ministers and Advocate Can participate in proceedings of legislature without voting
177
General rights if not a member
Speaker and Deputy Speaker of
178 Elected by the Assembly members
Legislative Assembly
Vacation/resignation/removal of
179 Details of how they vacate office or are removed
Speaker/Deputy Speaker
Chairman and Deputy Chairman of
182 Similar to RS; elected internally
Legislative Council
Vacation/removal of Chairman/Deputy
183 Provisions related to resignation/removal
Chairman
188 Oath or Affirmation by Members Before taking seat, members must take oath
190 Vacation of Seats Seat vacated on resignation, disqualification, or absence
Similar to Parliament; includes office of profit, insolvency,
191 Disqualifications for Membership
allegiance to foreign state, etc.
192 Decision on Disqualification Governor decides after consulting Election Commission
Penalty for sitting and voting while Penalty may be imposed if a disqualified person votes or sits in
193
disqualified House
Freedom of speech, immunity from court proceedings, etc. –
194 Powers and Privileges
similar to Parliament
198 Bills in State Legislature Procedure for introducing and passing bills
200 Assent to Bills by Governor Governor can give assent, withhold, return (except money bill)
201 Reservation of Bills for President Governor can reserve certain bills for President's consideration
Annual Financial Statement (State
202 Similar to Union Budget – lays out revenue/expenditure
Budget)
203–207 State Financial Procedure Rules for money bills, appropriation bills, etc.

Supreme Court of India – Important Articles

Article No. Title / Subject Key Provisions / Description
Establishment and - Supreme Court established as per Constitution
124
Constitution of Supreme Court - Chief Justice + other Judges appointed by President
- Salaries, allowances, rights of SC judges are charged on the Consolidated
125 Salaries and Allowances
Fund of India
Appointment of Acting Chief
126 - President can appoint a judge to act as Chief Justice when needed
Justice
127 Appointment of Ad hoc Judges - Chief Justice can request a HC judge to act as SC judge temporarily
128 Attendance of retired judges - Retired SC judges can be asked to sit and act as SC judges
Supreme Court as a Court of
129 - Judgments have evidentiary value and contempt powers
Record

51 | |
 Article No. Title / Subject Key Provisions / Description
- SC shall sit in Delhi (unless changed by the Chief Justice with the
130 Seat of Supreme Court
approval of the President)
- Disputes between Centre and one or more States, or among States
131 Original Jurisdiction
(federal disputes)
Appellate Jurisdiction – - Appeals to SC in cases involving substantial questions of law as to
132
Constitutional Matters interpretation of Constitution
Appellate Jurisdiction – Civil
133 - Civil appeals to SC if the case involves a substantial question of law
Cases
Appellate Jurisdiction – - Criminal appeals under specified conditions (e.g., death sentence,
134
Criminal Cases acquittal reversal)
Certificate for appeal to
134A - High Court may certify that a case is fit for appeal to SC
Supreme Court
135 Enlarged Jurisdiction - SC can exercise jurisdiction and powers conferred by any other law
- SC may grant special leave to appeal from any judgment, decree, order
136 Special Leave Petition (SLP)
from any court/tribunal (except military tribunals)
137 Review of Judgments - SC has the power to review its own judgments or orders
138 Enlargement of Jurisdiction - Parliament may confer further jurisdiction on SC
Conferment of powers to issue
139 - Parliament can empower SC to issue writs in other matters
writs
139A Transfer of certain cases - Transfer of cases involving the same legal question to SC for decision
Law declared by SC to be
141 - SC decisions are binding on all courts in India
binding
Enforcement of decrees and
142 - SC may pass any order necessary for complete justice
orders
143 Advisory Jurisdiction - President can refer legal/matters of public importance to SC for advice
Civil and judicial authorities to
144 - All authorities must act in aid of SC
act in aid of SC
145 Rules of Court - SC can make its own rules for procedure and practice
146 Officers and servants of SC - Appointments made by CJI; conditions set by President
147 Interpretation - Clarifies what ‘law’ includes in SC jurisdiction (e.g., Constitutional law)

High Court - Important Articles

Article No. Title / Subject Key Provisions / Description
Each state shall have a High Court; common HC can be formed for two or
214 High Courts for States
more states/UTs
High Court to be a Court of High Court has power to punish for its contempt; judgments have
215
Record evidentiary value
High Court shall consist of Chief Justice + other judges appointed by the
216 Constitution of High Courts
President
Appointed by President (in consultation with CJI, Governor, and Chief
Appointment and Conditions of
217 Justice of that HC)
Office of HC Judges
Retirement age: 62 years
Application of certain
218 Conditions like removal and tenure applicable to HC Judges
provisions regarding SC to HC
219 Oath or Affirmation Judges of HC take oath before Governor or person appointed by him
Restriction on practice after A retired HC judge cannot plead or act in any court or before any
220
retirement authority in India except the Supreme Court
221 Salaries and Allowances Determined by Parliament; charged on Consolidated Fund of the State

52 | |
 Article No. Title / Subject Key Provisions / Description
President can transfer a HC judge from one court to another after
222 Transfer of Judges
consultation with CJI
Appointment of Additional and
224 Appointed by President to clear arrears or for temporary vacancies
Acting Judges
Jurisdiction of Existing High
225 Jurisdiction continues unless changed by law made by Parliament
Courts
Can issue writs (habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, certiorari, quo
Power of High Courts to issue
226 warranto) for enforcement of fundamental rights and for any other
writs
purpose
High Court has power of superintendence over all subordinate courts
227 Power of Superintendence
within its jurisdiction
Transfer of certain cases to High Court can withdraw cases from subordinate courts if they involve
228
High Court substantial question of constitutional law
229 Officers and servants of HC Appointed by Chief Justice of HC
Extension of jurisdiction of
230 High Courts to Union Parliament can extend jurisdiction of HC to UTs
Territories
Establishment of common High Parliament can establish a common HC for two or more States/UTs (e.g.,
231
Court Punjab & Haryana)

Constitutional Bodies
Articles Constitutional Body Explanation of Each Article
Attorney General of 76: Chief legal advisor to the Government of India. Must be qualified to be a SC
76
India judge. Represents Union in court cases.
148: Appointment, oath, conditions.
148 – Comptroller and 149: Duties and powers.
151 Auditor General (CAG) 150: Form of accounts.
151: Submission of audit reports to President/Governor.
Advocate General of
165 165: Highest legal officer in a state. Advises State Government in legal matters.
State
280: Constituted every 5 years by the President. Recommends tax distribution
280 Finance Commission
between Centre and States and gives financial advice.
315: Establishes UPSC & State PSCs.
316: Appointment & term.
317: Removal.
318: Power to make rules.
315 –
UPSC and State PSCs 319: Re-appointment restrictions.
323
320: Functions.
321: Parliament can assign additional functions.
322: Expenses charged on Consolidated Fund.
323: Submission of reports to President/Governor.
324: Power to direct/control elections.
325: No discrimination in electoral rolls.
324 – Election Commission of 326: Adult suffrage.
329 India 327: Parliament laws for elections.
328: State laws for elections.
329: No court interference except through election petitions.
National Commission 338: Investigates safeguards and rights of Scheduled Castes, submits reports to
338
for SCs the President, and suggests welfare measures.

53 | |
 Articles Constitutional Body Explanation of Each Article
National Commission 338A: Similar to Article 338 but focuses on Scheduled Tribes. Separate
338A
for STs commission created by 89th Amendment.
National Commission 338B: Added by the 102nd Constitutional Amendment. Gives constitutional
338B
for Backward Classes status to NCBC. Works for OBC welfare and rights.
Special Officer for 350B: Appointed by the President. Reports to the President on linguistic minority
350B
Linguistic Minorities issues. Ensures safeguards are followed.
279A: Established by the President. Recommends GST rates, exemptions, laws.
279A GST Council
Headed by Union Finance Minister with members from Centre and States.

Local Bodies – Panchayats & Municipalities

Part IX – Panchayats (Articles 243–243O)
Article Subject Explanation
243 Definitions Provides definitions of terms like "district", "Gram Sabha", "Panchayat", etc.
Empowers Gram Sabha to function as a basic village-level body for people’s
243A Gram Sabha
participation.
Mandates 3-tier structure: Gram Panchayat, Panchayat Samiti, Zila Parishad
243B Constitution of Panchayats
(State can skip intermediate level if population < 20 lakhs).
Members can be directly or indirectly elected; includes reservation for
243C Composition of Panchayats
SC/ST/women.
243D Reservation of Seats One-third reservation for women, reservation for SCs/STs based on population.
243E Term of Panchayats 5-year term; dissolution leads to elections within 6 months.
243F Qualifications for members State Legislature can define qualifications/disqualifications.
Powers, authority, and State Legislature may endow Panchayats with powers to prepare plans for
243G
responsibilities economic development and social justice.
Powers to impose taxes and State can authorize Panchayats to levy taxes and receive funds from State or
243H
receive funds Centre.
243I State Finance Commission Constituted every 5 years to review financial position of Panchayats.
243J Audit of accounts State Legislature to make provisions for Panchayat audit.
243K Elections to Panchayats State Election Commission (SEC) conducts Panchayat elections.
Application to Union
243L Provides for Panchayat formation in Union Territories.
Territories
243M Exceptions Excludes certain areas like Scheduled Areas, tribal areas (5th and 6th Schedule).
Continuance of existing
243N Existing laws to continue until amended in line with the 73rd Amendment.
laws
Bar to interference by
243O Courts cannot question Panchayat elections except via election petitions.
courts

Part IXA – Municipalities (Articles 243P–243ZG)

Key Highlights:
Topic Details
73rd Amendment Act, 1992 Introduced Part IX & 11th Schedule (Panchayats)
74th Amendment Act, 1992 Introduced Part IXA & 12th Schedule (Municipalities)
11th Schedule: 29 subjects for Panchayats
Schedules Related
12th Schedule: 18 subjects for Municipalities

54 | |
Important Constitutional Amendment Acts
Amendment
Year Purpose / Key Provisions
No.
Added 9th Schedule to protect land reform laws from judicial review. Introduced Article 31A
1st 1951
& 31B.
7th 1956 States Reorganisation Act – Reorganized states based on language. Abolished Part B states.
10th 1961 Incorporated Dadra & Nagar Haveli as a Union Territory.
12th 1961 Incorporated Goa, Daman and Diu into the Indian Union.
21st 1967 Included Sindhi in the 8th Schedule of the Constitution.
Affirmed Parliament’s power to amend any part of the Constitution including Fundamental
24th 1971
Rights (Art. 368).
25th 1971 Curtailed Right to Property (Art. 31C); property ceased to be a Fundamental Right.
26th 1971 Abolished privy purses and privileges of former rulers of princely states.
36th 1975 Made Sikkim a full-fledged State of India.
Known as the Mini Constitution. Added words “Socialist, Secular, Integrity” in the Preamble.
42nd 1976
Limited judicial review, strengthened Directive Principles.
Reversed many 42nd Amendment provisions. Restored Article 21 as a Fundamental Right.
44th 1978
Deleted Right to Property from Fundamental Rights.
52nd 1985 Introduced the Anti-Defection Law (10th Schedule) to curb political defections.
61st 1989 Reduced voting age from 21 to 18 years (Article 326).
69th 1991 Gave Delhi the status of National Capital Territory; created Legislative Assembly for Delhi.
73rd 1992 Introduced Panchayati Raj System (Part IX, Articles 243–243O and 11th Schedule).
Introduced Urban Local Bodies/Municipalities (Part IXA, Articles 243P–243ZG and 12th
74th 1992
Schedule).
86th 2002 Made Right to Education (RTE) a Fundamental Right (Article 21A); added Article 51A(k).
Limited Council of Ministers to 15% of total strength; barred defectors from becoming
91st 2003
ministers.
101st 2016 Introduced Goods and Services Tax (GST); added Article 279A (GST Council).
Gave constitutional status to the National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC);
102nd 2018
added Article 338B.
103rd 2019 Introduced 10% reservation for EWS in jobs and education; amended Articles 15 and 16.
104th 2020 Abolished Anglo-Indian reserved seats in Lok Sabha and State Assemblies (Art. 334).
Restored State Governments’ power to identify and notify OBCs (post 102nd Amendment
105th 2021
clarification).

Schedules of the Indian Constitution

Schedule No. Subject Key Provisions
Territories of India & Union Lists the names of States and Union Territories and their
1st Schedule
Territories territorial jurisdiction.
Details salaries, allowances, and privileges of the President,
2nd Schedule Salaries & Allowances
Governors, Judges, Speaker, CAG, etc.
Forms of Oaths and Specifies the oaths/affirmations for Union and State Ministers, MPs,
3rd Schedule
Affirmations MLAs, Judges, etc.
Allocation of Rajya Sabha Allocates seats in the Rajya Sabha (Upper House) to the States and
4th Schedule
Seats Union Territories.
Provisions for Scheduled Administration and control of Scheduled Areas and Tribes in states
5th Schedule
Areas and Tribes other than the northeast.

55 | |
 Schedule No. Subject Key Provisions
Provisions for Tribal Areas in Deals with autonomous district councils in Assam, Meghalaya,
6th Schedule
NE Tripura, and Mizoram.
Contains three lists: Union List, State List, and Concurrent List for
7th Schedule Division of Powers
legislative powers distribution.
8th Schedule Official Languages Lists the 22 official languages recognized by the Constitution.
Laws Exempt from Judicial Contains laws (mostly land reforms) that are protected from
9th Schedule
Review judicial review under Article 31B.
Provides for disqualification of legislators on grounds of defection
10th Schedule Anti-Defection Law
(added by 52nd Amendment).
Panchayati Raj (Rural Lists 29 subjects under the control of Panchayats (added by 73rd
11th Schedule
Governance) Amendment).
Municipalities (Urban Lists 18 subjects under the functions of Municipalities (added by
12th Schedule
Governance) 74th Amendment).

Important Parliamentary Committees

Committee Name Type Composition Key Functions / Purpose
Examines audit reports of the CAG,
Public Accounts Financial 22 members (15 from Lok
ensures public money is used
Committee (PAC) Committee Sabha, 7 from Rajya Sabha)
efficiently.
Financial 30 members from Lok Sabha Suggests economies and
Estimates Committee
Committee only improvements in public expenditure.
Committee on Public Financial Reviews functioning of PSUs and
22 members (15 LS + 7 RS)
Undertakings (COPU) Committee examines CAG reports on PSUs.

Economics
Basics of Economy – Key Concepts & Definitions
Concept Definition / Explanation
Economy A system by which goods and services are produced, distributed, and consumed in a country.
Microeconomics Study of individual economic units like households, firms, markets.
Macroeconomics Study of the economy as a whole, including inflation, unemployment, and national income.
An increase in the output of goods and services over a period of time, usually measured as GDP
Economic Growth
growth.
Economic Improvement in living standards, income equality, health, and education along with economic
Development growth.
Capitalist Economy Economy where private individuals own means of production.
Socialist Economy Economy where the government owns means of production.
Mixed Economy Economy that combines features of both capitalism and socialism (e.g., India).
Inflation Sustained increase in general price levels in an economy.
Deflation Sustained decrease in general price levels in an economy.
Recession A period of negative economic growth for two or more consecutive quarters.
Policy by the central bank to control money supply and interest rates to ensure price stability
Monetary Policy
and growth.
Fiscal Policy Government policy related to revenue (tax) and expenditure to influence the economy.
Public Sector Government-controlled part of the economy.
Private Sector Economy operated by individuals or private firms.

56 | |
National Income
Term Definition / Explanation
Total monetary value of all final goods and services produced by the residents of a
National Income
country in one year.
Total value of all goods and services produced within a country's borders in a given
GDP (Gross Domestic Product)
year, regardless of who owns them.
GDP + Net income earned from abroad (i.e., Income by Indians abroad – Income by
GNP (Gross National Product)
foreigners in India).
NNP (Net National Product) GNP – Depreciation (Net value after deducting capital wear and tear).
NDP (Net Domestic Product) GDP – Depreciation.
Per Capita Income National Income ÷ Total Population – Average income per person in a year.
Total income actually received by individuals, including transfer incomes (like
Personal Income (PI)
pensions, gifts).
Disposable Income PI – Direct Taxes = Income left with individuals for spending or saving.
Factor Income Income earned by providing factors of production (Rent, Wages, Interest, Profit).
Income received without giving any service in return (e.g., pensions, scholarships,
Transfer Income
subsidies).
Real GDP (Real Gross Domestic GDP calculated at constant prices (adjusted for inflation). Reflects actual volume of
Product) production.
GDP calculated at current market prices (not adjusted for inflation). Reflects both
Nominal GDP
price and quantity changes.
A price index used to convert nominal GDP into real GDP. Formula: GDP Deflator =
GDP Deflator
(Nominal GDP / Real GDP) × 100
Depreciation The loss in value of capital assets over time due to use, wear and tear.
Value Added Value of Output – Value of Intermediate Goods; prevents double counting in GDP.

GDP at Factor Cost vs GDP at Market Price

Aspect GDP at Market Price (GDP_MP) GDP at Factor Cost (GDP_FC)
Total value of all final goods and services Total value of all goods and services produced
Definition produced within a country, at current market based on factor incomes, excluding indirect
prices. taxes.
➤ Only Factor incomes (wages, rent, interest,
➤ Factor incomes
profit)
Includes ➤ Indirect Taxes
➤ Includes Subsidies, Excludes Indirect
➤ Excludes Subsidies
Taxes
The actual price paid by consumers (market The actual income earned by producers or
Reflects
cost including taxes). factors of production.
Analyzing total output and government tax Measuring real income of domestic production
Used for
impact on production. factors.
Relation
GDP_MP = GDP_FC + Indirect Taxes – Subsidies GDP_FC = GDP_MP – Indirect Taxes + Subsidies
between them
Market-based valuation (including government Cost-based valuation from producers’ point of
Focus
intervention through taxes). view.
Example Market Price = Cost of Production + Profit + Taxes
Factor Cost = Rent + Wages + Interest + Profit
Components – Subsidies

57 | |
Budget and Taxation
S.No. Topic Details / Explanation Important for Exam
Annual financial statement of estimated receipts and Presented under Article
1 Union Budget
expenditures of Govt. of India. 112 of Constitution.
Who prepares the Final approval by
2 Ministry of Finance, Department of Economic Affairs
Budget? Parliament
Who presents the In Lok Sabha usually on 1st
3 Finance Minister
Budget? Feb
Most common: Deficit
4 Types of Budget 1. Balanced 2. Surplus 3. Deficit Budget
Budget
5 Revenue Budget Deals with Revenue Receipts & Revenue Expenditure No creation of assets
Includes loans, asset
6 Capital Budget Deals with Capital Receipts & Capital Expenditure
creation
Govt. earnings without obligation to repay (e.g., taxes,
7 Revenue Receipts Non-redeemable receipts
fees)
Earnings that create liability or reduce assets (e.g.,
8 Capital Receipts Includes market loans
borrowings, disinvestment)
Expenditures that do not create assets (e.g., salaries,
9 Revenue Expenditure Recurring in nature
subsidies)
Expenditures that create assets or reduce liabilities Asset-generating
10 Capital Expenditure
(e.g., infrastructure, loans to states) expenditure
Taxes paid directly by individuals or organizations to e.g., Income Tax, Corporate
11 Direct Taxes
the government Tax
Taxes levied on goods/services, paid indirectly by
12 Indirect Taxes e.g., GST, excise, customs
consumers
Goods and Services Unified indirect tax across India introduced in 2017
13 One Nation, One Tax
Tax (GST) (101st Amendment)
Collected by respective
14 GST Components 1. CGST – Centre, 2. SGST – State, 3. IGST – Interstate
authorities
Bill presented along with Budget, contains provisions of Must be passed to
15 Finance Bill
taxation implement tax changes
Grants permission to withdraw funds from
16 Appropriation Bill Follows passing of Budget
Consolidated Fund of India
Consolidated Fund of Main government account for revenues and
17 Article 266(1)
India expenditures
Contingency Fund of For emergency/unforeseen expenses, controlled by
18 Article 267(1)
India President
Public Account of Fund for transactions where Govt. acts as trustee (e.g.,
19 Article 266(2)
India PF, small savings)
Total expenditure – (Total revenue receipts + recoveries
20 Fiscal Deficit Indicates borrowings
+ other receipts)
21 Revenue Deficit Revenue Expenditure – Revenue Receipts Negative for fiscal health
22 Primary Deficit Fiscal Deficit – Interest payments Reflects borrowing need
Zero-based
23 Every expense justified from zero base annually Encourages efficiency
budgeting
24 GST Council Recommends rates, structure, etc. of GST Chaired by Finance Minister
Indicates tax compliance &
25 Tax-to-GDP Ratio Total tax revenue / GDP
capacity

58 | |
Demand and Supply in Indian Economy
Section A: Demand
S.No. Concept Definition / Explanation Exam Relevance
The quantity of a commodity that a consumer is willing and
1 Demand Core definition
able to buy at various prices in a given time.
Inverse relation; key
2 Law of Demand Ceteris Paribus, as price falls, demand rises and vice versa.
law
Downward-sloping curve showing inverse relationship
3 Demand Curve Negative slope
between price and quantity demanded.
Determinants of Price, Income, Price of Related Goods, Tastes & Preferences,
4 Repeated MCQ topic
Demand Future Expectations.
5 Individual Demand Demand by a single consumer. Micro concept
6 Market Demand Sum total of all individual demands in the market. Aggregated demand
7 Normal Goods Demand rises with income (e.g., clothes, electronics). Positive income effect
Negative income
8 Inferior Goods Demand falls as income increases (e.g., cheap food).
effect
Demand increases as price increases (violation of Law of Rare case – often
9 Giffen Goods
Demand). asked
Complementary Goods used together; fall in price of one increases demand for Inverse price-demand
10
Goods the other (e.g., pen and ink). relation
Direct price-demand
11 Substitute Goods Goods used in place of one another (e.g., tea and coffee).
relation
Movement along demand curve due to fall in price (more Price-based
12 Extension of Demand
quantity demanded). movement
Contraction of Movement along demand curve due to rise in price (less Price-based
13
Demand quantity demanded). movement
Rightward shift in demand curve due to non-price factors (e.g.,
14 Increase in Demand Important distinction
rise in income).
Non-price factor
15 Decrease in Demand Leftward shift due to non-price factors (e.g., fall in income).
impact
Price Elasticity of
16 % change in quantity demanded / % change in price. Measures sensitivity
Demand
17 Elastic Demand (>1) Quantity demanded changes more than price. Luxury items
Inelastic Demand
18 Quantity demanded changes less than price. Necessities
(<1)
Unitary Elasticity
19 % change in demand = % change in price. Theoretical concept
(=1)
Perfectly Inelastic Example: lifesaving
20 No change in demand with price.
(=0) medicine
21 Perfectly Elastic (=∞) Infinite change in demand at same price. Hypothetical case

Section B: Supply
S.No. Concept Definition / Explanation Exam Relevance
Quantity of a good a seller is willing to offer for sale at different
1 Supply Core concept
prices over a period of time.
2 Law of Supply Ceteris Paribus, as price rises, supply rises and vice versa. Positive relationship
Upward sloping curve showing direct relation between price
3 Supply Curve Positive slope
and quantity supplied.

59 | |
 S.No. Concept Definition / Explanation Exam Relevance
Determinants of Price, Technology, Input Costs, Govt. Policy, Climate, Future Direct questions
4
Supply Price Expectation. asked
More quantity supplied due to rise in price (movement along Price-based
5 Extension of Supply
supply curve). movement
Movement along
6 Contraction of Supply Less quantity supplied due to fall in price.
curve
Rightward shift of supply curve due to non-price factors (e.g.,
7 Increase in Supply Non-price factor
tech improvement).
8 Decrease in Supply Leftward shift due to non-price factors (e.g., tax imposition). Non-price factor
Measures
9 Elasticity of Supply % change in quantity supplied / % change in price.
responsiveness
Luxury/seasonal
10 Elastic Supply (>1) Supply changes more than price.
goods
Limited-resource
11 Inelastic Supply (<1) Supply changes less than price.
goods
Unitary Elastic Supply
12 % change in supply = % change in price. Theoretical case
(=1)
Perfectly Inelastic
13 Supply remains constant despite price change. Rare – e.g., land
(=0)
14 Perfectly Elastic (=∞) Supply changes infinitely at same price. Hypothetical

Demand and Supply Curves

S.No. Explanation of the Curve Graph

The demand curve shows the inverse relationship between the price of a
1 good and its quantity demanded. As the price decreases, the quantity
demanded increases, keeping all other factors constant (Law of Demand).

The supply curve represents the direct relationship between the price of
2 a good and its quantity supplied. As price increases, producers are willing
to supply more, adhering to the Law of Supply.

60 | |
S.No. Explanation of the Curve Graph

A shift in the demand curve occurs due to non-price factors. An increase

3 in demand shifts the curve right, while a decrease shifts it left. Price
remains constant in such shifts.

Supply curve shifts when factors other than price affect supply (e.g.,
4 technology, taxes). An increase shifts the curve right, a decrease shifts it
left.

