g1 INTRODUCTION In structural design, torsional moment may, on occasion, be a significant force for which Provision must be made. The most efficient shape for carrying a torque is « holiow circular shaft; extensive treatment of torsion and torsion combined with bending and axial force is to be found in most texts on mechanics of materials [8.1] Frequently torsion is a secondary, though not necessarily a minor effect that must be considered in combination with the action of other forces. The shapes that make good columns and beams, i.¢., those that have their material distributed as far from their cen- woids as practicable, are not equally efficient in resisting torsion, Thin-wall circular and box sections are stronger torsionally than sections with the same ares arranged as chennel, I, tee, angle, or zee shapes When a simple circular solid shaft is twisted, the shearing stress at any peint on a transverse cross-section varies directly as the distance from the center of the shaft, Thus, during twisting, the cross-section which is initially planar remains a plane and rotates only about the axis of the shaft In 1853 the French