Money and Banking

S.No. Concept / Term Definition / Explanation Exam Key Point
Any item generally accepted as a medium of exchange,
Performs 4 major
1 Money unit of account, store of value, and standard of deferred
functions
payment
Double coincidence of
2 Barter System Exchange of goods/services without using money
wants issue
Money declared legal tender by government but not
3 Fiat Money e.g., Indian Rupee
backed by physical commodity
Coins, ₹ notes issued by
4 Legal Tender Money Money that must be accepted for payment by law
RBI & Govt.
Assets easily converted to cash like bonds, shares, fixed Not actual money but
5 Near Money
deposits liquid assets
Currency with public + demand deposits + other deposits
6 Narrow Money (M1) M1 = C + DD + OD
with RBI
Most inclusive money
7 Broad Money (M3) M1 + Time deposits with banks
supply indicator
Like current/savings
8 Demand Deposits Bank deposits withdrawable on demand
accounts
Not instantly
9 Time Deposits Fixed deposits held for a specific time period
withdrawable
Reserve Bank of India India’s central bank, founded in 1935, nationalized in Controls money supply &
10
(RBI) 1949 monetary policy
Managed by RBI, NOT
11 Monetary Policy Policy controlling money supply, inflation, liquidity
Finance Ministry

61 | |
S.No. Concept / Term Definition / Explanation Exam Key Point
Quantitative Tools to control overall credit in economy (CRR, SLR,
12 Affect volume of money
Instruments Repo, Reverse Repo)
Qualitative Tools to regulate specific sectors (e.g., moral suasion,
13 Affect direction of credit
Instruments margin requirements)
CRR (Cash Reserve Increase → less money to
14 % of NDTL that banks keep with RBI in cash
Ratio) lend
SLR (Statutory % of NDTL banks must maintain in gold, cash or govt.
15 Controls inflation
Liquidity Ratio) securities
Lower repo → cheaper
16 Repo Rate Rate at which RBI lends to banks
loans
17 Reverse Repo Rate Rate at which RBI borrows from banks Used to absorb liquidity
Long-term rate at which RBI lends to banks without
18 Bank Rate Higher than Repo usually
repurchase agreement
Open Market Buying/selling govt. securities by RBI to control money Used to inject/absorb
19
Operations (OMO) supply liquidity
Liquidity Adjustment Framework for RBI to adjust liquidity via Repo and
20 Introduced in 2000
Facility (LAF) Reverse Repo
MCLR replaced Base Rate
21 Base Rate / MCLR Minimum interest rate below which banks cannot lend
in 2016
Banks that provide general banking services to public and
22 Commercial Banks Include SBI, HDFC, etc.
businesses
Must maintain CRR with
23 Scheduled Banks Listed in Second Schedule of RBI Act, 1934
RBI
24 Non-Scheduled Banks Not listed in the schedule, small in operations Do not follow CRR norms
Provide long-term finance for industrial and rural
25 Development Banks e.g., NABARD, SIDBI
development
National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development Apex rural credit
26 NABARD
(1982) institution
27 SIDBI Small Industries Development Bank of India Finances MSMEs
Provide credit to farmers and small borrowers in rural Work on cooperative
28 Co-operative Banks
areas principles
Sponsored by govt. and commercial banks to support
29 Rural Banks (RRBs) e.g., Prathama Bank
rural economy
Market for short-term funds and financial instruments Includes T-bills, call
30 Money Market
(less than 1 year) money
Includes primary and
31 Capital Market Market for long-term financial assets (stocks, bonds)
secondary markets
Treasury Bills (T- Issued at discount, no
32 Short-term govt. securities with maturity < 1 year
Bills) interest
Certificates of Deposit
33 Short-term instruments issued by banks to raise funds Tradable in market
(CDs)
34 Inflation Sustained rise in general price level Measured via CPI & WPI
35 Deflation Sustained fall in general price level Opposite of inflation

62 | |
Monetary Policy
S.No. Concept / Term Definition / Explanation SSC Exam Focus
Policy by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) to
Notified in Monetary Policy
1 Monetary Policy control money supply, inflation, and interest
Statement
rates
Main Objectives of 1. Price Stability2. Economic Growth3. Exchange
2 Often asked as MCQ
Monetary Policy Rate Stability4. Employment
Who formulates Reserve Bank of India (RBI), through Monetary
3 Chaired by RBI Governor
Monetary Policy? Policy Committee (MPC)
Monetary Policy 6-member committee set up in 2016 to decide 3 RBI + 3 Govt-nominated
4
Committee (MPC) policy rates members
Quantitative Affect the volume of money/credit in the
5 Also called general tools
Instruments economy
Qualitative
6 Affect the allocation or direction of credit Also called selective tools
Instruments
CRR (Cash Reserve % of Net Demand and Time Liabilities (NDTL) to
7 Higher CRR → Less money to lend
Ratio) be kept in cash with RBI
SLR (Statutory % of NDTL to be maintained in form of gold, cash
8 Maintained with the bank itself
Liquidity Ratio) or approved securities
Rate at which RBI lends short-term money to
9 Repo Rate Decrease → Banks lend cheaper
banks against securities
10 Reverse Repo Rate Rate at which RBI borrows money from banks Used to absorb excess liquidity
Long-term lending rate without repurchase
11 Bank Rate Higher than repo; rarely changed
agreement
LAF (Liquidity Framework using Repo & Reverse Repo to adjust
12 Introduced in 2000
Adjustment Facility) liquidity daily
MSF (Marginal Banks can borrow overnight from RBI beyond LAF
13 Higher than repo rate
Standing Facility) limit
OMO (Open Market RBI buys/sells govt securities to Buying → injects money; Selling
14
Operations) increase/decrease liquidity → absorbs money
MSS (Market RBI sells govt securities to absorb excess capital Special tool used in extreme
15
Stabilization Scheme) flows (e.g., FII inflow) cases
MCLR (Marginal Cost Minimum interest rate below which banks can’t Replaced Base Rate system in
16
Lending Rate) lend 2016
Expansionary Increases money supply by reducing CRR, SLR, Used during
17
Monetary Policy Repo etc. recession/slowdown
Contractionary Reduces money supply by increasing CRR, SLR,
18 Used to control inflation
Monetary Policy Repo
Neutral Monetary
19 Balances inflation control and growth Mixed or transitional stance
Policy
Inflation Targeting in As per RBI Act (Amendment
20 Set by Govt & RBI: 4% ± 2% (i.e., 2–6%)
India 2016)
21 Headline Inflation Inflation based on CPI or WPI (overall prices) More volatile
22 Core Inflation Inflation excluding food and fuel components Shows long-term trend

63 | |
 Economics
Five Year Plans
Plan Period Major Objectives Key Highlights & Outcomes
Agriculture, price stability, and Focused on irrigation & energy. Model: Harrod-
1st Plan 1951–1956
rehabilitation of refugees Domar. Success due to good monsoon.
Industrial development & socialist Heavy industries prioritized. Steel plants in Bhilai,
2nd Plan 1956–1961
pattern (Mahalanobis model) Rourkela, Durgapur.
3rd Plan 1961–1966 Self-reliant economy & agriculture Failed due to wars (1962, 1965) and drought.
Plan Devaluation of rupee in 1966. Priority: agriculture,
1966–1969 Annual plans due to economic crisis
Holiday price stability.
Growth with stability, progressive Nationalization of banks (1969). Indo-Pak war
4th Plan 1969–1974
reduction of poverty (1971). Green Revolution.
Poverty removal (Garibi Hatao), 20-point programme launched. Terminated early by
5th Plan 1974–1978
self-reliance Janata Govt.
Rolling No fixed target (year-to-year Introduced by Janata Party. Rejected later by Congress
1978–1980
Plan planning) Govt.
Poverty alleviation & technological Focus on family planning. Beginning of economic
6th Plan 1980–1985
self-reliance liberalization.
Growth, modernization, self- Focused on productivity & employment. Rajiv Gandhi
7th Plan 1985–1990
reliance, social justice emphasized technology.
2 Annual
1990–1992 Political instability, Gulf crisis No long-term planning. Fiscal deficit worsened.
Plans
Economic liberalization, human LPG (Liberalization, Privatization, Globalization) era
8th Plan 1992–1997
resource development begins. Reforms by Manmohan Singh.
Growth with social justice, Mixed results. Importance to agriculture and rural
9th Plan 1997–2002
empowerment of women development.
Growth rate target of 8%; equitable Actual growth ~7.6%. Focus on governance and
10th Plan 2002–2007
development service sector.
11th Plan 2007–2012 "Faster and more inclusive growth" Emphasis on education, health. Target: 9% growth.
“Faster, Sustainable and More Last official 5-Year Plan. Target: 8% growth. Actual:
12th Plan 2012–2017
Inclusive Growth” ~6.8%.
NITI Aayog replaces Planning No 13th Plan. Focus on 3-Year Action Agenda, 7-Year
Post-2017 After 2017
Commission (2015) Strategy, 15-Year Vision.

Physics
Motion
Topic Concept / Formula Explanation / Use
1. Distance (d) Distance = Speed × Time Scalar quantity (no direction).
Displacement = Final position – Initial
2. Displacement (s) Vector quantity (has direction).
position
3. Speed (v) Speed = Distance / Time Scalar quantity.
4. Velocity (v) Velocity = Displacement / Time Vector quantity.

64 | |
Topic Concept / Formula Explanation / Use
Acceleration = (Final velocity – Initial
5. Acceleration (a) Rate of change of velocity; vector quantity.
velocity) / Timea = (v - u)/t
6. Uniform Motion Velocity remains constant, Acceleration = 0 Distance = Speed × Time
7. Non-uniform Motion Velocity changes with time; Acceleration ≠ 0 Use equations of motion.
8. First Equation of v = final velocity, u = initial velocity, a =
v = u + at
Motion acceleration, t = time
9. Second Equation of
s = ut + ½at² s = displacement
Motion
10. Third Equation of
v² = u² + 2as Useful when time is not given.
Motion
11. Average Speed Average Speed = Total Distance / Total Time Always positive.
When two objects move in same direction:V
Used to find one object’s velocity relative to
12. Relative Velocity = v₁ - v₂
another.
Opposite direction:V = v₁ + v₂
13. Graph - Slope of distance-time graph = Speed- Straight line → uniform motionCurved line →
Interpretation Slope of velocity-time graph = Acceleration acceleration/deceleration
In absence of air resistance, object falls with
14. Free Fall Use equations of motion with a = g
acceleration g = 9.8 m/s²
15. Vertical Motion Use a = –g in equationsAt max height, final Time to reach top = u/gTotal time of flight =
(upwards) velocity = 0 2u/g
- Speed/velocity: m/s- Acceleration: m/s²-
16. Units SI units preferred
Displacement: m- Time: s
17. Conversion 1 km/h = 5/18 m/s1 m/s = 18/5 km/h Frequently asked in SSC CGL

Laws of Motion
Concept / Law Explanation / Formula Example / Notes
An object remains at rest or in uniform motion
1. Newton’s First Law Also called Law of Inertia.
unless acted upon by an external force.
Unit of force is newton (N). 1 N = 1
2. Newton’s Second Law F = ma (Force = mass × acceleration)
kg·m/s²
Recoil of gun, walking on floor,
3. Newton’s Third Law Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.
jumping from boat.
4. Inertia Tendency of a body to resist change in motion. More mass = more inertia.
5. Momentum (p) p = mv Vector quantity. Unit = kg·m/s
Impulse = Force × time = Change in momentum Unit = Ns (newton-second). Used in
6. Impulse
= mv – mu cricket, boxing gloves, airbags.
7. Law of Conservation Total momentum before collision = total momentum
m₁u₁ + m₂u₂ = m₁v₁ + m₂v₂
of Momentum after collision (in absence of external force).
Arises due to physical contact: includes normal Normal force = perpendicular to
8. Contact Force
force, tension, friction, etc. surface.
Force opposing motion between two surfaces in
9. Frictional Force Always acts opposite to motion.
contact.
10. Static Friction Friction when object is at rest. Greater than kinetic friction.
11. Kinetic (Sliding)
Friction when object is in motion. Less than static friction.
Friction

65 | |
 Force
Term / Concept Definition Key Point / Example
A push or pull that changes or tends to change the state of motion or SI Unit: Newton (N)Vector
Force
shape of a body. quantity
Examples: Friction,
Contact Force Force that requires physical contact between two objects.
Tension, Normal Force
Non-contact Examples: Gravitational,
Force that acts without physical contact.
Force Electrostatic, Magnetic
Forces that are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction; do not
Balanced Force Net force = 0
change motion.
Unbalanced Net force ≠ 0 → causes
Unequal opposing forces that cause a change in motion or shape.
Force acceleration
Mass Quantity of matter in a body; measure of inertia. SI Unit: Kilogram (kg)
W = mg; Vector quantity;
Weight Force with which Earth attracts a body.
Unit: Newton (N)
Inertia Tendency of a body to resist a change in its state of motion or rest. More mass = more inertia
Momentum The quantity of motion in a moving body. p = mv; Unit: kg·m/s
Impulse Product of force and the time for which it acts; change in momentum. Impulse = F × t = Δp
Friction Force that opposes the relative motion between two surfaces in contact. Acts opposite to motion
Tension Force transmitted through a rope, string, or cable when pulled tight. Uniform in ideal string
Acts vertically upward on a
Normal Force Perpendicular contact force exerted by a surface on an object.
horizontal surface
Spring Force Restoring force exerted by a stretched or compressed spring. F = –kx (Hooke’s Law)
Centripetal Force required to keep a body moving in circular path, directed toward
Fc = mv²/r
Force the center.
Single force that has the same effect as the combined forces acting on a Used in vector addition
Resultant Force
body. problems

Gravitation
Concept/Term Definition / Explanation Formula / Unit Example / Fact
Earth attracts
Force of attraction between any two objects in the No formula
Gravitation everything toward
universe (general)
its center
Force by which the Earth attracts objects toward Responsible for free
Gravity -
itself fall
Every object in the universe attracts every other
F = G × (m₁m₂)/r²
Universal Law of object with a force directly proportional to the Moon orbits Earth
G = 6.674 × 10⁻¹¹
Gravitation product of their masses and inversely proportional due to gravity
Nm²/kg²
to the square of the distance between them
It's the same
Gravitational A constant of proportionality used in the universal G = 6.674 × 10⁻¹¹
throughout the
Constant (G) law of gravitation Nm²/kg²
universe
Acceleration due The acceleration produced in a body due to the g = 9.8 m/s² On moon, g ≈ 1/6 of
to gravity (g) gravitational force of the Earth (approx) Earth’s g
The amount of matter in an object; it remains
Mass Unit: kg Scalar quantity
constant
The force with which an object is attracted toward W = m × g Unit: Weight varies with
Weight
the Earth Newton (N) gravity

66 | |
Concept/Term Definition / Explanation Formula / Unit Example / Fact
When only gravity is acting on a body falling toward No air resistance
Free Fall Acceleration = g
Earth considered
s = ut + ½gt²
Motion under Used in projectile
Equations of motion apply with acceleration g v = u + gt
gravity problems
v² = u² + 2gs
Thrust = Force = F = Measured in
Thrust Total force acting perpendicular to surface area
m×a Newtons
P = F/A Unit: Pascal More depth = more
Pressure Force per unit area
(Pa) pressure in fluids
Depends on fluid
Upward force exerted by fluid on an object Reason why ships
Buoyancy density and volume
immersed in it float
displaced
Archimedes’ A body immersed in a fluid loses weight equal to the Used in density
-
Principle weight of the fluid displaced measurements
ρ = m / V Unit:
Density Mass per unit volume of a substance Water: 1000 kg/m³
kg/m³
RD = ρ_substance /
Relative Density Ratio of density of a substance to density of water No units (pure ratio)
ρ_water

Work and Energy

Concept/Term Definition / Explanation Formula / Unit Example / Fact
Work is said to be done when a force is applied
W = F × d × cosθ No displacement = No
Work and there is displacement in the direction of
Unit: Joule (J) work
the force
When force and displacement are in the same θ = 0°, cosθ = 1 ⇒ W is Lifting a weight
Positive Work
direction +ve upward
When force and displacement are in opposite θ = 180°, cosθ = -1 ⇒ W Friction acting on a
Negative Work
directions is –ve moving object
If displacement is zero or perpendicular to θ = 90°, cosθ = 0 ⇒ W = Carrying a bag
Zero Work
force 0 horizontally
No specific formula
Energy Capacity to do work Scalar quantity
Unit: Joule (J)
Kinetic Energy Moving car has kinetic
Energy possessed by a body due to its motion KE = ½ mv²
(KE) energy
Potential Energy Energy possessed by a body due to its position
PE = mgh Water stored in dam
(PE) or configuration
Conserved in ideal
Mechanical Energy Sum of kinetic and potential energy ME = KE + PE conditions (no
friction)
Rate of doing work or energy consumed per P=W/t 1 Watt = 1
Power
unit time Unit: Watt (W) Joule/second
Used for engines,
1 Horsepower (HP) A bigger unit of power used in machines 1 HP = 746 Watts
motors etc.
Commercial Unit of 1 unit = 1 kWh = 1000 Monthly electricity
Used by electricity companies
Energy × 60 × 60 J = 3.6 × 10⁶ J bill
Law of
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it Total energy remains E.g., pendulum
Conservation of
only transforms from one form to another constant motion: KE ↔ PE
Energy
Work-Energy The net work done on a body is equal to the Push a stationary
W = ΔKE = KE₂ – KE₁
Theorem change in its kinetic energy object, it gains KE

67 | |
Concept/Term Definition / Explanation Formula / Unit Example / Fact
PE increases with
Gravitational PE PE due to height from Earth’s surface PE = mgh
height
Spring Potential Energy stored in a stretched/compressed PE = ½ kx² Hooke’s Law
Energy spring k = spring constant application
η = (Useful Energy
Ratio of useful output energy to total input Expressed in
Efficiency Output / Total Energy
energy percentage
Input) × 100%

Reflection
Formula /
Concept Definition / Explanation Notes / Example
Law
Bouncing back of light into the same medium Occurs from polished/smooth
Reflection –
after striking a surface. surfaces like mirrors.
1. Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection
Laws of Applicable to both plane and
2. Incident ray, reflected ray & normal lie in ∠i = ∠r
Reflection curved mirrors.
same plane
Incident Ray The ray of light that strikes a surface. – –
The ray that bounces off after hitting a
Reflected Ray – –
reflective surface.
An imaginary line perpendicular to the Helps measure angles of incidence
Normal –
reflecting surface at the point of incidence. and reflection.
Angle of
Angle between incident ray and normal. ∠i –
Incidence (i)
Angle of
Angle between reflected ray and normal. ∠r –
Reflection (r)
Image formed in a plane mirror is reversed
Lateral Inversion – Left appears as right and vice versa.
sideways.
Image by Plane Always virtual, erect, laterally inverted and Distance of object = Distance of
–
Mirror same size. image from mirror.
Relation between object distance (u), image
1/f = 1/v + Sign convention applies. f is +ve for
Mirror Formula distance (v), and focal length (f) for spherical
1/u concave, –ve for convex.
mirrors.
Magnification M = hi/ho = M > 1 → enlarged; M < 1 →
Ratio of height of image to height of object.
(M) -v/u diminished; M = 1 → same size.
Plane Mirror, Concave Mirror (converging), Concave used in torches; convex
Types of Mirrors –
Convex Mirror (diverging) used in vehicles for wider view.

Refraction of light
Concept Definition / Explanation Formula / Law Notes / Example
Bending of light when it passes from
Occurs due to change in speed of
Refraction one transparent medium to another of –
light.
different density.
1. Incident ray, refracted ray, and
sin i / sin r = v1 / v2 n = refractive index, i = angle of
Laws of Refraction normal lie in same plane
= n2 / n1 incidence, r = angle of refraction.
2. Snell’s Law: n1 sin i = n2 sin r
Refractive Index Ratio of speed of light in vacuum to Higher n → optically denser
n=c/v
(n) speed in medium. medium.
Absolute c = speed of light in vacuum
When 1st medium is vacuum or air. n=c/v
Refractive Index (3×10⁸ m/s)

68 | |
Concept Definition / Explanation Formula / Law Notes / Example
Relative Refractive Ratio between refractive indices of two Value >1 if 2nd medium is
n21 = n2 / n1
Index media. denser.
Angle of incidence in denser medium Applies when light goes from
Critical Angle (C) for which angle of refraction in rarer sin C = 1 / n denser to rarer medium (e.g.,
medium is 90°. glass to air).
Complete reflection of light back into
Total Internal Condition: i > C, from Used in optical fibers, diamonds,
denser medium when incidence angle
Reflection (TIR) denser to rarer mirage.
> critical angle.
Depth appears less when viewed from Apparent Depth = Water appears shallower than it
Apparent Depth
above due to refraction. Real Depth / n actually is.
Depends on No change in angle between
Lateral Shift (Glass The parallel displacement of light ray
thickness and angle incident and emergent ray, but
Slab) through a rectangular slab.
of incidence path is shifted.
Relates object distance (u), image Positive for convex, negative for
Lens Formula (for
distance (v), and focal length (f) for 1/f = 1/v - 1/u concave lenses (sign
refraction)
lenses. convention).
Image size to object size ratio for Positive for erect, negative for
Magnification (M) M = hi/ho = v/u
lenses. inverted images.

Human Eye
S. No. Concept Definition / Explanation Important Formula / Note
A natural optical instrument which enables us to Contains cornea, iris, pupil, lens,
1 Human Eye
see objects retina, and optic nerve
Transparent front part of the eye; refracts most
2 Cornea Performs most of the eye’s refraction
of the light
Clear fluid between cornea and lens; helps Helps in minor refraction and shape
3 Aqueous Humour
maintain pressure maintenance
4 Iris Colored part controlling the size of the pupil Acts like a camera shutter
Opening at the center of iris that regulates light Contracts in bright light, dilates in dim
5 Pupil
entry light
Convex, transparent, flexible lens made of soft
6 Eye Lens Focuses light onto the retina
material
7 Ciliary Muscles Adjust shape (curvature) of lens to focus Helps in accommodation (see next)
Eye's ability to focus on near and far objects by No fixed formula; controlled by ciliary
8 Accommodation
changing lens curvature muscles
Light-sensitive screen inside eye; contains rods Converts image to electrical signals
9 Retina
and cones sent to brain
Transmits visual information from retina to No formula; nerve-based signal
10 Optic Nerve
brain pathway
Persistence of Image remains on retina for about 1/16th Enables perception of motion in
11
Vision second cinema
Minimum distance at which the eye can see
12 Near Point 25 cm for a normal eye
clearly
Maximum distance at which the eye can see
13 Far Point Infinity for a normal eye
clearly
Least Distance of Same as Near Point – minimum clear viewing
14 D = 25 cm (standard symbol = D)
Distinct Vision distance
Myopia, Hypermetropia, Presbyopia,
15 Defects of Vision Corrected using different lenses
Astigmatism

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S. No. Concept Definition / Explanation Important Formula / Note
Image forms in front of retina
Myopia
16 Can see near objects, not distant ones Corrected with Concave lens (-ve
(Nearsightedness)
power)
Image forms behind retina
Hypermetropia
17 Can see distant objects, not near ones Corrected with Convex lens (+ve
(Farsightedness)
power)
Needs bifocal lenses (concave +
18 Presbyopia Old age defect; lens loses flexibility
convex)
Cornea/lens curvature irregularity causing
19 Astigmatism Corrected with cylindrical lenses
blurred vision
Power of a Lens Degree of convergence/divergence a lens P = 100/f (in cm) or P = 1/f (in m)
20
(P) produces Unit: dioptre (D)
Dispersion of Caused by prism; violet bends most,
21 Splitting of white light into 7 colours (VIBGYOR)
Light red least
Rainbow Due to dispersion, total internal reflection,
22 Always appears opposite to the Sun
Formation and refraction in water droplets
Atmospheric Causes twinkling of stars, sunrise
23 Refraction of light by Earth's atmosphere
Refraction earlier, sunset later
Redirection of light in different directions by
24 Scattering of Light Explains blue sky and reddish sunset
particles
Example: Visibility of light rays in fog
25 Tyndall Effect Scattering of light by colloidal particles
or smoke
Blue light scatters most due to shortest
26 Colour of Sky Blue due to scattering (Rayleigh’s law)
wavelength
Red Colour of Sun Red light scatters least; passes through dense
27 Longer path → only red reaches eye
at Sunrise/Sunset atmosphere
Planets don't twinkle (they appear
28 Twinkling of Stars Due to varying refraction by atmospheric layers
steady)
Advance Sunrise Sun appears 2 minutes earlier and sets 2
29 Total extra daylight = 4 minutes
& Delayed Sunset minutes late due to refraction
Prism → triangular shapeLens →
30 Prism vs Lens Prism disperses; lens focuses
biconvex/biconcave

Electricity
S. No. Concept Definition / Explanation Important Formula / Unit
I=Q/t
1 Electric Current (I) Flow of electric charge per unit time Unit: Ampere (A)
1A = 1 C/s
Basic property of matter causing electrical Q=I×t
2 Charge (Q)
force Unit: Coulomb (C)
Work done to move a unit charge from one V=W/Q
3 Electric Potential (V)
point to another Unit: Volt (V)
Difference in electric potential between two
4 Potential Difference V=W/Q
points
Current is directly proportional to voltage at V=I×R
5 Ohm’s Law
constant temperature R: Resistance (Ω)
Opposition offered by conductor to current R=V/I
6 Resistance (R)
flow Unit: Ohm (Ω)
Factors affecting R ∝ Length (L), R ∝ 1/Area (A), R ∝
7 R = ρ × (L / A)
Resistance Resistivity (ρ)

70 | |
S. No. Concept Definition / Explanation Important Formula / Unit
Property of material independent of shape
8 Resistivity (ρ) Unit: Ohm·metre (Ω·m)
and size
Conductors & Low resistivity (conductors), High
9 Conductors: Allow current; Insulators: Don’t
Insulators resistivity (insulators)
10 Series Circuit Same current flows through all components Req = R₁ + R₂ + R₃ + …
11 Parallel Circuit Voltage is same; current divides 1/Req = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + 1/R₃ + …
P=V×I
12 Electric Power (P) Rate of doing work or using electrical energy P = I²R = V²/R
Unit: Watt (W)
Commercial Unit of
13 Kilowatt-hour (kWh) 1 kWh = 3.6 × 10⁶ J
Energy
Heating Effect of Heat produced when current flows through H = I² × R × t
14
Current resistance Unit: Joule (J)
Power Rating of Indicates how much power appliance Example: 1000 W heater = 1 unit in 1
15
Appliances consumes hour
Safety device that melts when current
16 Fuse Made of low melting point metals
exceeds limit
17 Short Circuit Live wire touches neutral wire directly High current flows instantly
18 Overloading Excessive current due to many appliances Can cause fire
19 Electric Cell/Battery Source of EMF; provides energy Converts chemical to electrical energy
Series: I same; Parallel: Current
20 Combination of Cells Series: V_total = V₁ + V₂; Parallel: V same
increases
EMF (Electromotive
21 Maximum potential difference of a source Symbol: E, Unit: Volt (V)
Force)
Internal Resistance
22 Resistance inside a battery V = E – Ir
(r)
23 Voltmeter Measures potential difference Connected in parallel
24 Ammeter Measures current Connected in series
25 Multimeter Measures current, voltage, and resistance Combination of voltmeter and ammeter

Quantity Formula SI Unit

Charge (Q) I×t Coulomb (C)
Current (I) Q/t Ampere (A)
Potential Difference (V) W/Q Volt (V)
Resistance (R) V/I Ohm (Ω)
Power (P) VI, I²R, V²/R Watt (W)
Energy (E) P×t Joule (J) or kWh

Magnetic effect of electric current

Concept Definition / Explanation
Magnetic Effect of The phenomenon by which a current-carrying conductor produces a magnetic field around
Current it.
Demonstrated that an electric current through a wire creates a magnetic field around it,
Oersted’s Experiment
which deflects a nearby magnetic compass needle.
A region around a magnet or current-carrying wire where the force of magnetism can be
Magnetic Field
detected. Denoted by B, unit is Tesla (T).

71 | |
Concept Definition / Explanation
Imaginary lines representing magnetic field direction. They emerge from the north pole and
Magnetic Field Lines
enter the south pole.
Right-Hand Thumb If you hold a current-carrying conductor with your right hand such that the thumb points in
Rule the direction of current, the curled fingers show the direction of the magnetic field.
A temporary magnet made by winding a coil of wire around a soft iron core and passing
Electromagnet
current through it.
A coil of wire with many turns, used to produce a uniform magnetic field similar to a bar
Solenoid
magnet when current passes through it.
Magnetic Field inside
Uniform, strong, and parallel field lines. Direction is given by the right-hand rule.
Solenoid
Factors Affecting 1. Magnitude of current, 2. Distance from wire, 3. Nature/medium of the surrounding
Magnetic Field material.
Electromagnetic The production of electric current in a conductor by changing magnetic field around it
Induction (discovered by Michael Faraday).
Fleming’s Left-Hand Used to find the direction of force on a conductor in a magnetic field. Thumb = Force,
Rule Forefinger = Magnetic field, Middle finger = Current.
Fleming’s Right-Hand Used to find the direction of induced current in a conductor. Thumb = Motion of conductor,
Rule Forefinger = Magnetic field, Middle finger = Induced current.
A device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy using the magnetic effect of
Electric Motor
current.
A device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy using electromagnetic
Electric Generator
induction.
Works on Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule; rotates due to force on current-carrying coil in a
DC Motor
magnetic field.
Produces alternating current by rotating a coil in a magnetic field (Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule
AC Generator
applies).
Advantages of
1. Strength can be controlled, 2. Can be turned ON/OFF, 3. Stronger than permanent magnets.
Electromagnets
Electric bell, relay, electric motor, transformers, magnetic levitation, cranes for lifting heavy
Uses of Magnetic Effect
metal.

Chemistry
Matter
Concept Definition / Explanation Important Facts for SSC CGL
Matter Anything that has mass and occupies space. Exists in different states – solid, liquid, gas.
1. Solid – Definite shape & volume2. Liquid – Also includes plasma and Bose-Einstein
States of Matter Definite volume, no shape3. Gas – No Condensate (BEC) (higher-level
shape/volume knowledge)
Intermolecular Forces Forces of attraction between particles of matter Strongest in solids, weakest in gases
Kinetic Energy Energy of motion of particles Increases from solid → liquid → gas
Conversion of matter from one state to another Due to change in temperature or
Change of State
(melting, boiling, etc.) pressure
Melting Point Temperature at which a solid turns into a liquid For ice = 0°C
Boiling Point Temperature at which a liquid becomes a gas For water = 100°C at 1 atm pressure
Surface phenomenon where liquid changes to Depends on temperature, surface area,
Evaporation
gas below boiling point wind, and humidity
Condensation Gas to liquid conversion Opposite of evaporation
Solid directly changes into gas without Examples: Camphor, Naphthalene, Dry
Sublimation
becoming liquid Ice (CO₂)

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Concept Definition / Explanation Important Facts for SSC CGL
Deposition Gas directly changes into solid Reverse of sublimation
Heat energy required to change the state of a • Latent heat of fusion (solid→liquid)•
Latent Heat
substance without changing its temperature Latent heat of vaporization (liquid→gas)
Density Mass per unit volume = Mass / Volume SI unit: kg/m³
Intermixing of particles of two substances on
Diffusion Fastest in gases, slowest in solids
their own
Compressibility Ability to reduce volume under pressure Highest in gases, negligible in solids
Rigidity Tendency of a substance to retain its shape Highest in solids
Fluidity Ability to flow Shown by liquids and gases (called fluids)
Plasma Ionized gas with free electrons Found in stars, neon signs, lightning
Bose-Einstein Extremely low-temperature state where atoms Discovered by Satyendra Nath Bose &
Condensate (BEC) behave as a single quantum entity Albert Einstein; 5th state of matter
Mass = quantity of matter (constant), Weight =
Mass vs Weight Mass in kg; Weight in newtons
mass × gravity (variable)
Volume Amount of space occupied SI unit: m³, commonly used: litres (L)
Increase in temperature → particles move
Temperature and
fasterIncrease in pressure → particles come Helps in changing state of matter
Pressure Effect
closer

Atom and its Structure

Topic / Concept Definition / Explanation Key Points / Examples
The smallest unit of matter that retains the
Atom Composed of electrons, protons, neutrons
identity of the element
Particles that make up the atom – electron, proton,
Subatomic Particles Electron (−), Proton (+), Neutron (0)
and neutron
Negatively charged subatomic particle that Charge: –1, Mass: ~1/1836 of proton,
Electron (e⁻)
revolves around the nucleus discovered by J.J. Thomson
Charge: +1, Mass: ~1 amu, discovered by
Proton (p⁺) Positively charged particle found in the nucleus
Rutherford
Charge: 0, Mass: ~1 amu, discovered by
Neutron (n⁰) Neutral particle found in the nucleus
James Chadwick
Dense central core of the atom containing protons Discovered by Rutherford, carries nearly
Nucleus
and neutrons all the mass of the atom
Determines identity of the element, e.g.
Atomic Number (Z) Number of protons in an atom's nucleus
Hydrogen Z = 1
Total number of protons and neutrons in the
Mass Number (A) A = Z + number of neutrons
nucleus
Atoms of same element with same atomic number e.g., Hydrogen: Protium, Deuterium,
Isotopes
but different mass numbers Tritium
Atoms with same mass number but different
Isobars e.g., Argon (18, 40) and Calcium (20, 40)
atomic numbers
Maximum electrons per shell = 2n² (n = shell
Electrons per Shell K (n=1): 2, L (n=2): 8, M (n=3): 18, etc.
number)
Combining capacity of an atom, related to Elements try to complete 8 electrons
Valency
electrons in outer shell (octet rule)
Electrons revolve in fixed orbits/shells around the Energy increases with distance from
Bohr’s Model
nucleus nucleus; no radiation in stable orbits
Atom has a dense nucleus and most of its space is
Rutherford’s Model Failed to explain stability of atom
empty

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Topic / Concept Definition / Explanation Key Points / Examples
Atom as a sphere of positive charge with electrons Failed due to later discoveries by
J.J. Thomson’s Model
embedded (Plum Pudding Model) Rutherford
Set of four numbers describing position and Principal (n), Azimuthal (l), Magnetic (m),
Quantum Numbers
energy of an electron in an atom Spin (s)
Orbit: fixed circular path (Bohr), Orbital: region of Orbital concept is more accurate (from
Orbit vs Orbital
probability of finding electron (QM) Quantum Mechanical Model)
Electrons fill orbitals starting from lowest energy
Aufbau Principle Order: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s...
level
Pauli Exclusion No two electrons in the same atom can have the Only 2 electrons per orbital, with opposite
Principle same set of four quantum numbers spins
In a subshell, maximum unpaired
Hund’s Rule Electrons occupy orbitals singly before pairing
electrons with parallel spins are stable
Each shell has fixed energy; electrons
Designated as K, L, M, N... corresponding to n = 1,
Shells / Energy Levels jump between them by
2, 3, 4...
absorbing/releasing energy
Electronic
Distribution of electrons in atomic orbitals e.g., Oxygen (Z=8): 1s² 2s² 2p⁴
Configuration
Determines chemical properties and
Valence Electrons Electrons present in the outermost shell
reactivity
Charged atom formed by gaining or losing
Ion Cation (+), Anion (–)
electrons
Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons to Stable noble gases follow octet
Octet Rule
complete 8 in their valence shell configuration
For Hydrogen, Helium – stability with 2 electrons
Duet Rule Applicable to elements with only K-shell
in outer shell
Heisenberg One cannot simultaneously know exact position Basis of probability-based Quantum
Uncertainty Principle and momentum of an electron Model

Metal and Non-Metals

Topic / Concept Definition / Explanation Key Points / Examples
Elements that are generally hard, lustrous,
Metals E.g., Iron, Copper, Aluminium, Gold
malleable, ductile, and good conductors
Elements that are generally brittle, non-lustrous, E.g., Sulphur, Phosphorus, Oxygen,
Non-Metals
and poor conductors Nitrogen
Physical Properties of Lustrous (shiny), Malleable, Ductile, Sonorous, Except: Mercury (liquid metal),
Metals High melting point, Good conductors Sodium (soft metal)
Physical Properties of Dull, Brittle, Not sonorous, Poor conductors, Low Exception: Graphite – good
Non-Metals melting point conductor
Metals are malleable; Non-metals
Malleability Ability to be hammered into thin sheets
are not
Copper and Aluminium are highly
Ductility Ability to be drawn into wires
ductile
Metals are good conductors; Non-
Conductivity Ability to conduct heat and electricity
metals are poor
Metals are sonorous; Non-metals
Sonority Producing ringing sound when struck
are not
Metals like gold and silver are very
Lustrous Shiny appearance
lustrous
Chemical Properties of
Lose electrons easily, form basic oxides React with acids to produce H₂ gas
Metals

74 | |
Topic / Concept Definition / Explanation Key Points / Examples
Chemical Properties of Do not react with acids; may react
Gain electrons, form acidic or neutral oxides
Non-Metals with bases
Non-metals generally do not react
Reaction with Water Metals like Na, K react vigorously with water
with water
Non-metals generally do not react
Reaction with Acids Metals react with acids to release hydrogen gas
with acids
Non-metals form acidic or neutral
Oxide Nature Metals form basic oxides
oxides
Position in Periodic Table Left and center side of periodic table Right side of the periodic table
State at Room Solid, Liquid (Bromine), Gas
Solid (except Mercury)
Temperature (Oxygen, Nitrogen)
Metals: High tensile strength; Non-
Tensile Strength Ability to withstand pulling force
metals: Low
Electronegativity Tendency to attract electrons Metals: Low; Non-metals: High
E.g., Brass (Copper + Zinc), Bronze
Alloys Mixtures of metals with other metals/non-metals
(Copper + Tin)
Elements with properties of both metals and non-
Metalloids E.g., Silicon, Arsenic, Boron
metals
Iron, Aluminium, Copper widely
Use of Metals Used in tools, machinery, wiring, buildings
used
Used in fertilizers, water purification, life support Sulphur in medicines, Phosphorus
Use of Non-Metals
(O₂, N₂) in fertilizers
Gradual destruction of metal by air/moisture (e.g., Iron + water + oxygen → rust
Corrosion
rusting) (Fe₂O₃·xH₂O)
A type of corrosion of iron in the presence of air and Prevented by painting,
Rusting
water galvanization
More reactive metal displaces less reactive metal
Displacement Reaction Zn + CuSO₄ → ZnSO₄ + Cu
from salt solution
K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > Pb
Activity Series Order of metals based on reactivity
> H > Cu > Ag > Au

Acids, Bases & Salts

Category Concept / Definition Details / Examples
A substance that gives H⁺ ions (protons) in
Acid HCl, H₂SO₄, HNO₃
aqueous solution
A substance that gives OH⁻ ions in aqueous
Base NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)₂
solution
NaOH, KOH are alkalis; Cu(OH)₂ is a base but
Alkali A water-soluble base
not an alkali
A compound formed by neutralization reaction
Salt NaCl, KNO₃, CuSO₄
between acid and base
Neutralization
Acid + Base → Salt + Water HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O
Reaction
Strong Acid Completely ionizes in water HCl, HNO₃, H₂SO₄
Weak Acid Partially ionizes in water CH₃COOH, H₂CO₃
Strong Base Completely dissociates in water NaOH, KOH
Weak Base Partially dissociates in water NH₄OH, Al(OH)₃
pH Scale Measures acidity/basicity (0–14); 7 is neutral <7 = Acidic; >7 = Basic; =7 = Neutral

75 | |
Category Concept / Definition Details / Examples
Acids turn blue litmus red
Litmus Test Used in labs to test acid/base
Bases turn red litmus blue
Methyl orange: Acid → Red; Base → Yellow
Other Indicators Indicator-based color changes
Phenolphthalein: Acid → Colorless; Base → Pink
Reactions with
Acid + Metal → Salt + H₂ gas Zn + H₂SO₄ → ZnSO₄ + H₂↑
Metals
Metal Carbonate
Acid + Metal Carbonate → Salt + CO₂ + H₂O CaCO₃ + HCl → CaCl₂ + CO₂ + H₂O
Reaction
Acidic Oxides: Non-metal oxides (e.g., CO₂, SO₂) Amphoteric Oxides: ZnO, Al₂O₃ (react with
Oxides
Basic Oxides: Metal oxides (e.g., Na₂O, MgO) both acid & base)
Sulphuric acid – batteries
Uses of Acids HCl – digestion Common in industry and households
Acetic acid – vinegar
NaOH – soap, drain cleaner
Uses of Bases Industrial and domestic uses
Ca(OH)₂ – whitewashing
NaCl – table salt
Common Salts Baking soda – NaHCO₃ All formed via neutralization
Washing soda – Na₂CO₃·10H₂O
Bleaching Powder Ca(OCl)Cl – used for disinfecting Made by Ca(OH)₂ + Cl₂
Made by heating gypsum: CaSO₄·2H₂O →
Plaster of Paris (POP) CaSO₄·½H₂O – used in casts, models
CaSO₄·½H₂O + 1½H₂O
Gypsum CaSO₄·2H₂O – hydrated form Used in cement and fertilizer
Amphoteric
React with both acids and bases Al₂O₃, ZnO
Substances
Produces H₂SO₄, HNO₃ – damages
Acid Rain Formed by SO₂, NO₂ gases reacting with rainwater
monuments, crops
Self-Ionization of
H₂O ⇌ H⁺ + OH⁻ Basis of neutral pH = 7
Water

Important Equations for SSC CGL

Reaction Type General Equation Example
Neutralization Acid + Base → Salt + Water HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O
Acid + Metal Acid + Metal → Salt + H₂ Zn + H₂SO₄ → ZnSO₄ + H₂
Acid + Carbonate Acid + MCO₃ → Salt + CO₂ + H₂O CaCO₃ + HCl → CaCl₂ + CO₂ + H₂O
Metal Oxide + Acid Basic Oxide + Acid → Salt + Water CuO + HCl → CuCl₂ + H₂O
Non-metal Oxide + Base Acidic Oxide + Base → Salt + Water CO₂ + NaOH → Na₂CO₃ + H₂O
Salt + Water + CO₂ (Test) Sodium bicarbonate + Acid = CO₂ release NaHCO₃ + HCl → NaCl + CO₂ + H₂O

Carbon and its Compounds

Topic Key Points
1. Elemental
- Atomic Number: 6 - Valency: 4 (Tetravalent) - Allotropes: Diamond, Graphite, Fullerenes
Information
2. Unique Nature of - Catenation: Ability to form long chains with itself - Tetravalency: Forms 4 covalent bonds -
Carbon Forms single, double, triple bonds
- Carbon forms covalent bonds (sharing electrons) - Examples: CH₄ (Methane), C₂H₄ (Ethene),
3. Covalent Bonding
C₂H₂ (Ethyne)
4. Allotropes of - Diamond: Hardest natural substance, bad conductor - Graphite: Soft, slippery, good conductor
Carbon (due to free electrons) - Fullerene: Spherical molecule (C₆₀), also known as Buckyball
5. Organic - Carbon compounds with hydrogen are called hydrocarbons - Classified as Alkanes, Alkenes,
Compounds Alkynes

76 | |
Topic Key Points
- Alkanes: Single bond, formula CnH2n+2 (e.g., CH₄) - Alkenes: Double bond, formula CnH2n
6. Hydrocarbons
(e.g., C₂H₄) - Alkynes: Triple bond, formula CnH2n-2 (e.g., C₂H₂)
7. Functional - -OH (Alcohol): Ethanol - -COOH (Carboxylic Acid): Acetic Acid - -CHO (Aldehyde):
Groups Formaldehyde - >CO (Ketone): Acetone
8. Important Carbon - Ethanol (C₂H₅OH): Used in alcoholic drinks, solvent - Ethanoic Acid (CH₃COOH): Also called
Compounds acetic acid, main component of vinegar
9. Soap and - Soap: Made from animal fat + sodium hydroxide - Micelles: Soap molecules arrange in spherical
Detergents form in water - Detergents: Work even in hard water (synthetic)
10. Properties of - Colorless, volatile, flammable - Neutral pH, used as antiseptic, solvent, and in alcoholic
Ethanol beverages
11. Properties of - Sour taste, turns blue litmus red - Reacts with base to form salt + water - Reacts with alcohol →
Ethanoic Acid ester (pleasant smell)
- Combustion: Carbon + O₂ → CO₂ + heat - Oxidation: Alcohol → Acid (by oxidizing agent like
12. Important
KMnO₄) - Addition: Unsaturated + H₂ → Saturated (in presence of Ni) - Substitution: Alkane +
Reactions
Cl₂ → substituted compound (sunlight)
13. Isomers Compounds with same molecular formula but different structures E.g., Butane and Isobutane
14. Uses of Carbon
- Fuels: Methane, LPG, Petrol - Solvents: Acetone, Ethanol - Preservatives: Organic acids
Compounds
15. Environmental
- CO₂: Greenhouse gas - Incomplete combustion: Produces CO (carbon monoxide) – poisonous
Impact

Periodic Table

1. Periodic Table Structure

Property Details
Inventor Dmitri Mendeleev (1869 - first version), Henry Moseley (modern version)
Basis of Modern Table Atomic number (not atomic mass)
Total Groups 18 vertical columns
Total Periods 7 horizontal rows
Total Elements (as of now) 118
Longest Period 6th period (32 elements)
Shortest Period 1st period (2 elements – H, He)

77 | |
 2. Group-wise Classification
Group Common Name Important Elements Properties
Group 1 Alkali Metals H, Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr Highly reactive, form +1 ions, soft metals
Group 2 Alkaline Earth Metals Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra Reactive, form +2 ions, used in fireworks
Groups 3–12 Transition Metals Fe, Cu, Zn, Ni, Cr, etc. Good conductors, form colored compounds
Group 13 Boron Family B, Al, Ga, In, Tl Mostly metals, Al is most abundant
Group 14 Carbon Family C, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb Shows +2 and +4 oxidation states
Group 15 Nitrogen Family N, P, As, Sb, Bi Also called Pnictogens, form covalent bonds
Group 16 Oxygen Family O, S, Se, Te, Po Also called Chalcogens, form -2 ions
Group 17 Halogens F, Cl, Br, I, At Most reactive non-metals, form salts
Group 18 Noble Gases He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn Inert gases, monoatomic, very stable

3. Block-wise Classification

Block Includes Elements Period/Group Characteristics

s-block Groups 1 and 2 + Helium Periods 1–7 Reactive metals, soft, low ionization energy
p-block Groups 13–18 Periods 2–7 Contains metals, metalloids, non-metals
d-block Groups 3–12 (Transition metals) Periods 4–7 Variable oxidation states, colored ions
f-block Lanthanides and Actinides Periods 6–7 Inner transition elements, radioactive ones

4. Important Series

Name Elements Notes

Lanthanide Series La (57) to Lu (71) Rare earth metals, f-block
Actinide Series Ac (89) to Lr (103) All are radioactive, includes Uranium

5. Key Trends in Periodic Table

Trend Across Period (Left to Right) Down Group (Top to Bottom)

Atomic Size Decreases Increases
Ionization Energy Increases Decreases
Electronegativity Increases Decreases
Metallic Character Decreases Increases
Non-metallic Character Increases Decreases
Valency Increases then decreases Remains same in group

6. Other Important Facts

Fact Details
Most reactive metal Francium (Fr)
Most reactive non-metal Fluorine (F)
Lightest element Hydrogen (H)
Heaviest natural element Uranium (U)
First artificially made element Technetium (Tc)
Element with no neutron Protium (Isotope of Hydrogen)
78 | |
Fact Details
Most abundant element in universe Hydrogen
Most abundant in Earth’s crust Oxygen
Noble gases uses In lighting (He, Ne), anesthesia (Xe), welding (Ar)

Solutions and Mixtures

Concept Definition Example Key Feature
A homogeneous mixture of two or Salt water (NaCl Solutions have uniform
Solution
more substances. dissolved in H₂O) composition throughout.
The substance that dissolves the Solvents can be liquids, gases, or
Solvent Water in salt water
solute, usually in greater quantity. solids.
The substance that is dissolved in Solutes can be solids, liquids, or
Solute Salt in salt water
the solvent. gases.
The amount of solute dissolved in a Concentration can be expressed in
Concentration 10% salt solution
given amount of solvent. molarity, molality, or percentage.
Sugar solution with A saturated solution is in
Saturated A solution in which no more solute
excess sugar at the equilibrium with undissolved
Solution can dissolve at a given temperature.
bottom solute.

Types of Mixtures
Type Description Examples
Homogeneous
Mixtures that have a uniform composition throughout. Salt water, Air, Vinegar
Mixtures
Heterogeneous Oil and water, Sand
Mixtures that do not have a uniform composition throughout.
Mixtures and salt
Mixtures where particles are dispersed but do not settle out and are
Colloids Milk, Fog, Gelatin
visible under a microscope.
Mud in water, Flour in
Suspensions Mixtures where the solute particles are large and eventually settle out.
water

Methods of Separating Mixtures

Method Description Example
Filtration Separation of solid particles from liquids or gases using a filter. Sand from water
Separation of components of a mixture based on differences in
Distillation Water from salt water
boiling points.
Separation of components in a mixture based on their affinity Ink separation into different
Chromatography
for a stationary phase and a mobile phase. colors
Separation of a solute from a solvent by heating the solution to
Evaporation Salt from salt water
evaporate the solvent.
Separation of components of a mixture by spinning it at high Separation of blood components
Centrifugation
speed. (plasma and cells)

Laws of Chemical Combination

Law Statement Example
When 10g of calcium reacts with 5g of
Law of Conservation Mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a
oxygen, the mass of calcium oxide
of Mass chemical reaction.
formed is 15g.
Law of Definite A given chemical compound always contains the same Water (H₂O) always contains 8g of
Proportions elements in the same proportion by mass. oxygen for every 1g of hydrogen.

79 | |
Law Statement Example
When two elements combine to form more than one
Carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon
Law of Multiple compound, the mass of one element that combines
dioxide (CO₂) both contain carbon and
Proportions with a fixed mass of the other is in simple whole
oxygen, but in different proportions.
number ratios.
At constant volume, doubling the
The pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its
Gay-Lussac's Law temperature of a gas doubles its
temperature (at constant volume).
pressure.
At STP, 1 liter of hydrogen contains the
Equal volumes of all gases, at the same temperature
Avogadro's Law same number of molecules as 1 liter of
and pressure, contain an equal number of molecules.
oxygen.

Applications of Chemical Laws

Law Application
Helps balance chemical equations and understand reactions in terms of mass
Law of Conservation of Mass
conservation.
Law of Definite Proportions Used in preparing chemicals with known composition and in quality control.
Law of Multiple Proportions Used to determine the formulas of new compounds by analyzing their elemental ratios.
Important in understanding the behavior of gases under different temperature
Gay-Lussac's Law
conditions in chemical processes.
Used to understand molar volume and calculate the number of molecules in a given
Avogadro's Law
volume of gas.

Atomic and Molecular Masses

Concept Atomic Mass Molecular Mass Relation
The mass of a single atom of an The mass of one molecule of a Molecular mass is the sum of
Definition element, expressed in atomic mass compound, expressed in atomic atomic masses of all atoms in a
units (amu). mass units (amu). molecule.
Atomic Mass Unit (amu) or Dalton 1 amu = 1/12th of the mass of a
Unit Atomic Mass Unit (amu)
(Da) carbon-12 atom
The atomic mass of Carbon (C) is The molecular mass of Water (H₂O) Molecular mass = Sum of atomic
Example
12 amu. is 18 amu (2×1 + 16). masses of constituent elements.

Calculation of Molecular Mass

Compound Atomic Masses of Elements Molecular Mass
Water (H₂O) Hydrogen = 1, Oxygen = 16 Molecular Mass = (2×1) + 16 = 18 amu
Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) Carbon = 12, Oxygen = 16 Molecular Mass = 12 + (2×16) = 44 amu
Methane (CH₄) Carbon = 12, Hydrogen = 1 Molecular Mass = 12 + (4×1) = 16 amu

Calculation of Empirical Formula Mass

Compound Empirical Formula Empirical Formula Mass
Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) C₆H₁₂O₆ Empirical Formula Mass = 6 + (12×1) + (6×16) = 180 amu
Hydrogen Peroxide (H₂O₂) H₂O₂ Empirical Formula Mass = (2×1) + (2×16) = 34 amu
Ethanol (C₂H₅OH) C₂H₅OH Empirical Formula Mass = (2×12) + (6×1) + 16 = 46 amu

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 Organic Chemistry
Concept Definition Examples Types
Compounds that contain carbon atoms, Alkanes, Alkenes,
Organic Methane (CH₄), Ethanol
usually bonded to hydrogen, oxygen, and Alkynes, Aromatic
Compounds (C₂H₅OH)
other elements. Compounds
A specific group of atoms that imparts Hydroxyl group (-OH) in
Alcohols, Aldehydes,
Functional Group distinct chemical properties to an alcohols, Carboxyl group (-
Carboxylic Acids
organic compound. COOH) in acids
Compounds with the same molecular
Butane (C₄H₁₀) and Structural isomerism,
Isomerism formula but different structural
Isobutane (C₄H₁₀) Geometrical isomerism
arrangements.
Saturated Hydrocarbons that only have single Methane (CH₄), Ethane
Alkanes
Hydrocarbons bonds between carbon atoms. (C₂H₆)
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons with one or more double Ethene (C₂H₄), Ethyne
Alkenes, Alkynes
Hydrocarbons or triple bonds between carbon atoms. (C₂H₂)

Important Reactions in Organic Chemistry

Reaction Type Example Type of Organic Compound
Substitution Reaction Methane + Chlorine → Methyl Chloride + HCl Alkanes
Addition Reaction Ethene + H₂ → Ethane Alkenes
Elimination Reaction Ethanol → Ethene + H₂O Alcohols
Condensation Reaction Ethanol + Acetic Acid → Ethyl Acetate + Water Esters
Oxidation Reaction Methanol + O₂ → Formaldehyde + H₂O Alcohols

Uses of Organic Compounds

Organic Compound Uses
Methane (CH₄) Used as a fuel and in the production of chemicals like ammonia.
Ethanol (C₂H₅OH) Used as a solvent, in alcoholic beverages, and in fuel (ethyl alcohol).
Acetic Acid (CH₃COOH) Used in vinegar, food preservation, and as a chemical reagent.
Benzene (C₆H₆) Used in the production of plastics, resins, synthetic fibers, and dyes.

Types of Chemical Reactions

Type of Reaction Definition Example Key Feature
Combination Two or more reactants combine One product is formed from multiple
2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O
Reaction to form a single product. reactants.
Decomposition A single reactant breaks down One reactant breaks down to form
2HgO → 2Hg + O₂
Reaction into two or more products. multiple products.
Displacement One element displaces another in Zn + CuSO₄ → A more reactive element displaces a
Reaction a compound. ZnSO₄ + Cu less reactive element.
Double Displacement Two compounds exchange ions NaCl + AgNO₃ → Two compounds react to form two new
Reaction to form two new compounds. NaNO₃ + AgCl compounds, often precipitating a solid.
A reaction involving the transfer 2Na + Cl₂ → Involves both reduction and oxidation
Redox Reaction
of electrons between reactants. 2NaCl processes.

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 Key Concepts in Types of Reactions
Reaction Type Concept Example
Combination Two or more substances combine to form one product. 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O
Decomposition One reactant breaks down into simpler products. 2HgO → 2Hg + O₂
Displacement A more reactive element replaces a less reactive one. Zn + CuSO₄ → ZnSO₄ + Cu
Double Displacement Two ionic compounds exchange their ions. NaCl + AgNO₃ → NaNO₃ + AgCl
Redox Electron transfer takes place with oxidation and reduction. 2Na + Cl₂ → 2NaCl

Applications of Types of Reactions

Reaction Type Application
Combination Used in the formation of compounds like water and carbon dioxide in combustion reactions.
Decomposition Used in the extraction of metals from ores (e.g., thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate).
Displacement Used in various industrial processes like galvanization and extraction of metals.
Double Displacement Used in preparing salts and precipitation reactions in water treatment.
Redox Used in processes like respiration, combustion, and electroplating.

Biology
Cell
Category Details
Definition of Cell The cell is the structural and functional unit of life. All living organisms are made up of cells.
Discovery of Cell Discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 (observed cork cells using a primitive microscope).
Proposed by Schleiden (plants) and Schwann (animals) in 1838–39: • All living things are
Cell Theory (Main
made of cells. • Cells are the basic unit of life. • All cells arise from pre-existing cells (added by
Points)
Rudolf Virchow, 1855).
Types of Cells 1. Prokaryotic – no nucleus (e.g., Bacteria) 2. Eukaryotic – true nucleus (e.g., plants, animals)
Shape of Cells Varies: Round, Oval, Spindle, Irregular (e.g., RBCs – round, Muscle cells – elongated)
1. Unicellular – one cell (e.g., Amoeba, Paramecium) 2. Multicellular – many cells (e.g., Humans,
Number of Cells
Plants)
Largest Cell (Overall) Ostrich egg (15 cm in diameter) – largest known single cell
Smallest Cell Mycoplasma gallisepticum (~0.1 µm) – smallest living cell
Longest Animal Cell Nerve Cell (Neuron) – can be over 1 meter long
Largest Human Cell Ovum (female egg cell)
Smallest Human Cell Sperm cell (head) – ~4–5 microns
First Living Cell
Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1674) – observed bacteria and protozoa using a microscope
Observer
Cell Wall Present in plant cells, made of cellulose; absent in animal cells
Plasma Membrane Outer covering of animal cells; semi-permeable membrane
Nucleus Brain/control center of cell – contains DNA
Cytoplasm Jelly-like fluid inside cell, site of various reactions
Mitochondria Powerhouse of the cell – site of ATP (energy) production
Ribosomes Site of protein synthesis
Chloroplast Found in plant cells – site of photosynthesis
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Category Details
Golgi Apparatus Helps in packing and transporting materials in cells
Lysosomes Suicidal bags – digest worn-out cell parts
Endoplasmic Transport system: • Rough ER (with ribosomes) – protein synthesis • Smooth ER – lipid
Reticulum synthesis
Vacuole Storage unit; large in plant cells, small in animal cells
Centrioles Help in cell division, present only in animal cells
Cell Division Types 1. Mitosis – identical cells for growth 2. Meiosis – for gamete formation (half chromosome)

Components of Cells (Cell Organelles)

Cell Organelle Structure Function / Role Found In Special Notes
Permeable; allows
Rigid outermost layer made Provides shape, support, Plant cells
Cell Wall substances to pass
of cellulose in plants and protection only
freely
Controls entry/exit of Both plant Also called cell
Plasma Thin, flexible layer made of
substances (selectively and animal membrane or plasma
Membrane lipid bilayer with proteins
permeable) cells lemma
Jelly-like fluid between Suspends organelles; site Made of cytosol (fluid)
Cytoplasm Both
nucleus and membrane of metabolic activities + organelles
Spherical body, contains Controls all activities; Nuclear pores regulate
Nucleus nuclear membrane, stores genetic material Both exchange with
nucleolus, and chromatin (DNA) cytoplasm
Produces ribosomal RNA
Dense structure inside
Nucleolus (rRNA) and assembles Both Non-membranous
nucleus
ribosomes
Stores genetic code,
Chromatin / DNA + proteins (histones) Becomes chromosomes
responsible for Both
Chromosomes dispersed in nucleus during cell division
inheritance
Called the
Double-membrane organelle, Site of cellular
"powerhouse of the
Mitochondria inner membrane folded into respiration; produces Both
cell"; contains its own
cristae ATP (energy)
DNA
Non-membranous;
Small particles, made of rRNA Both (free or
Ribosomes Synthesize proteins found in prokaryotes
+ proteins on RER)
too
RER: Protein synthesis Rough ER has
Endoplasmic Network of membranes
SER: Lipid synthesis, Both ribosomes; smooth ER
Reticulum (ER) (Rough or Smooth)
detoxification doesn’t
Modifies, packages, and
Stack of flattened membrane Named after scientist
Golgi Apparatus transports Both
sacs (cisternae) Camillo Golgi
proteins/lipids
Break down waste, foreign Animal cells
Single-membrane sacs with Called "suicidal bags"
Lysosomes material; autolysis (self- (rare in
digestive enzymes of the cell
digestion) plants)
Large in
Provides turgidity in
Vacuoles Fluid-filled sacs Store water, food, waste plants, small
plants
in animals
Double membrane with
Perform photosynthesis Plant cells Contains its own DNA;
Chloroplasts stacks of thylakoids (grana)
using chlorophyll only member of plastids
and stroma

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Cell Organelle Structure Function / Role Found In Special Notes
1. Chloroplast –
Double-membraned photosynthesis Found only in plants
Plastids Plant cells
organelles in plant cells 2. Chromoplast – color and algae
3. Leucoplast – storage
Cylindrical structures near Help in cell division by Animal cells Absent in higher plant
Centrioles
nucleus forming spindle fibers only cells
Network of protein Provides shape, Also helps in
Cytoskeleton filaments (microtubules & mechanical support, and Both intracellular
microfilaments) facilitates movement transport
Break down fatty acids
Small organelles with Especially important in
Peroxisomes and detoxify harmful Both
enzymes liver and kidney cells
substances

Tissues
Category Details
Definition A group of similar cells performing a specific function.
Study of Tissues Histology
➤ Plant Tissues
Main Categories
➤ Animal Tissues
Importance of Tissues In multicellular organisms, tissues help in division of labour and specialization of functions.
Multicellular Examples Plants, animals (e.g., humans, trees)
Unicellular Organisms Do not form tissues (e.g., Amoeba, Paramecium)

Plant Tissues
Type Sub-Type Structure Function Special Notes
Meristematic Found at root and shoot
➤ Apical Growth in length Cells divide continuously
Tissue tips
Base of leaves or Growth in length of
➤ Intercalary Active during early stages
internodes organs
Growth in thickness Responsible for secondary
➤ Lateral Sides of stems and roots
(girth) growth
Permanent Perform specific Formed from meristematic
– Cells lose ability to divide
Tissue functions tissue
Storage, Can have chloroplast (called
Simple Living, thin-walled,
➤ Parenchyma photosynthesis (if chlorenchyma) or air cavities
Permanent loosely packed
green), healing (called aerenchyma)
Living, thickened at Flexibility and Found in leaf stalks and below
➤ Collenchyma
corners mechanical support epidermis
➤ Dead, thick walls with Provides strength and Found in husk of coconut, seed
Sclerenchyma lignin rigidity coats
Made of tracheids, Transports water and
Complex Mostly dead tissues except
➤ Xylem vessels, fibers, xylem minerals from root to
Permanent xylem parenchyma
parenchyma shoot
Made of sieve tubes,
Transports food (from Both living and dead
➤ Phloem companion cells, phloem
leaves to other parts) components
fibers, parenchyma

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 Animal Tissues
Type Sub-Type Structure Function Location / Example
Epithelial Lining of blood vessels,
➤ Squamous Flat, thin cells Protection
Tissue alveoli
➤ Cuboidal Cube-shaped cells Secretion and absorption Kidney tubules
Lining of stomach,
➤ Columnar Tall, pillar-like cells Absorption, secretion
intestine
➤ Ciliated Columnar cells with cilia Movement of particles Respiratory tract
➤ Glandular Modified columnar cells Secretion Glands
Connective Connects tissues, fills Under skin, between
➤ Areolar Loose, fibrous matrix
Tissue spaces organs
Under skin, around
➤ Adipose Fat-storing cells Insulation, energy storage
organs
Support and limited
➤ Ligament Bone to bone Joints
flexibility
Strong and inelastic
➤ Tendon Muscle to bone Tendon of biceps
connection
➤ Cartilage Flexible, compressive tissue Structural support Ear, nose, windpipe
Provides framework and
➤ Bone Rigid, mineral-rich matrix Skeleton
support
Fluid with plasma, RBCs, Transports nutrients, gases,
➤ Blood Circulatory system
WBCs, platelets immunity
Muscular Long, striated,
➤ Skeletal Movement of limbs Attached to bones
Tissue multinucleated, voluntary
Spindle-shaped, unstriated, Controls involuntary Stomach, intestine,
➤ Smooth
involuntary actions blood vessels
Striated, branched,
➤ Cardiac Pumps blood Heart
involuntary
Receives and transmits Brain, spinal cord,
Nervous Tissue – Neurons + supporting cells
impulses nerves

Plant and Animal Kingdom

Whittaker (1969) classified living organisms under five kingdoms; Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia based on
various features such as complexity of cellular and body structure, mode of nutrition, etc.

Kingdom Monera, Protista, and Fungi – Detailed Table with Examples

Kingdom Cell Type & Structure Nutrition Reproduction Other Features Examples
Can survive in
Bacteria (e.g.,
Prokaryotic, unicellular, extreme
Escherichia coli),
no true nucleus or Autotrophic Asexual (binary environments
Cyanobacteria
membrane-bound (chemo/photo) fission); few (archaea); some
(e.g., Nostoc,
Monera organelles. Cell wall may or Heterotrophic show primitive have flagella; no
Anabaena),
be present (saprophytic or gene transfer chloroplast but
Archaebacteria
(peptidoglycan in parasitic). (conjugation). some have
(e.g.,
bacteria). photosynthetic
Halobacterium)
pigments.

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Kingdom Cell Type & Structure Nutrition Reproduction Other Features Examples
Autotrophic
Eukaryotic, mostly Mainly asexual Found in aquatic
(algae) or
unicellular, some (binary fission); or moist Amoeba,
Heterotrophic
colonial/multicellular; sexual environments; Paramecium,
Protista (protozoa, some
may or may not have cell reproduction in locomotion via Euglena, Diatoms,
slime molds);
wall; complex cell some (e.g., cilia, flagella, or Plasmodium
mixotrophic in
structure. fusion). pseudopodia.
Euglena.
Heterotrophic: Asexual Body consists of
Yeast (unicellular),
Eukaryotic, mostly saprophytic, (spores), sexual thread-like
Rhizopus (bread
multicellular (except parasitic or (in some species hyphae forming
Fungi mold), Aspergillus,
yeast); cell wall made of symbiotic via fusion of mycelium; absorb
Mushroom,
chitin. (mycorrhiza, hyphae and nutrients after
Penicillium
lichen). spores). external digestion.

Plant Kingdom

Category Definition / Characteristics Sub-Groups / Features Examples

Multicellular, eukaryotic, autotrophic Includes Thallophyta,
Plant Kingdom organisms with cell walls made of Bryophyta, Pteridophyta, Moss, Fern, Pine,
(Plantae) cellulose. They perform photosynthesis Gymnosperms, Mango
using chlorophyll. Angiosperms
Simplest plants without true stems,
Algae, Fungi (sometimes
Thallophyta roots, or leaves. Body is undifferentiated Spirogyra, Ulothrix
grouped separately)
(thallus).
Non-vascular plants with simple stems
Riccia, Marchantia,
Bryophyta and leaves. Require water for Liverworts, Mosses
Funaria
reproduction.
First vascular plants with true roots, Dryopteris, Pteris,
Pteridophyta Ferns and their relatives
stems, and leaves. Reproduce via spores. Marsilea
Seed-producing plants with naked seeds
Gymnosperms (not enclosed in fruit). Mostly evergreen Conifers, Cycads, Ginkgo Pinus, Cycas
trees.
Wheat, Rice
Flowering plants with seeds enclosed in
Angiosperms Monocots and Dicots (monocots); Mango,
fruits. Most advanced group.
Pea (dicots)
Monocotyledons One seed leaf, parallel venation, fibrous
- Wheat, Rice, Maize
(Monocots) roots, floral parts in multiples of 3.

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Category Definition / Characteristics Sub-Groups / Features Examples
Two seed leaves, reticulate venation, tap
Dicotyledons
root system, floral parts in multiples of 4 - Mango, Mustard, Gram
(Dicots)
or 5.
Chlamydomonas,
Aquatic, photosynthetic thallophytes,
Algae Green, Brown, Red Algae Laminaria,
mostly unicellular or filamentous.
Polysiphonia
Rhizopus,
Non-green thallophytes, heterotrophic,
Fungi Molds, Yeasts, Mushrooms Saccharomyces,
decomposers. Cell wall made of chitin.
Agaricus

Divisions of Algae:
Flagellar
Common Major Stored
Classes Cell Wall Number and Habitat & Examples
Name Pigments Food
Position
Habitat: Fresh water,
brackish water, salt
water
Green 2–8, equal, Examples:
Chlorophyceae Chlorophyll a, b Starch Cellulose
algae apical - Chlamydomonas
(unicellular freshwater)
- Ulva (sea lettuce,
marine)
Habitat: Fresh water
(rare), brackish water,
salt water
Brown Chlorophyll a, c, Mannitol, Cellulose 2, unequal, Examples:
Phaeophyceae
algae fucoxanthin laminarin and algin lateral - Macrocystis (giant
kelp)
- Sargassum (floating
mats)
Habitat: Fresh water
(some), brackish water,
Cellulose, salt water (most)
Chlorophyll a, d, Floridean pectin and Examples:
Rhodophyceae Red algae Absent
phycoerythrin starch polysulphate - Porphyra (nori for
esters sushi)
- Gelidium (source of
agar)

Animal Kingdom
Symmetry & Level of
Phylum Key Characteristics Examples
Body Type Organization
Asymmetrical or No tissues, sessile, canal system
Spongilla, Sycon,
Porifera radial; porous for water flow, intracellular Cellular level
Euplectella
body digestion
Diploblastic, tentacles, Hydra, Jellyfish
Cnidaria
Radial symmetry cnidoblasts for stinging, Tissue level (Aurelia), Sea
(Coelenterata)
gastrovascular cavity anemone
Diploblastic, comb plates for Pleurobrachia,
Ctenophora Radial symmetry Tissue level
locomotion, bioluminescence Ctenoplana

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 Symmetry & Level of
Phylum Key Characteristics Examples
Body Type Organization
Triploblastic, acoelomate,
Bilateral Planaria, Liver fluke,
Platyhelminthes dorsoventrally flattened, Organ level
symmetry Tapeworm
parasitic/free-living
Triploblastic, pseudocoelomate,
Nematoda Bilateral Organ-system Ascaris, Wuchereria,
unsegmented, complete
(Aschelminthes) symmetry level Ancylostoma
digestive system
Triploblastic, coelomate,
Bilateral Organ-system Earthworm, Leech,
Annelida segmented, closed circulatory
symmetry level Nereis
system
Segmented body, jointed Insects (Ant,
Bilateral Organ-system
Arthropoda appendages, exoskeleton of Butterfly), Crab,
symmetry level
chitin, open circulatory system Spider, Scorpion
Soft body, usually with shell,
Bilateral Organ-system Snail, Octopus, Mussel,
Mollusca muscular foot, open circulatory
symmetry level Pila
system (except octopus)
Radial (adult), Spiny skin, water vascular Organ-system Starfish, Sea urchin,
Echinodermata
Bilateral (larva) system, tube feet, only marine level Sea cucumber
Body with proboscis, collar,
Bilateral Organ-system Balanoglossus,
Hemichordata trunk; gill slits; rudimentary
symmetry level Saccoglossus
notochord
Chordata Notochord, dorsal hollow nerve Branchiostoma
Bilateral Organ-system
(excluding cord, pharyngeal slits, post-anal (Amphioxus),
symmetry level
vertebrates) tail (at some stage) Tunicates
Notochord replaced by
Humans, Fishes, Birds,
Bilateral vertebral column, brain Organ-system
Vertebrata Reptiles, Amphibians,
symmetry enclosed in skull, advanced level
Mammals
organ systems

Brain
Aspect Details
Located inside the skull (cranium), part of the central nervous system (CNS) along with the spinal
Position
cord.
Weight Around 1.3 to 1.5 kilograms in adults
Made up of about 86 billion neurons, glial cells, and blood vessels. Composed of gray matter (outer)
Composition
and white matter (inner).
Protection Protected by the skull bones, meninges (3 protective membranes), and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
1. Cerebrum (largest part)
2. Cerebellum
Main Divisions
3. Brainstem (Midbrain, Pons, Medulla)
4. Diencephalon (Thalamus, Hypothalamus)
Controls voluntary and involuntary actions; center of intelligence, emotion, memory, and
Control Type
coordination.
Coordination
Connects and regulates messages from sense organs, muscles, and internal organs.
Role
Energy Need Requires 20–25% of body’s oxygen supply and constant glucose supply for functioning.

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 Brain: Parts, Sub-Parts, Functions
Main Part Sub-Part Definition Functions
Largest part of the brain;
Controls voluntary actions, thinking, reasoning,
1. Cerebrum - divided into two hemispheres
memory, emotions, and sensory perception.
(left & right) and four lobes.
Speech, decision-making, voluntary movement,
a. Frontal Lobe Front part of the cerebrum
planning, reasoning, problem-solving.
Perception of touch, temperature, pain, spatial
b. Parietal Lobe Upper middle area of cerebrum
orientation, and proprioception.
c. Temporal Hearing, language comprehension, memory,
Side region of cerebrum
Lobe emotional responses.
d. Occipital
Rear part of cerebrum Visual processing and interpretation.
Lobe
Bundle of nerve fibers
e. Corpus Communication between left and right
connecting the two cerebral
Callosum hemispheres.
hemispheres
Located under the cerebrum, Coordinates voluntary movements, posture,
2. Cerebellum -
often called the “little brain”. balance, and muscle tone.
Upper part of the brainstem,
Visual & auditory processing, eye movements,
3. Brainstem a. Midbrain connecting the forebrain to
motor control.
hindbrain.
Controls facial sensations, eye movements,
Middle part of brainstem
b. Pons chewing, and communication between different
between midbrain and medulla.
brain parts.
Regulates heart rate, respiration, digestion,
c. Medulla Lower part of brainstem;
sneezing, swallowing — vital autonomic
Oblongata continuous with the spinal cord.
functions.
Central relay station located
4. Relays sensory and motor signals to cerebral
a. Thalamus between brainstem and
Diencephalon cortex; consciousness, sleep, alertness.
cerebrum.
Regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst,
b. sleep-wake cycle, emotions, and controls the
Located below the thalamus
Hypothalamus pituitary gland (thus linking nervous and
endocrine systems).
Posterior segment of
Secretes melatonin, regulates circadian rhythms
c. Epithalamus diencephalon; contains pineal
(day-night cycle).
gland
5. Limbic Part of temporal lobe in
a. Hippocampus Long-term memory formation, spatial navigation.
System cerebrum
Almond-shaped cluster near Processing of emotions, especially fear and
b. Amygdala
hippocampus pleasure.
c. Cingulate Curved fold covering corpus
Emotional regulation, behavior, attention.
Gyrus callosum
Interconnected cavities within
6. Ventricular Provides cushioning, removes waste, circulates
- the brain filled with
System nutrients and hormones.
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Outermost tough layer of
7. Meninges a. Dura Mater Protection of brain and spinal cord.
connective tissue.
b. Arachnoid Cushions the brain; CSF flows in the
Middle web-like membrane
Mater subarachnoid space.
Innermost thin membrane Closely envelopes brain tissue; carries blood
c. Pia Mater
covering brain surface vessels into the brain.

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Main Part Sub-Part Definition Functions
Master gland located at base of Secretes hormones regulating growth,
8. Pituitary
- brain; controlled by metabolism, stress, reproduction — affects all
Gland
hypothalamus endocrine glands.
Small endocrine gland in
9. Pineal Gland - Produces melatonin; regulates sleep patterns.
epithalamus

Additional Notes
Component Explanation / Role
Gray Matter Outer layer of cerebrum; consists of neuronal cell bodies
White Matter Inner part; consists of myelinated axons that transmit signals
Left Hemisphere Controls right body, logical reasoning, analytical skills
Right Hemisphere Controls left body, creativity, intuition, imagination
Chemical messengers (e.g., dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine) that help in communication
Neurotransmitters
between neurons
Cerebrospinal Fluid Clear fluid in ventricles and subarachnoid space that protects, nourishes, and removes waste
(CSF) from the brain

Reproduction
Term Definition
A biological process by which living organisms produce offspring of their own kind, ensuring the
Reproduction
continuity of life on Earth.
Importance Essential for survival of species, genetic inheritance, and variation (in sexual reproduction).

Types of Reproduction
Type Definition Examples
Single organism produces offspring without gametes. Offspring Binary fission (Amoeba), budding (Yeast),
Asexual
are genetically identical (clones). fragmentation (Planaria)
Involves fusion of male and female gametes from two parents.
Sexual Humans, animals, flowering plants
Leads to genetic variation in offspring.

Human Reproductive System

System Definition Main Function
Set of organs in males involved in the production and Production of sperm and delivery into female
Male
delivery of sperm. body.
Set of organs in females involved in egg production, Produces ovum, facilitates fertilization,
Female
fertilization, and nurturing the developing embryo. implantation, and development of fetus.

Male Reproductive System: Parts, Sub-Parts & Functions

Sub-
Part Function
Part
1. Testes - Produce sperm (spermatogenesis) and male sex hormone testosterone.
Sac that holds testes outside the body to maintain lower temperature for
2. Scrotum -
sperm production.
3. Epididymis - Stores sperm temporarily; site for maturation of sperm.
4. Vas deferens - Transports sperm from epididymis to urethra.

90 | |
 Sub-
Part Function
Part
5. Seminal Vesicles - Secrete fluid rich in fructose; gives energy to sperm.
Secretes alkaline fluid that protects sperm in acidic environment of
6. Prostate Gland -
vagina.
7. Bulbourethral Glands (Cowper’s
- Secretes mucus for lubrication and cleaning the urethra.
glands)
8. Urethra - Passage for semen and urine (not simultaneously).
9. Penis - External organ used to deliver sperm into female reproductive tract.

Female Reproductive System: Parts, Sub-Parts & Functions

Part Sub-Part Function
1. Ovaries - Produce ovum (egg) and female hormones (estrogen, progesterone).
2. Fallopian Tubes - Transport ovum from ovary to uterus; site of fertilization.
3. Uterus (Womb) Endometrium Site for implantation of fertilized egg; supports fetal development.
Myometrium Muscular layer aiding in childbirth contractions.
4. Cervix - Lower part of uterus; opens during childbirth and allows menstrual flow.
5. Vagina - Birth canal; receives sperm during intercourse.
6. Vulva Labia, clitoris, etc. External genital parts; protect internal organs and facilitate sexual stimulation.

Fertilization to Birth: Stages and Description

Stage Description
Ovulation Release of mature egg from ovary around day 14 of menstrual cycle.
Fertilization Fusion of sperm and ovum (usually in fallopian tube) to form zygote.
Implantation Zygote divides (mitosis) into blastocyst and embeds in uterine wall.
Embryo Term used from implantation to 8 weeks of development.
Fetus After 8 weeks, it is called fetus; shows organ development.
Gestation Period Total time of pregnancy (~280 days or 9 months).
Parturition Process of childbirth; triggered by hormonal changes and uterine contractions.

Hormones Involved in Reproduction

Hormone Produced by Function
Develops male reproductive organs and secondary
Testosterone Testes
sexual characters.
Regulates menstrual cycle; develops female secondary
Estrogen Ovaries
sexual characters.
Progesterone Ovaries (Corpus luteum) Prepares uterus for pregnancy; maintains pregnancy.
LH (Luteinizing Hormone) Pituitary gland Triggers ovulation and testosterone secretion.
FSH (Follicle Stimulating Stimulates sperm formation in males and egg
Pituitary
Hormone) maturation in females.
Hypothalamus (posterior
Oxytocin Induces labor and milk ejection.
pituitary)
Prolactin Pituitary gland Stimulates milk production post-delivery.

91 | |
 Differences: Sexual vs Asexual Reproduction
Feature Sexual Reproduction Asexual Reproduction
Gametes involved Yes (sperm and egg) No
Number of parents Two One
Genetic variation High (offspring genetically different) Low (offspring are clones)
Examples Humans, animals, flowering plants Amoeba, Hydra, yeast, planaria

Life Processes
Digestive System
Category Organ/Part Definition Function(s) Subparts / Notes
Chewing (mastication),
Mouth (Oral Entry point of food into Teeth, Tongue, Salivary
Ingestion mixing food with saliva,
Cavity) the body glands
initial digestion of starch
Hard structures for
Incisors, Canines,
Teeth cutting and grinding Mechanical digestion
Premolars, Molars
food
Muscular organ inside Tastes food, helps in Taste buds (sweet, salty,
Tongue
the mouth swallowing and speech bitter, sour)
Moisten food, enzyme
Salivary Parotid, Submandibular,
Glands that secrete saliva salivary amylase breaks
Glands Sublingual glands
down starch
Directs food to esophagus;
Common passage for Connected to esophagus and
Pharynx prevents entry into
food and air larynx
windpipe
Swallowing Closes windpipe during
Epiglottis Flap of tissue Prevents choking
Mechanism swallowing
Muscular tube
Moves food to stomach Has sphincters
Conduction Esophagus connecting pharynx to
using peristalsis (upper/lower)
stomach
Digestion Stores food, secretes HCl, Cardiac part, Fundus, Body,
Stomach Muscular, J-shaped organ
(Major) pepsin to digest proteins Pyloric part
Secrete mucus, HCl, Chief cells, Parietal cells,
Gastric Glands Glands in stomach wall
pepsinogen Mucous cells
Small Longest part of digestive Main site of digestion and
Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum
Intestine system absorption
First part of small Receives bile and pancreatic
Duodenum C-shaped, shortest part
intestine juice
Middle part of small Continues digestion and
Jejunum Highly folded surface
intestine absorbs nutrients
Last part of small Absorbs remaining
Ileum Connects to large intestine
intestine nutrients and bile salts
Digestive Produces bile to emulsify
Liver Largest internal organ Has hepatic lobes, bile ducts
Glands fats
Pear-shaped sac under Connected via cystic duct to
Gallbladder Stores and concentrates bile
liver bile duct
Secretes digestive Exocrine (acinar cells),
Gland behind the
Pancreas enzymes and hormones Endocrine (islets of
stomach
(insulin, glucagon) Langerhans)

92 | |
 Category Organ/Part Definition Function(s) Subparts / Notes
No enzyme secretion, Caecum, Colon (Ascending,
Large Absorbs water, forms
bacterial fermentation, Transverse, Descending,
Intestine and stores feces
vitamin K absorption Sigmoid), Rectum
Final part of large Stores feces before
Rectum Leads to anal canal
intestine elimination
Opening at the end of the Internal and external anal
Anus Controls expulsion of feces
digestive tract sphincters
Accessory Vestigial organ attached No known essential Can become inflamed
Appendix
Organs to caecum digestive function (appendicitis)
Regulate secretion of gastric
Hormonal Gastrin, Hormones from
juice, bile, and pancreatic Work via feedback loops
Control Secretin, CCK stomach/intestine
enzymes
Enteric Regulates peristalsis,
Nervous Called "Second Brain" of the
Nervous Nerve network in GI tract enzyme secretion, and
Control gut
System coordination
Amylase (starch), Pepsin
Other Enzymes aiding From salivary glands,
(proteins), Lipase (fats),
Enzymes digestion stomach, pancreas, intestine
Trypsin, Maltase, etc.

Summary Notes:
• Major Processes: Ingestion → Propulsion → Digestion → Absorption → Assimilation → Egestion.
• Major Digestive Juices: Saliva, Gastric Juice, Bile, Pancreatic Juice, Intestinal Juice.
• Major Enzymes: Amylase, Pepsin, Lipase, Trypsin, Sucrase, Lactase.
• Important Hormones: Gastrin, Secretin, Cholecystokinin (CCK), Enterogastrone.

Circulatory System:
Component / Subparts / Related
Category Definition Function(s)
Term Info
The body system that Maintains homeostasis,
System transports blood, supplies oxygen/nutrients, Includes heart, blood
Circulatory System
Overview nutrients, gases, and removes waste, immunity, vessels, blood
waste hormone transport
4 chambers: Right
Muscular organ that Maintains circulation of
Atrium, Right
Main Organ Heart pumps blood oxygenated and deoxygenated
Ventricle, Left Atrium,
throughout the body blood
Left Ventricle
Chambers of Upper right chamber of Receives deoxygenated blood
Right Atrium Connects to vena cavae
Heart the heart from the body
Pumps deoxygenated blood to Leads to pulmonary
Right Ventricle Lower right chamber
lungs via pulmonary artery circulation
Receives oxygenated blood Connects to
Left Atrium Upper left chamber
from lungs via pulmonary veins pulmonary circulation
Pumps oxygenated blood to the Thickest wall to
Left Ventricle Lower left chamber
body via aorta generate high pressure
Valve between right Prevents backflow into atrium
Heart Valves Tricuspid Valve Has 3 cusps
atrium and ventricle during ventricular contraction
Bicuspid (Mitral) Valve between left Prevents backflow into atrium
Has 2 cusps
Valve atrium and ventricle during ventricular contraction
Between right ventricle
Pulmonary Valve Controls blood flow to lungs Semilunar valve
and pulmonary artery
Between left ventricle
Aortic Valve Controls blood flow to body Semilunar valve
and aorta

93 | |
 Component / Subparts / Related
Category Definition Function(s)
Term Info
Major Pulmonary Blood flow between Right ventricle → lungs
Oxygenates blood
Circulations Circulation heart and lungs → left atrium
Systemic Blood flow between Supplies tissues with oxygen Left ventricle → body
Circulation heart and entire body and nutrients → right atrium
Coronary Blood supply to the Provides oxygen and nutrients Coronary arteries &
Circulation heart itself to heart muscles veins
Carry blood away from Usually carry oxygenated blood
Blood Vessels Arteries Thick muscular walls
the heart (except pulmonary artery)
Usually carry deoxygenated
Carry blood towards Have valves to prevent
Veins blood (except pulmonary
the heart backflow
veins)
Microscopic vessels
Site of nutrient, gas, and waste Thin, one-cell thick
Capillaries between arteries and
exchange walls
veins
Transports oxygen, nutrients,
55% plasma, 45%
Blood Blood Fluid connective tissue hormones, waste; immune
formed elements
defense
Yellowish liquid Contains proteins like
Carries dissolved nutrients,
Plasma component (90–92% albumin, globulin,
hormones, waste
water) fibrinogen
Formed RBCs Life span ~120 days,
Red blood cells Carry oxygen via hemoglobin
Elements (Erythrocytes) no nucleus
Neutrophils,
WBCs Lymphocytes,
White blood cells Fight infections (immunity)
(Leukocytes) Monocytes,
Eosinophils, Basophils
Platelets
Cell fragments Help in blood clotting Lifespan 5–9 days
(Thrombocytes)
Associated Largest lymphatic Filters blood, recycles old RBCs, Part of immune &
Spleen
Organs organ stores platelets circulatory systems
Site of hematopoiesis (blood Red marrow is active
Bone Marrow Soft tissue inside bones
cell production) in blood formation
Heartbeat SA Node Natural pacemaker of Initiates heartbeat, controls
Located in right atrium
Regulation (Sinoatrial Node) the heart rate
Relays electrical
Delays signal to allow atrial Coordinates
AV Node impulses from SA node
contraction heartbeats
to ventricles
Bundle of His & Conduct impulses to Help in synchronized Found in septum and
Purkinje Fibers ventricles contraction of heart muscle walls of ventricles
Blood Pressure during Upper value in BP
Systolic Pressure Normal = ~120 mm Hg
Pressure ventricular contraction reading
Pressure during Lower value in BP
Diastolic Pressure Normal = ~80 mm Hg
ventricular relaxation reading
Abnormally high blood Can cause damage to organs
Disorders Hypertension BP > 140/90 mm Hg
pressure and vessels
Hardening of arteries
Narrows arteries, increases Related to LDL
Atherosclerosis due to fat/cholesterol
risk of heart attack cholesterol
deposits
Deficiency of RBCs or Can be iron-deficiency
Anemia Causes fatigue, weakness
hemoglobin type
Genetic disorder of
Hemophilia Leads to excessive bleeding Mostly affects males
blood clotting

94 | |
 Summary of Functions
• Transport: Oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, hormones, and waste.
• Protection: Via white blood cells and antibodies.
• Regulation: Body temperature, pH balance, and fluid balance.

Respiratory System:
Component /
Category Definition Function(s) Subparts / Notes
Term
Helps in breathing,
The biological system
System Respiratory provides oxygen, removes
responsible for gas Includes nostrils to alveoli
Overview System carbon dioxide, maintains
exchange (O₂ in, CO₂ out)
acid-base balance
Biochemical process of Converts glucose into ATP
Types: External, Internal,
Main Process Respiration energy release using (energy) with byproduct
Cellular
oxygen CO₂
Nostrils External openings of the
Initial Entry Allow air intake Have hairs to filter dust
(Nares) nose
Hollow space behind the Filters, moistens, and Contains mucous membrane
Air Filtering Nasal Cavity
nose warms incoming air and cilia
Olfactory Sensory cells in nasal Send signals to olfactory
Detect smells
Receptors cavity nerve
Connects nasal cavity to
Common passage for food Nasopharynx, Oropharynx,
Pharynx Pharynx larynx; filters larger
and air Laryngopharynx
particles
Produces sound (voice);
Cartilaginous box at the Contains vocal cords,
Voice Box Larynx prevents food from
upper end of trachea epiglottis
entering airway
Transports air to lungs;
A tube that carries air
Windpipe Trachea filters using ciliated Lined with mucus and cilia
from larynx to bronchi
epithelium
Bronchial Two main branches from Right and Left primary
Bronchi Carry air into each lung
System trachea bronchi
Smaller branches of
Bronchioles Distribute air to alveoli End in terminal bronchioles
bronchi
Gas Exchange Microscopic air sacs at Site of oxygen–carbon
Alveoli Surrounded by capillaries
Site end of bronchioles dioxide exchange
Main organs for gas Right lung (3 lobes), Left
Lungs Lungs Paired respiratory organs
exchange lung (2 lobes)
Double membrane Protects lungs and reduces Parietal pleura (outer),
Membranes Pleura
covering lungs friction during breathing Visceral pleura (inner)
Contracts and flattens to
Muscles Dome-shaped muscular Primary muscle of
Diaphragm create negative pressure
Involved sheet below lungs respiration
(inhalation)
Intercostal Help expand and contract External (inhalation),
Muscles between ribs
Muscles rib cage during breathing Internal (forced exhalation)
Blood-Gas Tiny blood vessels Enable gas diffusion: O₂ Connect pulmonary artery
Capillaries
Interface surrounding alveoli enters blood, CO₂ exits and vein
Respiratory Inhalation Process of taking air into Diaphragm contracts;
Active process
Cycle (Inspiration) lungs lungs expand
Exhalation Diaphragm relaxes; lungs
Releasing air from lungs Can be passive or active
(Expiration) recoil

95 | |
 Component /
Category Definition Function(s) Subparts / Notes
Term
Oxygen enters blood,
External Gas exchange between
Gas Exchange carbon dioxide exits into Happens in alveoli
Respiration alveoli and blood
alveoli
Internal Gas exchange between Oxygen delivered to cells,
Happens in body tissues
Respiration blood and body tissues CO₂ absorbed into blood
Cellular Oxidation of glucose in Produces ATP, CO₂, and
Final step of respiration
Respiration mitochondria H₂O
Respiratory centers:
Control Medulla Part of brainstem Detects CO₂ levels and
inspiratory and expiratory
Center Oblongata regulating respiration adjusts breathing rate
centers
Blood Gas Oxygen-carrying pigment Binds to oxygen in lungs Also carries some CO₂ as
Hemoglobin
Transport in RBCs and releases it in tissues carbaminohemoglobin
Bicarbonate Chemical system in blood Maintains pH and CO₂ + H₂O ⇌ H₂CO₃ ⇌ H⁺ +
Buffer System to carry CO₂ transports carbon dioxide HCO₃⁻
Normal volume of air
Respiratory
Tidal Volume inhaled/exhaled in one ~500 mL in adults Used in spirometry tests
Volumes
breath
Maximum air exhaled
Vital Capacity Indicator of lung health VC = IRV + TV + ERV
after maximum inhalation
Residual Air remaining in lungs
Prevents lung collapse ~1200 mL
Volume after forced exhalation
Chronic inflammation of Narrowed bronchi, Triggered by allergens,
Disorders Asthma
airways difficulty in breathing pollution
Bronchitis Inflammation of bronchi Excessive mucus, coughing Can be acute or chronic
Infection causing Fluid-filled alveoli, Caused by bacteria, virus,
Pneumonia
inflammation in alveoli reduced gas exchange fungi
Bacterial infection by
Tuberculosis Highly contagious, requires
Mycobacterium Damages lung tissues
(TB) long-term antibiotics
tuberculosis
Damage to alveoli, Loss of elasticity, reduced
Emphysema Type of COPD
common in smokers surface area

Key Functions of Respiratory System

• Gas Exchange: Oxygen in, Carbon dioxide out
• Regulation of pH: Removes acidic CO₂
• Sound Production: Via larynx (vocal cords)
• Olfaction (Smell): Through olfactory receptors
• Thermoregulation: Through exhaled air & evaporation

Execratory System
Component /
Category Definition Function(s) Subparts / Notes
Term
System responsible for Filters blood, removes waste
System Also called urinary
Excretory System removal of nitrogenous products, maintains water,
Overview system
waste from the body salt, and pH balance
Filter blood, form urine,
Bean-shaped paired
regulate blood pressure, One on each side of the
Main Organ Kidneys organs located in the
water balance, and electrolyte spine
abdominal cavity
levels

96 | |
 Component /
Category Definition Function(s) Subparts / Notes
Term
Kidney Contains glomeruli and
Cortex Outer region of kidney Contains part of nephrons
Subparts convoluted tubules
Contains renal pyramids and
Medulla Inner region of kidney Has renal pyramids
collecting ducts
Funnel-shaped cavity Collects urine from nephrons
Renal Pelvis Connects with ureter
inside kidney and passes it to ureter
Functional and structural Each kidney contains
Nephron Filters blood and forms urine
unit of kidney ~1 million nephrons
Parts of Cup-shaped structure at Surrounds glomerulus, Start of filtration
Bowman’s Capsule
Nephron nephron’s start collects filtrate from blood process
Network of capillaries
Glomerulus Filters blood under pressure Part of renal corpuscle
inside Bowman’s capsule
PCT (Proximal
Twisted tube after Reabsorption of water,
Convoluted Located in cortex
Bowman’s capsule glucose, amino acids
Tubule)
Maintains concentration Has descending and
Loop of Henle U-shaped loop in nephron
gradient in medulla ascending limbs
DCT (Distal
Coiled tube after loop of
Convoluted Reabsorbs ions, regulates pH Leads to collecting duct
Henle
Tubule)
Collects urine from multiple
Final part of nephron
Collecting Duct nephrons, adjusts water Ends at renal pelvis
system
content
Only small molecules
Filtration First step in urine Blood filtered at glomerulus
Ultrafiltration pass into Bowman’s
Process formation under high pressure
capsule
Process of absorbing
Water, glucose, salts
Reabsorption useful substances back Occurs mainly in PCT
reabsorbed
into blood
Transfer of additional
Helps in maintaining pH and
Secretion waste into nephron Occurs in DCT
removing toxins
tubule
Final product of filtration, Waste fluid excreted from
Urine Formation ~1–1.5 L/day
reabsorption, secretion body
Other Muscular tubes from Transport urine to bladder via
Ureters One from each kidney
Organs kidneys to bladder peristalsis
Stores urine until micturition Can hold ~400–600 mL
Urinary Bladder Muscular sac in pelvis
(urination) urine
Tube from bladder to Longer in males than
Urethra Carries urine out of body
outside of body females
Accessory Removes sweat (water, urea, Part of integumentary
Skin Outer layer of body
Organs salt) system
Involved in excretion
Lungs Respiratory organs Excrete CO₂ and water vapor
indirectly
Converts harmful ammonia to Also excretes bile
Liver Largest gland in body
urea via ornithine cycle pigments
Hormonal ADH Antidiuretic hormone Increases water reabsorption Controls urine
Control (Vasopressin) from pituitary gland in kidneys concentration
Hormone from adrenal Regulates sodium and water Helps control blood
Aldosterone
cortex reabsorption pressure
Increases blood pressure and
Renin-Angiotensin Hormonal mechanism to
stimulates aldosterone Triggered by low BP
System regulate BP
release

97 | |
 Component /
Category Definition Function(s) Subparts / Notes
Term
Hard deposits of minerals Causes pain, blockage in urine Treated with
Disorders Kidney Stones
in kidneys flow medication or surgery
Nephritis Inflammation of kidneys Affects filtering function Can be acute or chronic
Accumulation of urea in Requires dialysis or
Uremia Caused by kidney failure
blood transplant
Artificial method of blood Removes waste in kidney Hemodialysis or
Dialysis
filtration failure cases peritoneal dialysis
Inability of kidneys to Leads to accumulation of Needs dialysis or
Renal Failure
function toxins transplant
Excess uric acid Affects excretory
Gout Causes pain and swelling
accumulation in joints metabolism

Key Functions of Excretory System

• Excretion: Elimination of nitrogenous wastes (urea, uric acid, creatinine).
• Osmoregulation: Balancing water and salt concentration.
• Acid-Base Balance: Maintaining blood pH.
• Detoxification: Liver's role in converting harmful substances.
• Urine Formation: Filtering blood plasma to produce urine.

Glands
Parts /
Type Gland Name Definition Location Secretion(s) Function(s)
Subtypes
Regulates
Master gland Anterior, GH, TSH, ACTH,
growth,
Pituitary of the Base of brain Posterior, FSH, LH,
1. Endocrine reproduction,
Gland endocrine (hypothalamus) Intermediate Prolactin, ADH,
thyroid, water
system lobes Oxytocin
balance
Butterfly-
Regulates
shaped Lobes Thyroxine (T4),
Neck (below metabolism,
2. Endocrine Thyroid Gland gland connected by Triiodothyronine
Adam’s apple) body weight,
controlling isthmus (T3), Calcitonin
calcium
metabolism
Regulates
Small glands
Parathyroid Posterior side Parathyroid calcium-
3. Endocrine behind 4 small glands
Glands of thyroid hormone (PTH) phosphorus
thyroid
balance
Cortisol,
Glands
Aldosterone Regulates
above Cortex (outer),
Adrenal On top of (cortex); stress, blood
4. Endocrine kidneys for Medulla
Glands kidneys Adrenaline, pressure, salt-
stress (inner)
Noradrenaline water balance
response
(medulla)
Alpha
Both (glucagon),
Pancreas Regulates
endocrine & Beta (insulin),
5. Endocrine (Islets of Behind stomach Insulin, Glucagon blood sugar
exocrine Delta
Langerhans) level
gland (somatostatin)
cells
98 | |
 Parts /
Type Gland Name Definition Location Secretion(s) Function(s)
Subtypes
Tiny gland
Controls
that controls
6. Endocrine Pineal Gland Center of brain — Melatonin sleep-wake
circadian
cycle
rhythm
Link Releasing &
Controls
between inhibiting
Brain (above pituitary,
7. Endocrine Hypothalamus nervous and — hormones
pituitary) maintains
endocrine (GnRH, TRH,
homeostasis
system CRH)
Gland
Upper chest Promotes T-
involved in
8. Endocrine Thymus (behind — Thymosin cell
immune
sternum) maturation
development
Controls
Female menstruation,
Follicles, Estrogen,
9. Endocrine Ovaries reproductive Female pelvis pregnancy,
Corpus luteum Progesterone
gland secondary sex
traits
Promotes
Male Seminiferous sperm
10. Endocrine Testes reproductive Scrotum tubules, Testosterone production,
gland Leydig cells secondary sex
traits

Exocrine Glands (with ducts)

Gland Name Location Secretion Function
Mouth (parotid, sublingual,
Salivary Glands Saliva (amylase) Helps in digestion of starch
submandibular)
Regulates body
Sweat Glands Skin (everywhere) Sweat (water, salts)
temperature
Sebaceous Glands Skin (hair follicles) Sebum (oil) Lubricates skin and hair
Mammary Glands Female breasts Milk Nourishes infants
Keeps eyes moist, removes
Lacrimal Glands Eyes Tears
irritants
Gastric Glands Stomach lining HCl, pepsinogen Digests proteins
Intestinal Glands Intestinal lining Enzymes (maltase, lactase, etc.) Digestion and absorption
Fat digestion (via gall
Liver (as exocrine) Abdomen (right side) Bile
bladder)
Pancreas (exocrine Digestive enzymes (lipase, Digests fats, carbs,
Below stomach
part) amylase, trypsin) proteins

Differences Between Endocrine and Exocrine Glands

Basis Endocrine Glands Exocrine Glands
Duct presence No ducts (ductless) Have ducts
Secretion type Hormones Enzymes, mucus, sweat, etc.
Transport Directly into blood Through ducts to target
Examples Pituitary, thyroid Salivary, sweat, liver
Target Internal (organs, tissues) Internal or external surface

99 | |
 Disease
Disease Type Organs Prevention /
S.No. Category Definition Cause / Agent Examples
/ Name Affected Control
Any
abnormal
condition Internal or external Depends Hygiene, medicine,
1 General Disease —
affecting factors on disease vaccination
body
function
Disease
caused by
Infectious pathogens Bacteria, viruses, fungi, Tuberculosis, Lungs, Vaccination,
2 Classification
Disease and spread protozoa Flu, AIDS blood, etc. isolation, antibiotics
from person
to person
Disease not
Non- caused by
Genetic, lifestyle, Diabetes, Pancreas, Healthy lifestyle,
3 Classification Infectious pathogens;
environment Cancer, Asthma lungs, etc. early diagnosis
Disease not
contagious
Tuberculosis,
Bacterial Caused by Lungs, Antibiotics,
4 Subtype Pathogenic bacteria Typhoid,
Disease bacteria intestines sanitation
Cholera
Blood,
HIV/AIDS,
Caused by liver,
5 Subtype Viral Disease Viruses Hepatitis, Vaccination, hygiene
viruses respirator
Influenza
y tract
Fungal Caused by Ringworm, Antifungal
6 Subtype Fungal spores Skin, nails
Disease fungi Athlete's Foot medication
Protozoan Caused by Protozoa (single-cell Malaria, Blood, Mosquito control,
7 Subtype
Disease protozoa parasites) Amoebiasis intestine clean water
Intestines,
Helminthic Caused by Ascariasis,
8 Subtype Parasitic worms blood Deworming, hygiene
Disease worms Filariasis
vessels
Passed from
Hereditary Mutation or defective Hemophilia, Blood, Genetic counseling,
9 Genetic parents via
Disease genes Thalassemia organs screening
genes
Caused by
Deficiency Lack of Rickets (Vit D), Bones, Balanced diet,
10 Lifestyle lack of
Disease vitamins/minerals Anemia (Iron) blood supplements
nutrients
Organ/tissue
Degenerative function Alzheimer’s, Brain, Physiotherapy,
11 Degenerative Aging, wear & tear
Disease worsens over Osteoarthritis joints supportive care
time
Immune
Unknown Joints,
Autoimmune system Rheumatoid Immunosuppressant
12 Immune (genetic/environmental skin,
Disease attacks own arthritis, Lupus s
) organs
body
Uncontrolled
Depends
cell growth Mutations, smoking, Lung cancer, Surgery,
13 Cancerous Cancer on cancer
forming radiation Breast cancer chemotherapy
type
tumors
Caused by Diabetes,
Hormonal Pancreas, Medication,
14 Endocrine hormonal Dysfunction of glands Hypothyroidis
Disease thyroid hormone therapy
imbalance m
Disorders
Brain,
Mental affecting Chemical imbalance, Depression,
15 Mental nervous Therapy, medication
Illness thinking & stress Schizophrenia
system
behavior

100 | |
 Disease Type Organs Prevention /
S.No. Category Definition Cause / Agent Examples
/ Name Affected Control
Inflammatio Lungs, Inhalers, avoid
16 Respiratory Asthma Allergens, pollution Asthma
n of airways bronchi triggers
Heart,
Cardiovascula Hypertensio High blood Hypertension, Exercise, low-salt
17 Diet, stress, obesity blood
r n pressure Stroke diet
vessels
Inability to
Diabetes Insulin Type 1, Type 2 Pancreas,
18 Metabolic regulate Insulin, diet control
Mellitus deficiency/resistance Diabetes blood
blood sugar
Seizures due
to electrical Medication, avoid
19 Neurological Epilepsy Genetic or unknown Epilepsy Brain
disturbance triggers
in brain
Severe
diarrhea
Vibrio cholerae ORS, clean water,
20 Waterborne Cholera from Cholera Intestines
(bacteria) hygiene
contaminate
d water

Quick Classification Summary

Disease Type Contagious Examples Control
Infectious Yes Malaria, Flu Vaccines, antibiotics
Non-Infectious No Cancer, Diabetes Early diagnosis, management
Genetic No Sickle Cell Anemia Genetic testing
Deficiency No Night blindness Balanced diet
Degenerative No Parkinson’s Therapy, medication
Autoimmune No Psoriasis Immunotherapy

Nutrition
Organs /
S.No. Topic / Subtopic Definition Subparts / Modes Examples Components
Involved
Process by which
organisms obtain and Autotrophic, Entire digestive
1 Nutrition Plants, Animals
utilize food for growth Heterotrophic system
and energy
Mode in which
Green plants, Chloroplast,
Autotrophic organisms make their Photosynthesis,
2 Algae, Some Chlorophyll,
Nutrition own food from simple Chemosynthesis
bacteria Enzymes
substances
Process by which green
Light-dependent and Leaves,
plants synthesize food Plants,
3 Photosynthesis Light-independent Chlorophyll,
using sunlight, CO₂ and Cyanobacteria
(Calvin cycle) Sunlight
water
Synthesis of food using Enzymes,
Sulfur bacteria,
4 Chemosynthesis chemical energy Deep sea bacteria Chemicals like
Nitrosomonas
instead of sunlight H₂S, NH₃
Organism depends on Digestive system,
Heterotrophic Holozoic, Saprophytic, Humans, Fungi,
5 other organisms for Absorptive
Nutrition Parasitic Tapeworm
food surfaces

101 | |
 Organs /
S.No. Topic / Subtopic Definition Subparts / Modes Examples Components
Involved
Food is ingested,
Holozoic digested, absorbed, Herbivores, Carnivores, Mouth, Stomach,
6 Lion, Cow, Human
Nutrition assimilated, and Omnivores Intestines
egested
Obtains nutrients from Enzymes for
Saprophytic Fungi, Some
7 decaying organic Saprotrophs external
Nutrition bacteria
matter digestion
Organism derives
Parasitic Endoparasite, Plasmodium, Host's body,
8 nutrients from a living
Nutrition Ectoparasite Leech blood or tissues
host
Mouth (in Buccal cavity,
9 Ingestion Intake of food —
humans) Teeth, Tongue
Stomach, Small
Breakdown of complex Mechanical and Carbohydrates →
10 Digestion intestine,
food into simpler form Chemical digestion Glucose
Enzymes
Process of absorbing Glucose, Amino Small intestine
11 Absorption Villi in intestine
digested food into blood acids (jejunum, ileum)
Utilization of absorbed Formation of ATP, Liver, Body
12 Assimilation —
food by body cells tissue repair tissues
Removal of undigested Large intestine,
13 Egestion — Feces
food from body Anus
System responsible for Oral cavity,
Human Digestive Alimentary canal +
14 intake, digestion and Mouth to anus stomach,
System Digestive glands
absorption of food intestines
Mouth, Pharynx,
Long hollow tube in Smooth muscles,
15 Alimentary Canal Esophagus, Stomach, —
which digestion occurs Glands
Intestine, Rectum
Glands secreting Salivary, Liver,
16 Digestive Glands — Ducts, enzymes
enzymes for digestion Pancreas, Gastric
Produce saliva with Parotid, Sublingual,
17 Salivary Glands Start of digestion Oral cavity
salivary amylase Submandibular
Muscular organ that
18 Stomach Pepsin, HCl Digests protein Gastric glands
churns and digests food
Largest gland; produces Right side of
19 Liver Bile helps emulsify fats Fat digestion
bile abdomen
Mixed gland; secretes Amylase, Lipase, Digests carbs, fats,
20 Pancreas Below stomach
enzymes and hormones Trypsin, Insulin proteins
Site of complete
Duodenum, Jejunum, Villi absorb 6 meters long,
21 Small Intestine digestion and
Ileum nutrients villi-rich
absorption
Absorbs water and Undigested
22 Large Intestine Colon and Rectum Reabsorbs water
forms feces material
Four-chambered
Ruminant Rumen, Reticulum, Bacteria help
23 stomach for cellulose Cow, Deer
Nutrition Omasum, Abomasum break cellulose
digestion
Condition due to Under-nutrition, Over- Kwashiorkor, Whole body
24 Malnutrition
improper nutrition nutrition Obesity affected
Deficiency Caused by lack of Vitamins, Minerals, Rickets (Vit D), Bones, skin,
25
Diseases nutrients Proteins Scurvy (Vit C) blood, etc.

102 | |
 Summary Table of Nutrients & Their Functions
Nutrient Function Deficiency Disease
Carbohydrates Energy source Weakness, fatigue
Proteins Growth and repair Kwashiorkor
Fats Energy storage, insulation Poor immunity
Vitamins Regulate body functions Rickets, Night blindness
Minerals Bone, teeth, blood formation Anemia (Iron), Goiter (Iodine)
Water Transport, temperature balance Dehydration
Roughage (Fiber) Aids digestion Constipation

Vitamins
Vitamin Scientific Name Type Main Sources Functions Deficiency Disease
Night Blindness
Fat- Carrots, Milk, Improves vision,
Vitamin A Retinol (Nyctalopia),
soluble Eggs, Fish liver oil immunity, skin health
Xerophthalmia
Helps in carbohydrate
Water- Whole grains,
Vitamin B1 Thiamine metabolism, nerve Beriberi
soluble Pulses, Nuts
function
Milk, Green
Water- Energy production, skin Cracks in lips,
Vitamin B2 Riboflavin vegetables,
soluble & eye health inflammation of tongue
Almonds
Niacin / Nicotinic Water- Meat, Fish, DNA repair, digestion, Pellagra (diarrhea,
Vitamin B3
acid soluble Groundnuts skin health dermatitis, dementia)
Water- Eggs, Whole Synthesis of coenzyme-
Vitamin B5 Pantothenic Acid Fatigue, insomnia
soluble grains, Avocado A, metabolism
Water- Cereals, Bananas, Protein metabolism, red
Vitamin B6 Pyridoxine Anemia, irritability
soluble Soya beans blood cell formation
Water- Egg yolk, Nuts, Fatty acid synthesis,
Vitamin B7 Biotin Hair loss, dermatitis
soluble Liver healthy hair & skin
Megaloblastic anemia,
Water- Leafy vegetables, RBC formation, fetal
Vitamin B9 Folic Acid / Folate Neural tube defects in
soluble Citrus fruits development
fetus
Water- Nerve function, RBC
Vitamin B12 Cobalamin Meat, Dairy, Eggs Pernicious anemia
soluble production
Wound healing,
Water- Citrus fruits, Scurvy (bleeding gums,
Vitamin C Ascorbic Acid immunity, iron
soluble Amla, Guava joint pain)
absorption
Cholecalciferol
Fat- Sunlight, Fish, Calcium absorption, Rickets (in children),
Vitamin D (D₃), Ergocalciferol
soluble Egg yolk bone health Osteomalacia (in adults)
(D₂)
Fat- Vegetable oils, Antioxidant, protects Muscle weakness,
Vitamin E Tocopherol
soluble Nuts, Seeds cell membranes infertility
Green leafy
Phylloquinone (K₁), Fat- Hemorrhage (excessive
Vitamin K vegetables, Helps in blood clotting
Menaquinone (K₂) soluble bleeding)
Soybean

Vitamins by Solubility
Soluble In Vitamins Storage in Body Excess Effects
Fat A, D, E, K Stored in liver & fatty tissues Hypervitaminosis (toxicity risk)
Water B-complex, C Not stored (excreted in urine) Rarely toxic (must be consumed regularly)

103 | |
 Drainage System Classification
Drainage Type Description Major Rivers
Carry water throughout the year; mainly fed by
Perennial Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra
glaciers, rainfall
Peninsular rivers like Mahanadi, Godavari,
Non-perennial (Seasonal) Carry water in rainy season; dry otherwise
Krishna, Cauvery
East-flowing (towards Bay of Ganga, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Godavari,
Form deltas; longer & larger basins
Bengal) Krishna, Cauvery
West-flowing (towards
Form estuaries; shorter rivers Narmada, Tapi, Mahi, Sabarmati, Periyar
Arabian Sea)

Key Drainage Patterns

Drainage Pattern Description Examples
Dendritic Tree-like branching Ganga, Godavari
Radial Outward flow from a central point Rivers from Amarkantak Plateau, Narmada, Tapi
Trellis Parallel streams with tributaries joining at right angles Rivers in folded mountains
Rectangular Streams follow fault lines forming rectangles Faulted terrains
Centripetal Rivers converge at a basin or depression Some desert rivers

Indian Rivers
Length Major Important
River System Major River Origin Key Facts
(Approx.) Tributaries Towns/Cities
- One of the largest
river basins in the
world
Himalayan 3,180 km - Enters India in
Bokhar Chu Jhelum, Chenab, Leh, Skardu,
Rivers Indus (India: Ladakh
Glacier (Tibet) Ravi, Beas, Sutlej Hyderabad (Pak)
(Perennial) 1,114 km) - Flows through
India and Pakistan
- Indus Water
Treaty (1960)
- Longest river of
India
Haridwar,
Yamuna, - Sacred river,
Kanpur,
Gangotri Glacier Ghaghara, heavily populated
Ganga 2,525 km Allahabad,
(Uttarakhand) Gandak, Kosi, Son, basin
Varanasi, Patna,
Chambal - Empties into Bay
Kolkata
of Bengal
- Farakka Barrage
- Largest tributary
Chambal, Betwa,
Yamunotri Glacier Delhi, Agra, of Ganga
Yamuna 1,376 km Ken, Sindh, Tons,
(Uttarakhand) Mathura - Highly polluted
Hindon
river
- Known as
Tsangpo (Tibet),
Dihang
Angsi Glacier 2,900 km Dibang, Lohit, Guwahati,
(Arunachal),
Brahmaputra (Tibet; as Yarlung (India: 916 Subansiri, Manas, Dibrugarh,
Jamuna
Tsangpo) km) Tista Tezpur
(Bangladesh)
- Prone to floods,
high sediment load
Peninsular
- Hirakud Dam
Rivers
Sihawa Hills Seonath, Jonk, (Longest earthen
(Seasonal + Mahanadi 851 km Raipur, Cuttack
(Chhattisgarh) Hasdeo, Mand, Ib dam)
Perennial
- Delta in Odisha
parts)

104 | |
 Length Major Important
River System Major River Origin Key Facts
(Approx.) Tributaries Towns/Cities
- 2nd longest river
of India
Godavari Nasik (Trimbak Pravara, Purna,
Nashik, Nanded, - Flows through
("Dakshin Plateau, 1,465 km Manjira, Indravati,
Rajahmundry Maharashtra,
Ganga") Maharashtra) Sabari
Telangana, Andhra
Pradesh
- Almatti &
Nagarjuna Sagar
Bhima, Koyna, Dams
Mahabaleshwar Vijayawada,
Krishna 1,400 km Tungabhadra, - Lifeline for
(Maharashtra) Sangli, Karad
Musi, Ghatprabha Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh
- Known for
Talakaveri Hemavati, Kabini, Mysuru, Cauvery water
Cauvery
(Brahmagiri Hills, 800 km Bhavani, Srirangam, dispute
(Kaveri)
Karnataka) Amaravati Tiruchirapalli - Mettur & Krishna
Raja Sagara Dams
- Flows westward
Amarkantak into Arabian Sea
Hiran, Tawa,
Narmada Plateau (Madhya 1,312 km Jabalpur, Bharuch - Narmada Valley
Barna, Banjar
Pradesh) Project, Sardar
Sarovar Dam
- Flows westward
Satpura Range Purna, Girna,
Tapi (Tapti) 724 km Surat into Arabian Sea
(Madhya Pradesh) Panjhra
- Ukai Dam
- Flows through
Madhya Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh Sonar, Anas, Rajasthan, Gujarat
Mahi 583 km Vadodara
(Madhavpura) Panam - Flows northward
before turning
west
- Gandhi Ashram
on its bank
Aravalli Hills Wakal, Hathmati, - Short river
Sabarmati 371 km Ahmedabad
(Rajasthan) Sei flowing through
Rajasthan and
Gujarat
West Flowing - Largest river in
Western Ghats Mullayar,
Rivers (Small Periyar 244 km Kochi Kerala
(Kerala) Cheruthoni
Rivers) - Mullaperiyar Dam
Anaimalai Hills Gayathripuzha, - Second longest
Bharathapuzha 209 km Palakkad
(Kerala) Kalpathipuzha river in Kerala

Major Dams of India

Dam Name River State Type Purpose Important Facts
Concrete Irrigation, One of the highest gravity
Bhakra Dam Sutlej Himachal Pradesh
Gravity Hydropower dams; 2nd tallest in India
Hydropower,
Rock & Earth- Tallest dam in India; Asia's
Tehri Dam Bhagirathi Uttarakhand Irrigation,
fill highest rock-fill dam
Drinking Water
Irrigation, Largest dam on Narmada;
Sardar Sarovar Dam Narmada Gujarat Gravity Hydropower, Part of Narmada Valley
Drinking Water Project
Irrigation, Flood Longest dam in India (25.8
Earthen
Hirakud Dam Mahanadi Odisha Control, km length); One of world’s
(Composite)
Hydropower longest earthen dams

105 | |
Dam Name River State Type Purpose Important Facts
Nagarjuna Sagar Telangana/Andhra Irrigation, One of the largest masonry
Krishna Masonry
Dam Pradesh Hydropower dams in the world
Concrete Hydropower, Largest reservoir in India by
Indira Sagar Dam Narmada Madhya Pradesh
Gravity Irrigation volume
Rihand Dam Rihand
Concrete Irrigation, Largest multipurpose
(Govind Ballabh (tributary of Uttar Pradesh
Gravity Hydropower project of UP
Pant Sagar) Son)
Key for Mysore & Mandya
Krishna Raja Sagara Irrigation,
Cauvery Karnataka Gravity irrigation; Major source for
(KRS) Dam Drinking Water
Bengaluru water supply
Highest arch dam in Asia;
Idukki Dam Periyar Kerala Arch Hydropower Major hydropower project of
Kerala
Irrigation, Shared by Karnataka &
Tungabhadra Dam Tungabhadra Karnataka Composite
Hydropower Andhra Pradesh
One of largest earthen dams
Bhavanisagar Dam Bhavani Tamil Nadu Earthen Irrigation
in India
Irrigation, Oldest dam in Tamil Nadu;
Mettur Dam Cauvery Tamil Nadu Gravity
Drinking Water Salem District
Earth-cum- Irrigation, Second largest reservoir in
Ukai Dam Tapti Gujarat
Masonry Hydropower Gujarat after Sardar Sarovar
Earth-cum- Flood Control, First underground power
Maithon Dam Barakar Jharkhand
Concrete Hydropower station in South East Asia
Hydropower, Diverts Beas water to Sutlej
Pandoh Dam Beas Himachal Pradesh Embankment
Diversion (Beas-Sutlej Link)
Concrete First hydroelectric project in
Salal Dam Chenab Jammu & Kashmir Hydropower
Gravity Jammu & Kashmir
Concrete Himalayan project; faces
Dhauli Ganga Dam Dhauli Ganga Uttarakhand Hydropower
Gravity flash flood risks
Concrete Sikkim’s first hydropower
Rangit Dam Rangit Sikkim Hydropower
Gravity project

Classification of Indian Dams (By Type)

Dam Type Key Features Example Dams
Gravity Dam Uses weight to resist water pressure Bhakra Dam, Mettur Dam
Arch Dam Curved design transferring load to sides Idukki Dam
Earthen Dam Made of compacted earth, cheap, flexible Hirakud Dam, Bhavanisagar Dam
Composite Dam Combination of earthen & masonry Tungabhadra Dam, Ukai Dam
Masonry Dam Made from stone/brick masonry Nagarjuna Sagar Dam

Top 5 Largest Dams (by Reservoir Capacity)

Rank Dam Name State Capacity
1 Indira Sagar Dam Madhya Pradesh 12.22 billion m³
2 Nagarjuna Sagar Dam Telangana/Andhra Pradesh 11.47 billion m³
3 Bhakra Dam Himachal Pradesh 9.34 billion m³
4 Sardar Sarovar Dam Gujarat 9.5 billion m³
5 Hirakud Dam Odisha 8.136 billion m³

106 | |
 Waterfalls
Classification of Indian Waterfalls (By Type)
Waterfall Type Description Examples
Plunge Water drops vertically, losing contact with surface Nohkalikai, Chitrakote, Hundru
Horsetail Maintains some contact with rock face Thalaiyar, Khandadhar
Tiered Multiple distinct drops in a series Kunchikal, Barehipani, Meenmutty, Kynrem
Segmented Splits into distinct segments Jog, Shivanasamudra, Nohsngithiang
Cascade Descends over a series of rock steps Dhuandhar, Kapildhara, Rudra Nag

Major Waterfalls of India

Height
Waterfall Name State River Type Important Facts / Distinctions
(Approx.)
- Tallest waterfall in India
- Located near Agumbe in
Kunchikal Falls Karnataka Varahi 455 m Tiered Western Ghats
- Restricted access due to
hydroelectric project
- Highest waterfall in Odisha
Barehipani Falls Odisha Budhabalanga 399 m Tiered - Located in Simlipal National
Park
- Tallest plunge waterfall in India
Non-specific (Rain-
Nohkalikai Falls Meghalaya 340 m Plunge - Near Cherrapunji, one of the
fed)
wettest places on Earth
- Famous for seven-segmented
Nohsngithiang Falls streams
Meghalaya Rain-fed 315 m Segmented
(Seven Sisters Falls) - Active during monsoon
- Near Mawsmai village
- Among India’s tallest and most
scenic
Dudhsagar Falls Goa Mandovi 310 m Tiered
- Name means “Sea of Milk”
- Famous railway bridge nearby
- Highest waterfall in Kerala
Meenmutty Falls Kerala Chaliyar 300 m Tiered - Located in Wayanad district
- Accessible via trekking
- Highest waterfall in Tamil Nadu
Thalaiyar Falls (Rat Tail - One of the highest uninterrupted
Tamil Nadu Manjalar 297 m Horsetail
Falls) falls in India
- Located in Palani Hills
- Located near Agumbe rainforest
Barkana Falls Karnataka Seetha 259 m Tiered region
- Seasonal waterfall
- Most famous waterfall in
Karnataka
Jog Falls (Gerosoppa - Highest untiered waterfall in
Karnataka Sharavathi 253 m Segmented
Falls) India
- 4 segments: Raja, Rani, Roarer,
Rocket
- Second-highest waterfall in
Khandadhar Falls
Odisha Korapani Nala 244 m Horsetail Odisha
(Odisha)
- Located in Sundargarh district
- Highest waterfall in Mizoram
Vantawng Falls Mizoram Vanva 229 m Tiered - Located in lush hills of Serchhip
district
- Located in Thangkharang Park,
Non-specific (Rain-
Kynrem Falls Meghalaya 305 m Tiered Cherrapunji region
fed)
- Among the highest in India

107 | |
 Height
Waterfall Name State River Type Important Facts / Distinctions
(Approx.)
- Popular tourist site near
Soochipara Falls
Kerala Chaliyar (tributary) 200 m Plunge Wayanad
(Sentinel Rock Falls)
- Rock climbing allowed
- Known for medicinal herbs
River Bhadra (near around falls
Hebbe Falls Karnataka 168 m Segmented
Kemmangundi) - Two parts: Dodda Hebbe &
Chikka Hebbe
Himachal Approx. 20 - Located on the Kheerganga Trek
Rudra Nag Falls Parvati Cascade
Pradesh m - Snake-like shape; sacred site
- Widest waterfall in India
(approx. 300 m wide)
Chitrakote Falls Chhattisgarh Indravati 29 m Plunge
- Called "Niagara of India"
- Best in monsoon
- Popular picnic spot near Ranchi
Hundru Falls Jharkhand Subarnarekha 98 m Plunge
- Best during rainy season
- Known for misty appearance;
"Dhuandhar" means "smoke
Madhya
Dhuandhar Falls Narmada 10 m Plunge cascade"
Pradesh
- Located near Bhedaghat Marble
Rocks
- Scenic spot near Ranchi
Sita Falls Jharkhand Kanchi 43.9 m Plunge
- Accessible during monsoon
- Associated with sage Kapil
Madhya
Kapildhara Falls Narmada 30 m Cascade - Near Amarkantak, Narmada's
Pradesh
origin
- Known as "Niagara of South
India"
Hogenakkal Falls Tamil Nadu Kaveri 20 m Segmented
- Famous for medicinal baths and
coracle rides
- First hydroelectric power station
in Asia (1902)
Shivanasamudra Falls Karnataka Kaveri 90 m Segmented
- Divided into Gaganachukki and
Bharachukki

Major Waterfalls Known for Unique Features

Feature Waterfall State
Highest plunge fall Nohkalikai Falls Meghalaya
Niagara of India (South) Hogenakkal Falls Tamil Nadu
Niagara of India (Central) Chitrakote Falls Chhattisgarh
First Hydroelectric Site Shivanasamudra Falls Karnataka
Medicinal Properties Nearby Hebbe Falls, Hogenakkal Falls Karnataka, Tamil Nadu

Key Facts & Trivia

• Tallest Waterfall in India: Kunchikal Falls (Karnataka, 455 m)
• Widest Waterfall in India: Chitrakote Falls (Chhattisgarh, ~300 m wide)
• Waterfall with Highest Volume: Dudhsagar Falls during monsoon
• Most Famous Tourist Waterfalls: Dudhsagar, Jog, Chitrakote, Hogenakkal, Shivanasamudra
• States with Most Notable Waterfalls: Karnataka, Meghalaya, Kerala, Odisha

108 | |
 Major Ports of India
Year of Major Cargo Governing Important Facts /
Port Name State Type
Establishment Handled Authority Distinctions
- Largest port by
cargo volume
Petroleum, - Known as
Kandla Port Tidal / Deendayal Port
Gujarat 1950 chemicals, iron "Deendayal Port"
(Deendayal Port) Natural Authority
ore, salt, textiles since 2017
- Key for crude
imports
- Largest natural
port of India
Natural Petroleum,
Mumbai Port - One of the oldest
Mumbai Port Maharashtra Deep- 1873 chemicals, iron,
Authority ports in India
water machinery
- Handles dry and
liquid cargo
- Largest container
port in India
Jawaharlal Nehru Containers,
Artificial / Jawaharlal Nehru - Called "Nhava
Port (JNPT / Nhava Maharashtra 1989 petroleum
Container Port Authority Sheva"
Sheva) products
- Modern port near
Mumbai
- Main iron ore
Iron ore, coal, Mormugao Port exporting port
Mormugao Port Goa Natural 1885
petroleum Authority - One of India’s
oldest ports
- Deepest inner
harbor on west
All- Petroleum,
New Mangalore New Mangalore coast
Karnataka weather / 1974 fertilizers, iron
Port Port Authority - Key for
Artificial ore
Karnataka
industries
- Strategic port
near international
shipping routes
Petroleum, - Gateway to the
Cochin Port (Kochi Cochin Port
Kerala Natural 1928 fertilizers, Arabian Sea
Port) Authority
containers - Near
Vallarpadam
Container
Terminal
- Largest port on
east coast
Automobiles,
Chennai Port - Oldest artificial
Chennai Port Tamil Nadu Artificial 1881 iron ore,
Authority harbor in India
containers
- Called "Gateway
of South India"
- First
corporatized port
Coal, Kamarajar Port
Ennore Port in India
Tamil Nadu Artificial 2001 automobiles, Limited (Govt.
(Kamarajar Port) - Mainly handles
LNG Owned)
thermal coal &
cars
- Deepest port in
India
Visakhapatnam Andhra Natural Iron ore, Visakhapatnam
1933 - Largest cargo
Port Pradesh Harbor petroleum, coal Port Authority
handling port on
east coast

109 | |
 Year of Major Cargo Governing Important Facts /
Port Name State Type
Establishment Handled Authority Distinctions
- Major port for
Iron ore, coal, Paradip Port Eastern India
Paradip Port Odisha Artificial 1966
crude oil Authority - Key for coal and
iron ore exports
- Located in Haldia
Haldia Dock Petroleum, Syama Prasad Industrial Zone
Complex (Part of West Bengal Riverine 1977 crude oil, Mookerjee Port - Handles most of
Kolkata Port) chemicals Authority (Kolkata) Kolkata port’s
heavy cargo
- Only riverine
major port of India
Kolkata Port Syama Prasad
Riverine / Jute, tea, - Oldest operating
(Syama Prasad West Bengal 1870 Mookerjee Port
Inland containers, coal port in India
Mookerjee Port) Authority
- Access via
Hooghly River
- Southernmost
Tuticorin Port (V.O. major port
Fertilizers, salt, V.O. Chidambaranar
Chidambaranar Tamil Nadu Artificial 1974 - Important for
coal, containers Port Authority
Port) pearl fisheries
historically
- Only major port
Andaman & in Andaman &
General cargo, Port Blair Port
Port Blair Nicobar Natural 1950 Nicobar Islands
containers Authority
Islands - Strategic military
significance

Classification of Indian Ports (By Type)

Type Description Example Ports
Natural Harbor Ports Naturally deep & sheltered Mumbai, Mormugao, Kochi, Visakhapatnam
Artificial Ports Man-made, built by dredging Chennai, Ennore, Paradip, JNPT, Tuticorin
Riverine Ports Located along rivers/inland waterways Kolkata, Haldia

Major Indian Ports by Region

Region Major Ports
West Coast Kandla, Mumbai, JNPT, Mormugao, New Mangalore, Kochi
East Coast Chennai, Ennore, Visakhapatnam, Paradip, Haldia, Kolkata, Tuticorin
Islands Port Blair

Largest Ports by Category

Category Port
Largest Container Port Jawaharlal Nehru Port (JNPT)
Largest Port by Cargo Volume Deendayal Port (Kandla)
Deepest Port Visakhapatnam Port
Oldest Port Kolkata Port (Syama Prasad Mookerjee Port)
First Corporatized Port Ennore Port (Kamarajar Port)

Important Facts & Trivia

• India has 13 major ports (12 government + 1 corporate port).
• Ports operate under the Ministry of Ports, Shipping & Waterways.
• Indian ports handle nearly 90% of foreign trade by volume.
• West coast ports generally handle more traffic due to proximity to Europe & Middle East.

110 | |
 National Parks
State/UT National Parks
Andaman and Nicobar Mount Harriet , Saddle Peak , Rani Jhansi Marine , Mahatma Gandhi Marine , Golathea , Campbell Bay ,
Islands North Button Island , South Button Island , Middle Button Island
Andhra Pradesh Sri Venkateswara , Papikonda
Arunachal Pradesh Namdapha , Mouling
Assam Manas , Dibru-Saikhowa , Orang , Kaziranga , Nameri
Bihar Valmiki
Chhattisgarh Indravati , Guru Ghasidas (Sanjay) , Kanger Valley
Goa Mollem
Gujarat Blackbuck , Vansda , Marine , Gir
Haryana Kalesar , Sultanpur
Himachal Pradesh Great Himalayan , Inderkilla , Simbalbara , Pin Valley , Khirganga
Jammu and Kashmir Hemis , Kishtwar , Salim Ali , Dachigam
Jharkhand Betla
Karnataka Bannerghatta , Bandipur , Anshi , Kudremukh , Nagarhole
Kerala Pambadum Shola , Eravikulam , Silent Valley , Periyar , Anamudi Shola , Mathikettan Shola
Madhya Pradesh Sanjay , Madhav , Bandhavgarh , Kanha , Pench , Panna , Satpura , Van Vihar , Mandla Plant Fossils
Maharashtra Sanjay Gandhi , Chandoli , Gugamal , Tadoba , Navegaon
Manipur Sirohi , Keibul Lamjao
Meghalaya Balphakram , Nokrek
Mizoram Murlen , Phawngpui Blue Mountain
Nagaland Ntangki (Intanki)
Odisha Bhitarkanika , Simlipal
Rajasthan Sariska , Keoladeo , Desert , Mount Abu Wildlife Sanctuary and , Ranthambore , Darrah (Mukundra Hills)
Sikkim Khangchendzonga
Tamil Nadu Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and , Mukurthi , Gulf of Mannar Marine , Guindy , Mudumalai
Telangana Mahavir Harina Vanasthali , Kasu Brahmananda Reddy , Mrugavani
Tripura Bison (Rajbari) , Clouded Leopard
Uttar Pradesh Dudhwa
Uttarakhand Rajaji , Govind Pashu Vihar , Nanda Devi , Gangotri , Valley of Flowers , Jim Corbett
West Bengal Jaldapara , Neora Valley , Singalila , Sundarbans , Gorumara , Buxa Tiger Reserve

UNESCO World Heritage Sites

State / UT Heritage Site Name Type Key Features
Uttar Pradesh Taj Mahal Cultural Iconic white marble mausoleum, symbol of love
Agra Fort Cultural Mughal fort, red sandstone architecture
Mughal city with palaces, mosque, and
Fatehpur Sikri Cultural
courtyards
Madhya Pradesh Khajuraho Monuments Cultural Erotic sculptures, intricate temples
Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka Cultural Prehistoric cave paintings and shelters
Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi Cultural Buddhist stupas, monasteries, pillars
Karnataka Group of Monuments at Hampi Cultural Vijayanagara Empire ruins
Group of Monuments at Pattadakal Cultural Dravidian and Nagara style temples
Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas (Belur, Halebidu,
Cultural Hoysala temple architecture
Somnathpura)

111 | |
State / UT Heritage Site Name Type Key Features
Odisha Sun Temple at Konark Cultural Chariot-shaped sun temple
Tamil Nadu Mahabalipuram Monuments Cultural Rock-cut temples, shore temples
Great Living Chola Temples Cultural Dravidian temples by Chola dynasty
Maharashtra Ajanta Caves Cultural Buddhist cave paintings and architecture
Ellora Caves Cultural Buddhist, Hindu, Jain cave temples
Elephanta Caves Cultural Rock-cut temples dedicated to Lord Shiva
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus Cultural Gothic Revival railway station
Victorian Gothic and Art Deco Ensemble of
Cultural Gothic and Art Deco buildings
Mumbai
Goa Churches and Convents of Goa Cultural Portuguese-era churches
Delhi Qutub Minar and its Monuments Cultural Indo-Islamic architecture
Red Fort Complex Cultural Mughal fort, Indian Independence significance
Humayun's Tomb Cultural Persian-inspired Mughal tomb garden
Gujarat Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park Cultural Fortified city with religious structures
Rani ki Vav (Queen’s Stepwell) Cultural Ornate stepwell with carvings
Historic City of Ahmedabad Cultural First UNESCO Urban Heritage City in India
Dholavira: Harappan City Cultural Indus Valley Civilization site
Rajasthan Hill Forts of Rajasthan Cultural Rajput military architecture, six forts
Jaipur: The Pink City Cultural Planned city, palaces, and observatories
Keoladeo National Park Natural Bird sanctuary
West Bengal Sundarbans National Park Natural Mangrove forests, Royal Bengal Tigers
Santiniketan Cultural University town by Rabindranath Tagore
Assam Kaziranga National Park Natural One-horned rhinoceros
Manas Wildlife Sanctuary Natural Tigers, elephants, grasslands
Himachal
Great Himalayan National Park Natural Himalayan flora, fauna, glaciers
Pradesh
Uttarakhand Nanda Devi & Valley of Flowers National Parks Natural High-altitude flora and scenic valleys
Sacred mountain, biodiversity, cultural
Sikkim Khangchendzonga National Park Mixed
significance
Telangana Ramappa Temple (Rudreshwara Temple) Cultural Kakatiya-style sandstone temple
The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier (Capitol
Chandigarh (UT) Cultural Modern civic architecture by Le Corbusier
Complex)
Mountain Railways of India (Darjeeling, Nilgiri, Heritage railways in West Bengal, Tamil Nadu,
Multiple States Cultural
Kalka-Shimla) Himachal Pradesh
Western Ghats (Maharashtra, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Biodiversity hotspot with forests and endemic
Natural
Karnataka) species

Ramsar Sites
State/UT Ramsar Sites
Andhra Pradesh Kolleru Lake, Pulicat Lake
Arunachal Pradesh Pangong Tso Lake (Proposal, not yet Ramsar)
Assam Deepor Beel, Rudrasagar Lake
Bihar Kanwar Lake, Baraila Wetland
Chhattisgarh Sondur Reservoir (Proposal)
Goa Nanda Lake
Gujarat Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary, Thol Lake, Wadhwana Wetland, Khijadiya Wildlife Sanctuary
Haryana Sultanpur National Park, Bhindawas Wildlife Sanctuary
Himachal Pradesh Renuka Wetland, Pong Dam Lake, Chandertal Wetland

112 | |
State/UT Ramsar Sites
Jammu & Kashmir Hokera Wetland, Wular Lake, Surinsar-Mansar Lakes, Shalbugh Wetland, Hygam Wetland Conservation Reserve
Jharkhand Udhwa Lake Bird Sanctuary
Karnataka Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary
Kerala Ashtamudi Wetland, Sasthamkotta Lake, Vembanad-Kol Wetland
Madhya Pradesh Bhoj Wetlands, Yashwant Sagar
Maharashtra Nandur Madhameshwar, Lonar Lake
Manipur Loktak Lake
Odisha Bhitarkanika Mangroves, Chilika Lake, Ansupa Lake
Harike Wetland, Kanjli Wetland, Ropar Wetland, Beas Conservation Reserve, Nangal Wildlife Sanctuary,
Punjab
Keshopur-Miani Community Reserve
Rajasthan Keoladeo National Park, Sambhar Lake, Sarsai Nawar Jheel
Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary, Pallikaranai Marshland, Pichavaram Mangrove, Koonthankulam
Tamil Nadu Bird Sanctuary, Gulf of Mannar Marine Biosphere Reserve, Suchindram Theroor Wetland Complex, Vaduvur
Bird Sanctuary, Udhayamarthandapuram Bird Sanctuary, Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary, Karikili Bird Sanctuary
Tripura Rudrasagar Lake
Upper Ganga River, Saman Bird Sanctuary, Samaspur Bird Sanctuary, Sandi Bird Sanctuary, Parvati Arga Bird
Uttar Pradesh
Sanctuary, Nawabganj Bird Sanctuary, Haiderpur Wetland, Sarsai Nawar Jheel
Uttarakhand Asan Conservation Reserve
West Bengal Sundarbans Wetland, East Kolkata Wetlands
Ladakh Tso Kar, Tso Moriri (Proposal)
Delhi Yamuna Biodiversity Park (Proposal)

Biosphere Reserves
State/UT Biosphere Reserves
Andaman & Nicobar Islands Great Nicobar, Nicobar, Gulf of Mannar (Partially)
Andhra Pradesh Seshachalam Hills
Arunachal Pradesh Dibang Valley (Proposed), Dihang-Dibang, Kamlang (Proposed)
Assam Manas, Dibru-Saikhowa
Bihar Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary (Proposed)
Chhattisgarh Achanakmar-Amarkantak
Gujarat Rann of Kutch (Including Desert National Park), Gulf of Mannar (Partially)
Himachal Pradesh Cold Desert, Pin Valley National Park (Partially)
Jharkhand Dalma Wildlife Sanctuary (Proposed)
Karnataka Nilgiri (Partially)
Kerala Agasthyamalai, Nilgiri (Partially)
Madhya Pradesh Pachmarhi, Panna (Proposed)
Maharashtra Nilgiri (Partially), Rann of Kutch (Partially)
Manipur Loktak Lake (Proposed)
Meghalaya Nokrek, Balpakram (Proposed)
Mizoram Murlen (Proposed), Phawngpui Blue Mountain (Proposed)
Odisha Simlipal
Rajasthan Desert (Partially)
Sikkim Khangchendzonga
Tamil Nadu Gulf of Mannar, Nilgiri (Partially), Agasthyamalai (Partially)
Tripura Trishna Wildlife Sanctuary (Proposed)
Uttarakhand Nanda Devi
Uttar Pradesh Dudhwa (Proposed)
West Bengal Sundarbans
Ladakh Ladakh Cold Desert (Proposed)

113 | |
 Census
Category Census 2011 Data
Census Year 2011 (15th Census of India since 1872)
Office of Registrar General and Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs,
Conducted By
Government of India
Reference Date 00:00 hours of March 1, 2011 (Except Jammu & Kashmir: October 1, 2010 due to snowfall)
Slogan "Our Census, Our Future"
Total Population (India) 1,21,08,54,977 (1.21 Billion)
Male Population 62,37,24,248
Female Population 58,71,30,729
Population Growth Rate (2001-11) 17.64% (Declined from 21.54% in 1991-2001)
Most Populous State Uttar Pradesh (19.98 crore / 199,812,341)
Least Populous State Sikkim (610,577)
State with Highest Population Density Bihar (1,106 persons per sq km)
State with Lowest Population Density Arunachal Pradesh (17 persons per sq km)
Overall Sex Ratio (Females per 1000
943 (Improved from 933 in 2001)
Males)
Highest Sex Ratio State (Major) Kerala (1084 females per 1000 males)
Lowest Sex Ratio State (Major) Haryana (879 females per 1000 males)
Literacy Rate (Overall) 74.04%
Male Literacy Rate 82.14%
Female Literacy Rate 65.46%
State with Highest Literacy Rate Kerala (93.91%)
State with Lowest Literacy Rate Bihar (61.80%)
Number of Literates (Total) 77,84,54,120
Number of Illiterates 43,24,00,857
Urban Population 37.7 crore (31.16% of total population)
Rural Population 83.3 crore (68.84% of total population)
Child Population (0-6 years) 16.45 crore (13.1% of total population)
Child Sex Ratio (0-6 years) 919 girls per 1000 boys
Highest Child Sex Ratio State Mizoram (971)
Lowest Child Sex Ratio State Haryana (834)
Scheduled Castes (SC) Population 20.14 crore (16.6% of total population)
Scheduled Tribes (ST) Population 10.43 crore (8.6% of total population)
State with Highest SC Population Uttar Pradesh (20.5% of India's SC population)
State with Highest ST Population Madhya Pradesh (14.7% of India’s ST population)
Population Density (India Average) 382 persons per sq km
Highest Decadal Growth State Meghalaya (27.95%)
Lowest Decadal Growth State Nagaland (-0.47%)
Total Number of Districts 640
Largest District by Population Thane (Maharashtra)
Smallest District by Population Dibang Valley (Arunachal Pradesh)
Total Households 24.9 crore
Total Languages Reported 122 major languages, 1599 other languages

114 | |
 Key Highlights from Census 2011 (For SSC CGL Focus)
• First time population crossed 1.2 billion.
• Sex Ratio, Literacy, and Child Sex Ratio are frequent SSC questions.
• Highest Literacy: Kerala (93.91%), Lowest: Bihar (61.8%).
• Highest Density: Bihar (1106/sq km), Lowest: Arunachal Pradesh (17/sq km).
• Decadal Growth Rate Decline is often asked: dropped to 17.64% from 21.54%.
• Child Sex Ratio (0-6 years) dropped from 927 (2001) to 919 (2011).

Major Government Schemes and Policies

Launch
Scheme Name Ministry / Department Objective / Focus Area
Year
Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Financial inclusion through zero-balance bank
2014 Ministry of Finance
Yojana (PMJDY) accounts and RuPay debit cards.
Swachh Bharat Mission Ministry of Housing & Urban Eliminate open defecation and improve solid waste
2014
(SBM) Affairs management.
Boost manufacturing sector and attract foreign
Make in India 2014 Ministry of Commerce & Industry
investment.
Transform India into a digitally empowered society
Digital India 2015 Ministry of Electronics & IT
and knowledge economy.
Atal Pension Yojana Provide pension benefits to workers in the
2015 Ministry of Finance
(APY) unorganized sector.
Pradhan Mantri Mudra Provide micro-finance to non-corporate, non-farm
2015 Ministry of Finance
Yojana (PMMY) small/micro enterprises.
Department for Promotion of Promote entrepreneurship and innovation through
Startup India 2016
Industry & Internal Trade startup support.
Facilitate bank loans to SC/ST and women
Stand Up India 2016 Ministry of Finance
entrepreneurs.
Pradhan Mantri Awas Ministry of Housing & Urban
2015 Provide affordable housing to urban and rural poor.
Yojana (PMAY) Affairs
Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Provide LPG connections to women from BPL
Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) 2016
Gas households.
Ayushman Bharat - Ministry of Health & Family Provide health insurance coverage up to ₹5 lakh per
2018
PMJAY Welfare family per year.
Improve groundwater management through
Atal Bhujal Yojana 2019 Ministry of Jal Shakti
community participation.
National Broadband
2019 Ministry of Communications Provide broadband access to all villages by 2022.
Mission (NBM)
Provide financial assistance to women aged 21–60 in
Subhadra Yojana 2024 Government of Odisha
Odisha.
Department of Personnel & Capacity building for civil services through
Mission Karmayogi 2020
Training competency-based training.
Holistic infrastructure development through
PM Gati Shakti 2021 Ministry of Commerce & Industry
integrated planning.
Production Linked Boost domestic manufacturing and attract
2020 Various Ministries
Incentive (PLI) Scheme investments in specific sectors.
Provide safe and adequate drinking water through
Jal Jeevan Mission 2019 Ministry of Jal Shakti
individual household tap connections.
Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Provide income support of ₹6,000 per year to small
PM-KISAN 2019
Welfare and marginal farmers.
Garib Kalyan Anna Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food Provide free food grains to the poor during the
2020
Yojana (PMGKAY) & Public Distribution COVID-19 pandemic.
National Education Overhaul the Indian education system to make it
2020 Ministry of Education
Policy (NEP) 2020 more holistic, flexible, and multidisciplinary.

115 | |
 Science Technology and Inventions
Invention Inventor(s) Year of Invention Significance / Description
Revolutionized transport, machinery, and
Wheel Unknown (Mesopotamia) Around 3500 BC
engineering.
Made mass printing of books possible,
Printing Press Johannes Gutenberg (Germany) 1440
accelerating literacy and knowledge sharing.
Alexander Graham Bell Enabled voice communication over long
Telephone 1876
(Scotland/USA) distances.
Provided long-lasting artificial lighting for
Light Bulb Thomas Edison (USA) 1879
homes and industries.
Aeroplane Wright Brothers (USA) 1903 Revolutionized air travel and military aviation.
Enabled transmission of moving images for
Television John Logie Baird (UK) 1927
entertainment and information.
Penicillin First effective antibiotic, revolutionizing
Alexander Fleming (UK) 1928
(Antibiotic) medical treatment of infections.
William Shockley, John Bardeen & Key component of all modern electronics, from
Transistor 1947
Walter Brattain (USA) computers to phones.
Computer Charles Babbage (Concept), ENIAC
1946 Foundation for modern computing devices.
(Electronic) by Eckert & Mauchly (USA)
Advanced Research Projects Agency Connected computers globally; foundation of
Internet (ARPANET) 1969
(USA) modern digital communication.
Enabled wireless voice communication
Mobile Phone Martin Cooper (USA) 1973
anywhere.
World Wide Web Introduced hyperlinking and made internet
Tim Berners-Lee (UK) 1989
(WWW) navigation accessible to the public.
Allowed sending messages electronically over
Email Ray Tomlinson (USA) 1971
the internet.
GPS (Global Fully operational Satellite-based navigation system used
US Department of Defense
Positioning System) by 1995 worldwide.
First vaccine against smallpox; foundation for
Vaccination Edward Jenner (UK) 1796
immunology.
Converts electrical energy into mechanical
Electric Motor Michael Faraday (UK) 1821 motion, widely used in appliances &
machinery.
Safer and more controllable explosive for
Dynamite Alfred Nobel (Sweden) 1867
construction and mining.
Enabled wireless audio communication over
Radio Guglielmo Marconi (Italy) 1895
long distances.
Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen
X-rays 1895 Pioneered medical imaging technology.
(Germany)
Revolutionized cooling systems for homes,
Air Conditioning Willis Carrier (USA) 1902
industries, and transportation.
First fully synthetic plastic; used widely in
Plastic (Bakelite) Leo Baekeland (Belgium/USA) 1907
manufacturing.
Rocketry (Liquid Foundation for modern rocketry and space
Robert Goddard (USA) 1926
Fuel) exploration.
Nuclear Reactor Enrico Fermi (Italy/USA) 1942 Enabled controlled nuclear energy production.
Credit Card Frank McNamara (USA) 1950 Revolutionized cashless transactions.
DNA Double Helix James Watson & Francis Crick Unlocked understanding of genetic code and
1953
Structure (UK/USA) biotechnology.
Artificial Heart (First Paul Winchell (USA, design), Dr.
1982 Life-saving device for heart patients.
Implant) Denton Cooley (implantation)
Andre Geim & Konstantin Wonder material known for strength,
Graphene 2004
Novoselov (Russia/UK) flexibility, and conductivity.

116 | |
 Major Successful Science & Technology Missions
Mission / Project Name Year Country / Agency Objective / Achievement
India’s first Moon mission; discovered water molecules on the
Chandrayaan-1 2008 India (ISRO)
Moon.
Mars Orbiter Mission First Asian nation to reach Mars orbit in its first attempt;
2013 India (ISRO)
(Mangalyaan) extremely cost-effective mission.
Second Moon mission; orbiter successful (lander crash).
Chandrayaan-2 2019 India (ISRO)
High-resolution lunar imaging.
Successfully landed on Moon’s south pole; first country to
Chandrayaan-3 2023 India (ISRO)
achieve this feat.
India’s first solar mission to study Sun’s corona and solar
Aditya-L1 2023 India (ISRO)
activities.
Gaganyaan (Uncrewed Test 2025 India’s first human spaceflight program; uncrewed test flights
India (ISRO)
Planned) (planned) planned.
James Webb Space Most advanced space telescope; studying formation of
2021 NASA / ESA / CSA
Telescope (JWST) galaxies, stars, and exoplanets.
First step in returning humans to the Moon; uncrewed flight
NASA Artemis I 2022 USA (NASA)
test around the Moon.
Parker Solar Probe 2018 USA (NASA) Closest spacecraft to the Sun; studying solar wind and corona.
Collected asteroid samples from Bennu; returned to Earth in
OSIRIS-REx 2016 USA (NASA)
2023.
2024–25 India (LIGO Advanced gravitational wave observatory under construction
LIGO-India (Approved)
(planned) Collaboration) in India.
Param Supercomputers Development of India’s high-performance computing systems
Ongoing India (C-DAC)
(Various) for research and defense.
Indigenous air defense system using refurbished air-to-air
SAMAR Air Defence System 2023 India (IAF & DRDO)
missiles.
Satellite Docking India’s first successful satellite docking in space; critical for
2024 India (ISRO)
Experiment (Spadex) refueling and repairs.
QpiAI-Indus Quantum
2025 India (QpiAI) India’s first full-stack 25-qubit quantum computer.
Computer
AI Safety Institute (India) 2025 India Set up for ethical AI development and risk mitigation.
National Quantum Mission ₹6,000+ crore mission to advance quantum computing,
2023 India
(NQM) communication, and sensing tech.
FWD-LM01 Autonomous Indigenous drone with autonomous target identification and
2025 India
Drone engagement capability (100 km range).
Bioeconomy policy for boosting bio-based industries and
Bio E-3 Policy 2024 India
environmental sustainability.

Music and Instruments

S. No. Instrument Name Type of Instrument Famous Indian Musicians / Instrumentalists
1 Sitar String (Plucked) Pandit Ravi Shankar, Anoushka Shankar, Vilayat Khan
2 Sarod String (Plucked) Ustad Amjad Ali Khan, Ayaan Ali Bangash, Amaan Ali Bangash
3 Santoor String (Struck) Pandit Shivkumar Sharma, Rahul Sharma
4 Veena String (Plucked) E. Gayathri, Dr. Jayanthi Kumaresh, S. Balachander
5 Violin String (Bowed) Dr. L. Subramaniam, N. Rajam, Mysore T. Chowdiah
6 Mandolin String (Plucked) U. Srinivas
Guitar Pt. Vishwamohan Bhatt (Mohan Veena), R. Prasanna (Carnatic
7 String (Plucked/Fretted)
(Classical/Fusion) Guitar)
8 Flute (Bansuri) Wind (Woodwind) Pandit Hariprasad Chaurasia, Pannalal Ghosh, Rakesh Chaurasia
9 Shehnai Wind (Double Reed) Ustad Bismillah Khan
10 Nadaswaram Wind (Double Reed) Dr. Sheik Chinna Moulana, Natesan, Namagiripettai Krishnan

117 | |
S. No. Instrument Name Type of Instrument Famous Indian Musicians / Instrumentalists
Pandit Bhishmadev Vedi, Purushottam Walawalkar, Ramesh
11 Harmonium Keyboard (Reed + Bellows)
Narayan
Percussion
12 Tabla Ustad Zakir Hussain, Ustad Alla Rakha, Pandit Kishan Maharaj
(Membranophone)
Percussion
13 Mridangam Umayalpuram K. Sivaraman, Palghat Mani Iyer, Karaikudi Mani
(Membranophone)
Percussion
14 Pakhawaj Bhai Gaitonde, Govindrao Burhanpurkar, Pt. Durgalalji
(Membranophone)
Percussion
15 Dholak Popular Folk Instrument; used by many regional musicians
(Membranophone)
16 Ghatam Percussion (Idiophone) Vikku Vinayakram, Suresh Vaidyanathan
17 Kanjira Percussion (Frame Drum) G. Harishankar
18 Morchang (Jew's Harp) Percussion (Idiophone) Rajasthan & Folk artists; prominent in Indian Folk Music
19 Nout Percussion (Idiophone - Folk) Played in Kashmir Folk Music
20 Mohan Veena String (Plucked Slide Guitar) Pt. Vishwamohan Bhatt

Awards and Honour

S. No. Award Name Category / Field Famous Recipients (Examples)
Highest Civilian Award Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam (Science), Lata Mangeshkar
1 Bharat Ratna (Exceptional Service in any (Music), Sachin Tendulkar (Sports), Atal Bihari Vajpayee
Field) (Politics), M.S. Subbulakshmi (Music)
Second-Highest Civilian Award Amitabh Bachchan (Cinema), Dr. M. S. Swaminathan
2 Padma Vibhushan (Exceptional & Distinguished (Agriculture), Pranab Mukherjee (Politics), Bikash Sinha
Service) (Science)
Third-Highest Civilian Award
Rajinikanth (Cinema), Mary Kom (Sports), Devi Prasad
3 Padma Bhushan (Distinguished Service of High
Dwivedi (Literature), Sudha Murthy (Social Work)
Order)
Fourth-Highest Civilian Award
Kailash Kher (Music), Hima Das (Sports), Ekta Kapoor
4 Padma Shri (Distinguished Service in Any
(Arts), Teejan Bai (Folk Art)
Field)
Gallantry Awards (Param Highest Military Gallantry Major Somnath Sharma (Posthumous), Captain Vikram
5
Vir Chakra) (Wartime) Batra (Posthumous), Subedar Major Sanjay Kumar
Gallantry Awards (Ashoka Highest Peacetime Gallantry Neerja Bhanot (Posthumous), Lance Naik Nazir Ahmad
6
Chakra) Award Wani (Posthumous)
Devika Rani (First Recipient), Amitabh Bachchan,
7 Dadasaheb Phalke Award Highest Award in Indian Cinema
Rajinikanth, Waheeda Rehman (2023)
Literature (All Indian
Ruskin Bond (English), Namita Gokhale (English), M.T.
8 Sahitya Akademi Award Languages Recognized by
Vasudevan Nair (Malayalam)
Constitution)
Shivaram Karanth (Kannada), Girish Karnad (Kannada),
9 Jnanpith Award Highest Literary Award in India
Akkitham Achuthan Namboothiri (Malayalam)
Ramon Magsaysay Award
Public Service, Community Mother Teresa, Kiran Bedi, Verghese Kurien, Ravish
10 (Asia’s Nobel, Indian
Leadership, Journalism, Peace Kumar
Recipients)
PV Sindhu (Badminton), Neeraj Chopra (Athletics), Sunil
11 Arjuna Award Sports (Excellence)
Chhetri (Football)
Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna
Sachin Tendulkar (Cricket), Viswanathan Anand (Chess),
12 (Now Major Dhyan Chand Highest Sports Award
Neeraj Chopra (Athletics)
Khel Ratna)
Kangana Ranaut (Best Actress), Suriya & Ajay Devgn
Indian Cinema (Best Film, Best
13 National Film Awards (Joint Best Actor 2022), 'Rocketry' (Best Feature Film
Actor, etc.)
2022)
Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Dr. Manindra Agrawal (Mathematics), Dr. Gagandeep
14 Science & Technology
Prize Kang (Medical Science)
Literature (Outstanding
15 Saraswati Samman Prose/Poetry in Indian Sunita Jain (Hindi), Vishwanath Prasad Tiwari (Hindi)
Languages)

118 | |
S. No. Award Name Category / Field Famous Recipients (Examples)
International Gandhi Peace, Social Welfare, Non-
16 Nelson Mandela, ISRO, Yohei Sasakawa
Peace Prize Violence Promotion
Women Empowerment & Dutee Chand (Sports), Chandraprabha Aitwal
17 Nari Shakti Puraskar
Contributions (Mountaineering), Kalavati Devi (Sanitation)
Pravasi Bharatiya Contributions by Indian
18 Satya Nadella (Microsoft CEO), Dr. Mukesh Aghi (Business)
Samman Diaspora
Gita & Sanjay Chopra Award Winners (Numerous Brave
19 National Bravery Award Heroism by Children
Children Honored)
Sangeet Natak Akademi Performing Arts (Music, Dance, Pandit Jasraj (Classical Vocal), Birju Maharaj (Kathak),
20
Award Theatre) Vikku Vinayakram (Percussion)

Books and Authors

Most Important Books and Authors
S. No. Book Name Author Category/Type
1 India Wins Freedom Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Autobiography / History
2 Discovery of India Jawaharlal Nehru History / Political
3 Glimpses of World History Jawaharlal Nehru History / Political
4 My Experiments with Truth Mahatma Gandhi Autobiography
5 The Story of My Life Helen Keller Autobiography / Inspirational
A.P.J. Abdul Kalam (with Arun
6 Wings of Fire Autobiography / Motivational
Tiwari)
7 Ignited Minds A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Inspirational
8 Exam Warriors Narendra Modi Inspirational / Motivational
Sachin Tendulkar (with Boria
9 Playing it My Way Autobiography / Sports
Majumdar)
Milkha Singh (with Sonia
10 The Race of My Life Autobiography / Sports
Sanwalka)
11 An Era of Darkness Shashi Tharoor Political / History
12 Why I Am an Atheist Bhagat Singh Autobiography / Political
13 The Argumentative Indian Amartya Sen Essay / Economics
14 The Inheritance of Loss Kiran Desai Fiction / Novel
15 A Suitable Boy Vikram Seth Fiction / Novel
16 God of Small Things Arundhati Roy Fiction / Novel
17 Midnight’s Children Salman Rushdie Fiction / Novel
18 Train to Pakistan Khushwant Singh Historical Fiction
19 The Guide R.K. Narayan Fiction / Novel
20 Malgudi Days R.K. Narayan Short Stories
21 Gitanjali Rabindranath Tagore Poetry
22 Geet Govind Jayadev Poetry / Classical Sanskrit Literature
23 Arthashastra Kautilya (Chanakya) Ancient Indian Political Treatise
24 Ramcharitmanas Tulsidas Epic / Devotional
25 Rajtarangini Kalhana Historical Chronicle (Kashmir)
26 Durgeshnandini Bankim Chandra Chatterjee Novel (First Indian Novel)
27 Anandmath Bankim Chandra Chatterjee Novel / Nationalistic Theme
28 Devdas Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay Fiction / Tragedy
29 Pather Panchali Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay Fiction / Classic
30 Unbreakable Mary Kom Autobiography / Sports
Biography (Mathematics - Srinivasa
31 The Man Who Knew Infinity Robert Kanigel
Ramanujan)
119 | |
S. No. Book Name Author Category/Type
32 The Great Indian Novel Shashi Tharoor Political Satire / Fiction
33 A Better India: A Better World N.R. Narayana Murthy Business / Motivational
34 The Namesake Jhumpa Lahiri Fiction / Diaspora
Indica: A Deep Natural History of the Indian
35 Pranay Lal Non-fiction / Natural History
Subcontinent

Important Books by Shashi Tharoor, Ruskin Bond, Salman Rushdie & Arundhati Roy
Author Important Books
• The Great Indian Novel
• Why I Am a Hindu
• An Era of Darkness: The British Empire in India
• Pax Indica: India and the World of the 21st Century
Shashi Tharoor
• The Five Dollar Smile and Other Stories
• India: From Midnight to the Millennium
• The Battle of Belonging
• Bookless in Baghdad
• The Room on the Roof
• Rusty, the Boy from the Hills
• The Blue Umbrella
• Delhi Is Not Far
Ruskin Bond
• A Flight of Pigeons
• Roads to Mussoorie
• Time Stops at Shamli
• The Night Train at Deoli and Other Stories
• Midnight’s Children
• The Satanic Verses
• The Moor’s Last Sigh
• The Enchantress of Florence
Salman Rushdie
• Joseph Anton (Autobiography)
• Haroun and the Sea of Stories
• Quichotte
• Shame
• The God of Small Things
• The Ministry of Utmost Happiness
• My Seditious Heart
Arundhati Roy
• Azadi: Freedom. Fascism. Fiction
• Listening to Grasshoppers
• Capitalism: A Ghost Story

Important Books by Sports Personalities

Sports Personality Book Title(s)
Sachin Tendulkar • Playing It My Way (Autobiography)
• The Untold Story of MS Dhoni (by Bharat Sundaresan, not by Dhoni himself but
MS Dhoni (Authorized Biography)
frequently asked)
• Driven: The Virat Kohli Story (by Vijay Lokapally; not self-written but frequently
Virat Kohli
asked)
Sourav Ganguly • A Century Is Not Enough (Autobiography)
Yuvraj Singh • The Test of My Life (Autobiography about his fight with cancer)
• Sunny Days (Autobiography)
Sunil Gavaskar
• Runs n' Ruins
• Straight from the Heart (Autobiography)
Kapil Dev
• We, The Sikhs
Milkha Singh • The Race of My Life (Autobiography)
Mary Kom • Unbreakable (Autobiography)

120 | |
 Sports Personality Book Title(s)
Sania Mirza • Ace Against Odds (Autobiography)
Abhinav Bindra • A Shot at History (Autobiography)
Vishwanathan Anand • Mind Master: Winning Lessons from a Champion's Life (Autobiography)
P.T. Usha (Not self-written but noted in
• Golden Girl: The Autobiography of P.T. Usha (By K.K. Poonacha)
exams)
Baichung Bhutia • Captain Fantastic: The Story of Baichung Bhutia (By Novy Kapadia)
Dipa Karmakar • The Small Wonder (Co-written with Bishweshwar Nandi & Digvijay Singh Deo)
Saina Nehwal (Biography by Author) • Playing to Win: My Life On and Off Court (By Saina Nehwal herself)
Anil Kumble (Biography) • Wide Angle: Candid Moments From My Playing Days (By Anil Kumble)

Temples of India
Difference Between Architectural Styles of Indian Temples
Vesara Style (Deccan / Hybrid
Feature Nagara Style (North Indian) Dravidian Style (South Indian)
Style)
Northern India (Himalayan region, Deccan region (Karnataka,
Geographical Southern India (Tamil Nadu,
Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Odisha, Maharashtra, parts of Andhra
Region Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh)
etc.) Pradesh)
Curvilinear tower called Rekha- Pyramid-like tower called Vimana; Combines features of both:
Shikhara (Main
Prasad / Latina; appears like a stepped and tiered in rectangular curvilinear + stepped pyramidal
Tower)
beehive or mountain peak. form. tower.
Square or cruciform with Mostly square, large enclosed Hybrid layouts; incorporates
Base Structure
projections; sanctum courtyards and pillared halls mandapas, pillared halls, and mixed
(Plan)
(garbhagriha) at center. (mandapas). plans.
Modest entrances; no grand
Entrance / Dominated by huge ornate Gopurams Generally moderate in size; may
gateways; focus remains on central
Gateway (gateway towers). have decorated entrances.
shikhara.
Mandapa Few or small-sized mandapas; Elaborate mandapas with intricate Moderate-sized mandapas with mix
(Pillared Hall) sometimes without any. sculptures and pillars. of styles.
Focus on vertical elements; subtle Highly intricate and elaborate
Sculptural Balanced ornamentation combining
ornamentation with symbolic carvings of deities, mythological
Details both North & South styles.
motifs. stories, animals, dancers.
Distinctive Amalaka (circular crown) and Dome-like finial over pyramidal Unique star-shaped plans, multiple
Features Kalasha on top of Shikhara. vimana; emphasis on axial symmetry. shrines (often seen in Hoysalas).
Khajuraho Temples (Madhya Meenakshi Temple (Madurai),
Hoysaleswara Temple (Halebidu),
Notable Pradesh), Sun Temple (Modhera, Brihadeeswara Temple (Thanjavur),
Chennakesava Temple (Belur),
Examples Gujarat), Lingaraja Temple Ramanathaswamy Temple
Pattadakal Temples (Karnataka).
(Odisha). (Rameswaram).
Soapstone (common in Hoysala
Material Used Sandstone, granite, schist. Granite, soapstone.
temples).
Historical
Guptas, Chandelas, Gahadavalas, Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas,
Patron Hoysalas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas.
Eastern Gangas. Vijayanagara Kings, Nayakas.
Dynasties

Major Temples of India

Period / Location
Temple Name Founder/Patron Significance / Facts
Century (State/City)
Queen Dedicated to Lord Shiva; famous for tall
Virupaksha Temple 7th century Hampi, Karnataka
Lokhamahadevi gopuram; UNESCO site.
Dedicated to Goddess Parvati & Lord Shiva;
Madurai, Tamil Vishwanatha
Meenakshi Temple 1623–1655 CE among “New 7 Wonders” nominees; rebuilt in
Nadu Nayakar
16th century.
Ramanathaswamy 7th–8th Rameswaram, Pandya & Jaffna One of 12 Jyotirlingas; part of Char Dham; has
Temple century Tamil Nadu Kings longest temple corridors.

121 | |
 Period / Location
Temple Name Founder/Patron Significance / Facts
Century (State/City)
Kanyakumari, Nambudiri Associated with legends of Anasuya & Ahalya;
Suchindram Temple 17th century
Tamil Nadu Brahmins has musical pillars and hanging pillar.
Dedicated to Lord Vishnu; known for musical
Vitthala Temple 15th century Hampi, Karnataka King Devaraya II
pillars.
Brihadeeswara Thanjavur, Tamil Dedicated to Lord Shiva; UNESCO site; 1007
11th century Raja Raja Chola I
Temple Nadu years old.
Airavateswara Darasuram, Tamil Dedicated to Lord Shiva; famous stone
12th century Rajaraja Chola II
Temple Nadu carvings; UNESCO site.
Venkateswara Tirumala, Andhra Dedicated to Lord Vishnu; known as Tirupati
300 AD King Thondaiman
Temple Pradesh Balaji; one of the richest temples in the world.
Kashi Vishwanath Varanasi, Uttar Dedicated to Lord Shiva; holiest Hindu
1780 Ahilya Bai
Temple Pradesh temple.
Dedicated to Lord Krishna; known for Rath
Jagannath Temple 1611 Puri, Odisha Indradyumna
Yatra; non-Hindus not allowed inside.
Vaishno Devi Temple — Jammu — Second most visited temple in India.
Moon God Dedicated to Lord Shiva; one of the oldest
Somnath Temple Ancient Gujarat
(Chandra) temples; looted by Mahmud of Ghazni.
Shirdi Sai Baba Shirdi, Dedicated to Sai Baba; third richest temple in
1922 —
Temple Maharashtra India.
Dedicated to Lord Vishnu; part of Char Dham
Badrinath Temple 9th century CE Uttarakhand Adi Shankara
& Chota Char Dham.
Garhwal,
Kedarnath Temple 8th century Pandavas Dedicated to Lord Shiva; part of Char Dham.
Uttarakhand
Dedicated to Sun God; UNESCO World
Konark Sun Temple 13th century Odisha Narasimha Deva
Heritage Site; known for chariot shape.
Buddhist site; UNESCO World Heritage Site;
Raisen, Madhya
Sanchi Stupa 3rd century BC Emperor Ashoka Great Stupa with 4 intricately designed
Pradesh
gateways.
Siddhivinayak Mumbai, Dedicated to Lord Ganesha; inner roof plated
18th century —
Temple Maharashtra with gold.
Holiest Sikh shrine; first enshrinement of
Golden Temple 1577 Amritsar, Punjab Guru Ram Das
Adhi Granth.
Site of Lord Buddha’s enlightenment;
Mahabodhi Temple 3rd century BC Bodh Gaya, Bihar Emperor Ashoka
UNESCO World Heritage Site.
8th–17th Nilachal Hill, Dedicated to Goddess Kamakhya; Shakti
Kamakhya Temple —
century Guwahati, Assam Peetha; center for Tantric worship.
Amarnath Cave Ancient (5000 Famous for naturally formed ice Shivling;
Jammu & Kashmir Natural Formation
Temple yrs approx.) located at high altitude.
Uttarkashi, Dedicated to Goddess Yamuna; opens on
Yamunotri Temple 19th century Maharani Gularia
Uttarakhand Akshaya Tritiya; part of Char Dham.
Dedicated to Goddess Ganga; symbolic
Uttarkashi,
Gangotri Temple 18th century Amar Singh Thapa Shivaling submerged in river; part of Char
Uttarakhand
Dham Yatra.

Capitals and Currencies

Country Capital Currency
Afghanistan Kabul Afghani
Argentina Buenos Aires Argentine Peso
Australia Canberra Australian Dollar
Bangladesh Dhaka Taka
Brazil Brasília Brazilian Real
Canada Ottawa Canadian Dollar
China Beijing Yuan / Renminbi
Egypt Cairo Egyptian Pound
France Paris Euro

122 | |
Country Capital Currency
Germany Berlin Euro
India New Delhi Indian Rupee
Indonesia Jakarta Indonesian Rupiah
Iran Tehran Iranian Rial
Italy Rome Euro
Japan Tokyo Japanese Yen
Kenya Nairobi Kenyan Shilling
Malaysia Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Ringgit
Mexico Mexico City Mexican Peso
Nepal Kathmandu Nepalese Rupee
Netherlands Amsterdam Euro
New Zealand Wellington New Zealand Dollar
Nigeria Abuja Nigerian Naira
North Korea Pyongyang North Korean Won
Norway Oslo Norwegian Krone
Pakistan Islamabad Pakistani Rupee
Russia Moscow Russian Ruble
Saudi Arabia Riyadh Saudi Riyal
Singapore Singapore Singapore Dollar
South Africa Pretoria (Admin.) Bloemfontein (Judicial) Cape Town (Legislative) South African Rand
South Korea Seoul South Korean Won
Spain Madrid Euro
Sri Lanka Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte (Official) Colombo (Commercial) Sri Lankan Rupee
Sweden Stockholm Swedish Krona
Switzerland Bern Swiss Franc
Thailand Bangkok Thai Baht
Turkey Ankara Turkish Lira
United Arab Emirates Abu Dhabi UAE Dirham
United Kingdom London Pound Sterling
United States Washington, D.C. US Dollar
Vietnam Hanoi Vietnamese Dong

Famous Persons and Places

S. No. Name Field / Title Known For / Contribution
Father of the Nation; led Non-violent Freedom Struggle; Dandi
1 Mahatma Gandhi Freedom Fighter
March
2 Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Social Reformer, Economist Chief Architect of Indian Constitution; Dalit Rights Activist
3 Jawaharlal Nehru First Prime Minister of India Advocate of Socialism; Architect of Modern India
Sardar Vallabhbhai Freedom Fighter, Political
4 Iron Man of India; Unification of India
Patel Leader
5 Subhas Chandra Bose Freedom Fighter Leader of Indian National Army (INA); Azad Hind Fauj
6 Bhagat Singh Freedom Fighter Revolutionary Martyr; Lahore Conspiracy Case
First Asian Nobel Laureate (Literature, 1913); Author of
7 Rabindranath Tagore Poet, Philosopher
National Anthem
8 Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam Scientist, Former President Missile Man of India; Former President of India

123 | |
S. No. Name Field / Title Known For / Contribution
9 Sarojini Naidu Poet, Freedom Fighter Nightingale of India; First Woman Governor of an Indian State
10 Rani Lakshmibai Freedom Fighter Ruler of Jhansi; Role in Revolt of 1857
11 Mangal Pandey Freedom Fighter First Martyr of Revolt of 1857
12 Mother Teresa Social Worker Nobel Peace Prize (1979); Missionaries of Charity
13 Swami Vivekananda Religious Leader, Philosopher Speech at Parliament of World’s Religions, Chicago (1893)
Indian Revolutionary; Hindustan Socialist Republican
14 Chandrasekhar Azad Freedom Fighter
Association
15 Lala Lajpat Rai Freedom Fighter Punjab Kesari; Protested Simon Commission
Social Reformer, Freedom
16 Annie Besant Theosophical Society; Home Rule Movement
Activist
Ishwar Chandra
17 Social Reformer, Educationist Widow Remarriage Act, Education Reforms
Vidyasagar
18 Raja Ram Mohan Roy Social Reformer Abolition of Sati; Founder of Brahmo Samaj
Freedom Fighter, Social
19 Bal Gangadhar Tilak “Father of Indian Unrest”; Slogan: “Swaraj is my birthright”
Reformer
20 Homi J. Bhabha Scientist Father of Indian Nuclear Programme
21 C. V. Raman Scientist Nobel Prize in Physics (1930); Raman Effect
22 Satyendra Nath Bose Scientist Bose-Einstein Theory (Quantum Physics)
23 Dr. Rajendra Prasad First President of India First President of Independent India
First Woman Prime Minister of
24 Indira Gandhi Nationalization of Banks; Operation Blue Star
India
25 Atal Bihari Vajpayee Former Prime Minister of India Pokhran II Nuclear Test; Kargil War; Good Orator

Famous Historical, Art & Culture Personalities

S. No. Name Field / Title Known For / Contribution
Classical Sanskrit Poet and Works like Abhijnanashakuntalam, Meghaduta,
1 Kalidasa
Playwright Raghuvamsa
Father of Qawwali; Pioneer of Hindustani Classical
2 Amir Khusrau Poet, Musician
Music
Famous Indian Modern Artist; Known as “Picasso of
3 M. F. Husain Painter
India”
4 Raja Ravi Varma Painter Famous for Indian Mythological Paintings
Navratna in Akbar’s Court; Hindustani Classical Music
5 Tansen Musician
Legend
6 Birbal Courtier, Scholar Navratna in Akbar’s Court; Known for Wisdom and Wit
7 Harsha Vardhana Emperor Patron of Arts; Organized Kannauj Assembly
Author of Arthashastra; Advisor to Chandragupta
8 Kautilya (Chanakya) Philosopher, Economist
Maurya
9 Ashoka the Great Emperor Spread of Buddhism; Rock & Pillar Edicts
10 Akbar the Great Mughal Emperor Religious Tolerance, Patron of Arts, Din-i-Ilahi
11 Mirabai Poet-Saint Bhakti Movement Saint; Devotion to Lord Krishna
12 Kabir Das Poet-Saint Bhakti Movement; Doha Literature
13 Guru Nanak Dev Ji Religious Leader Founder of Sikhism
14 Tyagaraja Music Composer One of the Trinity of Carnatic Music
Bhaskaracharya
15 Mathematician, Astronomer Author of Siddhanta Shiromani; Concept of Calculus
(Bhaskara II)

124 | |
 Famous Places
S. No. Place / Monument Location (State / City) Known For / Importance
UNESCO World Heritage Site; Symbol of Love; Built by Shah
1 Taj Mahal Agra, Uttar Pradesh
Jahan
UNESCO World Heritage Site; Independence Day
2 Red Fort Delhi
Celebrations
3 Qutub Minar Delhi Tallest Brick Minaret; UNESCO World Heritage Site
4 India Gate Delhi War Memorial
5 Gateway of India Mumbai, Maharashtra Historical Arch Monument; Tourist Attraction
6 Charminar Hyderabad, Telangana Iconic Monument; Indo-Islamic Architecture
7 Ajanta Caves Maharashtra UNESCO World Heritage Site; Ancient Buddhist Caves
UNESCO Site; Rock-cut Temples of Hinduism, Buddhism,
8 Ellora Caves Maharashtra
Jainism
9 Sun Temple (Konark) Odisha UNESCO World Heritage Site; Architectural Marvel
10 Khajuraho Temples Madhya Pradesh UNESCO Site; Erotic Sculptures; Hindu and Jain Temples
11 Hampi Monuments Karnataka UNESCO World Heritage Site; Ruins of Vijayanagar Empire
12 Mysore Palace Mysuru, Karnataka Royal Residence; Dussehra Celebrations
13 Meenakshi Temple Madurai, Tamil Nadu Dravidian Architecture; Famous Hindu Temple
14 Brihadeshwara Temple Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu UNESCO World Heritage Site; Chola Architecture
15 Rameswaram Temple Rameswaram, Tamil Nadu Pilgrimage Destination; Jyotirlinga
Golden Temple (Harmandir
16 Amritsar, Punjab Holiest Site of Sikhism
Sahib)
17 Somnath Temple Veraval, Gujarat First Jyotirlinga; Important Hindu Pilgrimage
18 Sanchi Stupa Madhya Pradesh Buddhist Heritage Site; UNESCO World Heritage Site
19 Nalanda University Ruins Bihar Ancient Learning Centre; UNESCO World Heritage Site
20 Victoria Memorial Kolkata, West Bengal Museum and Historical Landmark
21 Howrah Bridge Kolkata, West Bengal Iconic Cantilever Bridge; Engineering Marvel
22 Jallianwala Bagh Amritsar, Punjab Memorial of 1919 Massacre
Andaman & Nicobar
23 Cellular Jail (Kala Pani) Freedom Struggle Memorial; Historical Jail
Islands
Mahabalipuram, Tamil UNESCO World Heritage Site; Ancient Dravidian
24 Shore Temple
Nadu Architecture
25 Lotus Temple Delhi Baha'í House of Worship; Architectural Wonder
26 Amarnath Cave Temple Jammu & Kashmir Hindu Pilgrimage; Ice Shiva Lingam
27 Vaishno Devi Temple Jammu & Kashmir Major Hindu Pilgrimage Site
Bodh Gaya (Mahabodhi
28 Bihar UNESCO Site; Buddha’s Enlightenment Place
Temple)
29 Lingaraj Temple Bhubaneswar, Odisha Famous Hindu Temple; Kalinga Architecture
30 Kashi Vishwanath Temple Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh One of the 12 Jyotirlingas; Prominent Hindu Shrine

Famous Indian Places (Including Major Stupas & Buddhist Monasteries)

S. No. Place / Monument Location (State/City) Known For / Importance
Oldest Stone Structure in India; UNESCO World
1 Sanchi Stupa Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh
Heritage Site
2 Dhamek Stupa Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh Site where Buddha gave his first sermon
3 Mahabodhi Temple & Stupa Bodh Gaya, Bihar UNESCO Site; Buddha’s Enlightenment Site

125 | |
S. No. Place / Monument Location (State/City) Known For / Importance
4 Amaravati Stupa Andhra Pradesh Ancient Buddhist Monument; Satavahana Dynasty
5 Bharhut Stupa Madhya Pradesh Famous for Buddhist Railings and Sculptures
6 Nava Nalanda Mahavihara Bihar Ancient Learning Centre; Buddhist Monastery
7 Tawang Monastery Arunachal Pradesh Largest Buddhist Monastery in India
8 Hemis Monastery Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir Largest Monastery in Ladakh; Hemis Festival
Himachal Pradesh (Spiti
9 Key Monastery (Ki Gompa) Iconic Tibetan Buddhist Monastery
Valley)
10 Rumtek Monastery Sikkim Seat of the Karmapa Lama of Tibetan Buddhism
Namdroling Monastery (Golden Largest Teaching Center of Tibetan Buddhism in
11 Karnataka
Temple) South India
12 Shanti Stupa Leh, Ladakh Symbol of Peace; Scenic Location

Famous Places of Other Countries (International Landmarks)

S. No. Place / Monument Country / City Known For / Importance
1 Great Wall of China China UNESCO World Heritage Site; Ancient Defensive Structure
2 Pyramids of Giza Egypt UNESCO Site; Only Surviving Wonder of the Ancient World
3 Eiffel Tower Paris, France Iconic Iron Tower; Symbol of France
4 Statue of Liberty New York, USA Symbol of Freedom; UNESCO World Heritage Site
5 Machu Picchu Peru UNESCO World Heritage Site; Ancient Inca City
6 Colosseum Rome, Italy UNESCO Site; Ancient Roman Gladiatorial Arena
7 Christ the Redeemer Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Iconic Statue; One of the New 7 Wonders of the World
8 Sydney Opera House Sydney, Australia UNESCO Site; Iconic Performing Arts Center
9 Mount Fuji Japan UNESCO Site; Sacred Mountain and Iconic Natural Landmark
10 Petra Jordan UNESCO Site; Ancient Rock-cut City
11 Angkor Wat Cambodia Largest Religious Monument; UNESCO World Heritage Site
12 Stonehenge United Kingdom (England) Prehistoric Monument; UNESCO World Heritage Site
13 Leaning Tower of Pisa Italy Iconic Leaning Structure; Tourist Attraction
14 Burj Khalifa Dubai, UAE World’s Tallest Building
15 Niagara Falls USA / Canada World-famous Waterfalls; Major Tourist Destination

Sports terminologies and Personalities

S. No. Sport Important Terms / Equipment Famous Indian & International Players
Wicket, Over, Century, Duck, LBW, Virat Kohli, Rohit Sharma, Sachin Tendulkar, M.S. Dhoni,
1 Cricket
Bouncer, Yorker, Bat, Ball, Stump Kapil Dev International: Sir Don Bradman, Ben Stokes
Football Goal, Penalty, Offside, Corner Kick, Red Sunil Chhetri, Bhaichung Bhutia International: Lionel Messi,
2
(Soccer) Card, Free Kick, Goalkeeper, Ball Cristiano Ronaldo
Dribble, Flick, Penalty Stroke, Push, Dhyan Chand, Rani Rampal, Manpreet Singh International:
3 Hockey
Goalpost, Stick, Ball Jamie Dwyer (Australia)
Smash, Drop Shot, Serve, Rally, P.V. Sindhu, Saina Nehwal, Kidambi Srikanth, Lakshya Sen
4 Badminton
Shuttlecock, Racket International: Viktor Axelsen (Denmark)
Ace, Deuce, Grand Slam, Volley, Serve, Leander Paes, Sania Mirza, Rohan Bopanna International:
5 Tennis
Tie-break, Racket, Ball Roger Federer, Rafael Nadal, Novak Djokovic
Raid, Bonus Line, Do-or-Die Raid, Super
6 Kabaddi Pardeep Narwal, Rahul Chaudhari, Anup Kumar
Tackle, Cant
Bout, Pin, Takedown, Fall, Weight
7 Wrestling Bajrang Punia, Vinesh Phogat, Sushil Kumar, Sakshi Malik
Category
Knockout (KO), Jab, Uppercut, Round, Mary Kom, Amit Panghal, Lovlina Borgohain, Vijender
8 Boxing
Weight Class Singh

126 | |
S. No. Sport Important Terms / Equipment Famous Indian & International Players
Athletics (Track Sprint, Marathon, Hurdle, Relay, Shot Neeraj Chopra, Dutee Chand, Hima Das, Anju Bobby
9
& Field) Put, Javelin, Long Jump George International: Usain Bolt
10 Table Tennis Spin, Smash, Rally, Serve, Paddle Sharath Kamal, Manika Batra, Sathiyan Gnanasekaran
Check, Checkmate, Castling, Stalemate, Viswanathan Anand, R. Praggnanandhaa, D. Gukesh,
11 Chess
Grandmaster Koneru Humpy International: Magnus Carlsen
Pistol, Rifle, Bullseye, Qualification, Abhinav Bindra, Manu Bhaker, Saurabh Chaudhary, Anjali
12 Shooting
Final Bhagwat
Hole-in-One, Par, Birdie, Eagle, Tee, Anirban Lahiri, Jeev Milkha Singh International: Tiger
13 Golf
Green Woods, Rory McIlroy
Freestyle, Butterfly, Breaststroke, Sajan Prakash, Maana Patel International: Michael Phelps,
14 Swimming
Backstroke, Medley Katie Ledecky
Snatch, Clean and Jerk, Total Lift,
15 Weightlifting Mirabai Chanu, Jeremy Lalrinnunga
Weight Category
16 Carrom Striker, Queen, Foul, Board Maria Irudayam (India, World Champion)

Defence Exercises

🇮🇳 Major Defense Exercises Involving India (2024–2025)

Army Exercises
Partner
Exercise Name Location Focus Area Date
Country
Mahajan Field Firing Ranges, Counter-insurgency,
Yudh Abhyas USA Sept 9–22, 2024
Rajasthan interoperability
Vajra Prahar USA Idaho, USA Special Forces operations Nov 2–22, 2024
East Fuji Manoeuvre Training
Dharma Guardian Japan Counter-terrorism Feb 24–Mar 9, 2025
Area, Japan
Shakti-VIII France Camp Larzac, France Counter-terrorism June 18–July 1, 2025
May 31–June 13,
Nomadic Elephant Mongolia Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia High-altitude warfare
2025
Khanjar-XII Kyrgyzstan Kyrgyzstan Mountain warfare Mar 10–23, 2025
Dustlik-VI Uzbekistan Aundh, Pune Counter-terrorism Apr 16–28, 2025
Desert Cyclone UAE Rajasthan, India Desert warfare Jan 2–15, 2024
Sada Tanseeq Saudi Arabia Rajasthan, India Counter-terrorism Jan 29–Feb 10, 2024
Lamitiye Seychelles Seychelles Counter-insurgency Mar 18–27, 2024
Dec 31, 2024–Jan 13,
Surya Kiran Nepal Saljhandi, Nepal Counter-insurgency
2025
Sampriti Bangladesh Jashore, Bangladesh Counter-terrorism June 2024
Mitra Shakti Sri Lanka Ampara, Sri Lanka Counter-insurgency Oct 2024
Ekuverin Maldives Chaubatia, Uttarakhand Counter-terrorism June 2024
Mahajan Field Firing Range,
Al Nagah Oman Counter-terrorism Aug 13, 2024
Bikaner
Bold Kurukshetra Singapore Jodhpur Military Station Armored warfare Mar 6–13, 2023
Hand in Hand China Umroi, Meghalaya Counter-terrorism Dec 7, 2019
Maitree Thailand Umroi, Meghalaya Counter-insurgency Sept 16, 2019
Prabal Dostyk Sept 30–Oct 13,
Kazakhstan Auli, Uttarakhand Mountain warfare
(KAZIND) 2024

127 | |
 Naval Exercises
Exercise Name Partner Country Location Focus Area Date
Maritime security,
Malabar USA, Japan, Australia Pacific Ocean 2024
interoperability
Anti-submarine warfare, air Sept 2–4,
Varuna France Mediterranean Sea
defense 2024
Dec 17–20,
SLINEX Sri Lanka Visakhapatnam, India Maritime operations
2024
Konkan UK Arabian Sea Naval cooperation 2024
Simbex Singapore Bay of Bengal Anti-submarine warfare 2024
AUSINDEX Australia Bay of Bengal Maritime security 2024
Al-Mohed Al-
Saudi Arabia Arabian Sea Maritime security 2024
Hindi
Samudra Shakti Indonesia Bay of Bengal Maritime operations 2024
IMCOR Vietnam South China Sea Maritime security 2024
Zair-Al-Bahr Qatar Arabian Sea Maritime security 2024
Bongosagar Bangladesh Bay of Bengal Maritime operations 2024
MILAN Multinational Visakhapatnam, India Naval cooperation Feb 2024
USA, Japan, Australia, Canada, South
Sea Dragon Guam Anti-submarine warfare Jan 2024
Korea
Port Victoria,
Cutlass Express Multinational Maritime security Mar 2024
Seychelles
Dosti Sri Lanka, Maldives Maldives Maritime security Feb 2024

Air Force Exercises

Exercise Name Partner Country Location Focus Area Date
Tarang Shakti Multinational Sulur & Jodhpur, India Air combat operations Aug 6–Sept 14, 2024
Red Flag USA Alaska, USA Air combat training 2024
Cope India USA Kalaikunda & Panagarh, India Air operations 2024
Garuda France France Air combat training 2024
Desert Flag UAE Al-Dhafra, UAE Air combat training 2024
Cobra Warrior UK Waddington, UK Air combat training 2024
Veer Guardian Japan Japan Air combat training 2024
Pitch Black Australia Darwin, Australia Air combat training July 12–Aug 2, 2024
INIOCHOS Greece Greece Air combat training 2024
Orion France France Air combat training 2024

Multilateral Exercises
Exercise Name Participating Countries Location Focus Area Date
RIMPAC 26 nations including India Pacific Ocean Maritime security 2024
Multinational military
Cobra Gold Asia-Pacific nations Thailand 2024
operations
Humanitarian
Samvedna South Asian nations India 2024
assistance
La Perouse India, Australia, USA, France, Japan, UK Bay of Bengal Maritime security 2024
Super Garuda USA, Indonesia, Australia, Canada, France, Japan, Aug 26–Sept
Indonesia Joint military operations
Shield Singapore, South Korea, UK, New Zealand 6, 2024
Sea Dragon USA, Japan, Australia, Canada, South Korea Guam Anti-submarine warfare Jan 2024
Cutlass Express 16 nations including India Seychelles Maritime security Mar 2024

128 | |
 Most Important Topics
Topic Key Sub-Topics & Facts Most Asked Questions (with Answers)
• Founder of Maurya Empire? →
Chandragupta Maurya.
• Ancient: Indus Valley Civilization, Maurya Empire, Gupta
• Battle of Plassey year? → 1757.
Period.
• First Governor-General of India? → Warren
Indian History • Medieval: Delhi Sultanate, Mughal Empire
Hastings
.• Modern: British Rule, Freedom Movements, Social
• Leader of Non-Cooperation Movement? →
Reformers.
Mahatma Gandhi.
• Founder of Mughal Empire? → Babur.
• Total Fundamental Rights? → 6.
• Article for Right to Constitutional
• Constitutional Features: Longest written constitution. Remedies? → Article 32.
• 6 Fundamental Rights. • Number of Schedules in Indian
Indian Polity &
• Directive Principles & Duties. Constitution? → 12.
Constitution
• Important Articles: Article 32 (Right to Remedies), Article • First Chief Election Commissioner? →
370 (J&K Special Status), Article 356 (President’s Rule). Sukumar Sen.
• Length of Indian Constitution? → 448
Articles, 12 Schedules (approx.).
• Longest River in India? → Ganga (2525
• Longest River: Ganga (India), Nile (World).
km).
• Highest Mountain Peak: Mount Everest (World),
• Largest Desert? → Sahara Desert.
Kanchenjunga (India).
Geography (India & • Highest Mountain Peak in India? →
• Largest Desert: Sahara
World) Kanchenjunga.
.• Tropic of Cancer passes through 8 Indian States
• State with longest coastline? → Gujarat.
.• Largest Lake (India): Vembanad; Largest (World): Caspian
• Largest Lake in India? → Vembanad Lake
Sea.
(Kerala).
• Current Base Year for GDP? → 2011-12.
• Father of Indian Economic Planning? → M.
• Key Terms: GDP, Inflation, Fiscal Deficit.
Visvesvaraya.
• Base Year for GDP: 2011-12
• Stock Market Regulator? → SEBI.
Indian Economy .• Important Organizations: RBI, SEBI, NITI Aayog
• Union Budget prepared by? → Finance
.• Major Sectors: Agriculture, Industry, Services
Minister.
.• Repo Rate controls money supply.
• Currency Issued by? → RBI (except ₹1
note/coin – by Govt. of India).
• Classical Dance of Tamil Nadu? →
• Classical Dances: Bharatnatyam (TN), Kathak, Odissi,
Bharatnatyam.
Kathakali.
• Sun Temple located at? → Konark
• Folk Dances: Garba (Gujarat), Bihu (Assam), Ghoomar
Art, Culture & (Odisha).
(Rajasthan).
Heritage • Festival celebrated in Punjab? → Baisakhi.
• Festivals: Holi, Diwali, Pongal.• Monuments: Taj Mahal,
• Author of Mahabharata? → Maharishi
Khajuraho, Sun Temple.
Vyasa.
• Literature: Vedas, Ramayana, Mahabharata.
• Famous monument in Agra? → Taj Mahal.
• First Indian Olympic Gold in Athletics? →
• Major Events: Olympics, Asian Games, Commonwealth Neeraj Chopra (Tokyo 2020).
Games. • Country with most FIFA World Cups? →
• Famous Trophies: FIFA World Cup (Football), ICC World Cup Brazil (5 titles).
Sports (Cricket), Wimbledon (Tennis). • Trophy related to Cricket? → Ranji Trophy.
• Indian Sports Awards: Arjuna Award, Khel Ratna. • First Asian Games in India? → 1951, New
• Famous Indian Sports Persons: Sachin Tendulkar, PV Sindhu, Delhi.
Neeraj Chopra, Milkha Singh. • National Game of India? → Hockey
(unofficial).
• WHO Headquarters? → Geneva,
• Major Organizations: UN, IMF, World Bank, WHO, UNESCO, Switzerland.
WTO, SAARC, BRICS. • India is a member of? → BRICS, SAARC,
International • Headquarters:UN – New York, USA; WHO – Geneva, WTO, IMF, UN.
Organizations Switzerland; IMF – Washington DC, USA. • UN Secretary-General (2025)? → António
• Indian Organizations: ISRO (Bengaluru), DRDO, RBI Guterres.
(Mumbai), SEBI (Mumbai). • HQ of ISRO? → Bengaluru.• Monetary
stability organization? → IMF.

129 | |
Topic Key Sub-Topics & Facts Most Asked Questions (with Answers)
• Physics: Gravitation, Laws of Motion, Electricity. • Chemical Name of Common Salt? → Sodium
• Chemistry: Elements, Compounds, Periodic Table. Chloride (NaCl).
Science & • Biology: Human Body, Diseases, Plants & Animals • Morning Star? → Venus.• Discoverer of
Technology • Space: ISRO Missions (Chandrayaan, Mangalyaan) Gravity? → Isaac Newton.
• Inventions: Telephone (Bell), Penicillin (Fleming), Computer • Gas used in bulbs? → Argon.
(Babbage). • India’s first satellite? → Aryabhata.
• Author of ‘Discovery of India’? →
Jawaharlal Nehru.
• Autobiography of A.P.J. Abdul Kalam? →
• Famous Books:‘Discovery of India’ – Nehru‘Wings of Fire’ – Wings of Fire.
A.P.J. Abdul Kalam‘My Experiments with Truth’ – • Writer of ‘Gitanjali’? → Rabindranath
Books & Authors
Gandhi‘Gitanjali’ – Rabindranath Tagore Tagore.
• Nobel Prize Winning Authors & Books also asked. • Book by Mahatma Gandhi? → My
Experiments with Truth.
• Nobel-winning Indian author? →
Rabindranath Tagore (1913, Literature).
• First Bharat Ratna Awardees? → C.
Rajagopalachari, S. Radhakrishnan, C.V.
• National Awards: Bharat Ratna, Padma Awards.
Raman (1954).
• Sports Awards: Arjuna Award, Major Dhyan Chand Khel
• First Woman Nobel Laureate? → Marie
Ratna.
Awards & Honours Curie (1903, Physics).
• International Awards: Nobel Prizes (Peace, Literature,
• First Indian Film to win Oscar? → Smile
Science), Oscars.
Pinki (2008, Documentary Short Subject).
• Gallantry Awards: Param Vir Chakra, Ashok Chakra.
• Highest Civilian Award in India? → Bharat
Ratna.
• National Days: Republic Day (26 Jan), Independence Day (15 • Republic Day? → 26 January.
Aug), Gandhi Jayanti (2 Oct). • International Yoga Day? → 21 June.
Important Days &
• International Days: World Environment Day (5 June), • UN Day? → 24 October.
Dates
International Yoga Day (21 June), UN Day (24 Oct), Human • National Science Day? → 28 February.
Rights Day (10 Dec). • Constitution Day (India)? → 26 November.
• Capital of Japan? → Tokyo.
• Capitals & Currencies: Japan (Tokyo/Yen), USA (Washington • Currency of UK? → Pound Sterling.
D.C./Dollar), UK (London/Pound). • Largest Airport in India? → Indira Gandhi
Miscellaneous • National Symbols: Animal – Tiger, Bird – Peacock, Flower – International Airport, Delhi.
(India & World) Lotus, Fruit – Mango, Aquatic Animal – River Dolphin. • National Aquatic Animal? → Ganges River
• Largest Structures: Airport – IGI Delhi, Dam – Bhakra Nangal, Dolphin.
Temple – Akshardham (area-wise). • Largest Dam in India? → Bhakra Nangal
Dam (Punjab/Himachal Pradesh).

Environment and Ecology

S. No. Topic Details
Definition: The sum of all living and non-living components around an organism.
Components:
1 Environment
• Biotic: Living organisms (plants, animals, microbes)
• Abiotic: Air, water, temperature, soil, sunlight
Definition: Study of the interaction between living organisms and their environment.
2 Ecology Levels: Organism → Population → Community → Ecosystem → Biome → Biosphere
Coined by: Ernst Haeckel
Definition: A self-sustaining unit of living organisms interacting with their physical
environment.
Types:
• Natural (Forests, oceans)
3 Ecosystem • Artificial (Gardens, aquariums)
Components:
• Producers (autotrophs)
• Consumers (herbivores, carnivores)
• Decomposers (bacteria, fungi)

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S. No. Topic Details
• Food Chain: Linear sequence (e.g., Grass → Deer → Tiger)
4 Food Chain & Food Web • Food Web: Interconnected chains
• Trophic Levels: Each step in the chain
Definition: Variety of life forms on Earth
Types:
• Genetic
5 Biodiversity • Species
• Ecosystem
Hotspots in India: Western Ghats, Himalayas, Indo-Burma, Sundaland
Coined by: Walter G. Rosen
• In-situ: Natural habitat (e.g., National Parks)
6 Conservation of Biodiversity
• Ex-situ: Outside habitat (e.g., Zoos, Seed Banks)
Types:
• Air (CO2, SO2, PM2.5)
• Water (industrial waste)
7 Pollution
• Soil (pesticides)
• Noise (>85 dB)
Major Pollutants: CO, NOx, SO2, lead, plastics
• Global Warming due to GHGs: CO2, CH4, N2O, CFCs
8 Climate Change • Effects: Melting glaciers, sea-level rise
• Agreements: Kyoto Protocol, Paris Agreement, COP Summits
• Renewable: Sunlight, wind
9 Natural Resources • Non-renewable: Coal, petroleum
• Sustainable Development: Meeting present needs without harming future
• Environment Protection Act – 1986
• Air Act – 1981
10 Environmental Acts in India • Water Act – 1974
• Wildlife Protection Act – 1972
• Forest Conservation Act – 1980
• UNEP
• IPCC
11 International Organizations
• IUCN
• WWF
• Deforestation
• Desertification
Current Environmental
12 • Plastic Waste
Issues
• E-waste
• Loss of biodiversity

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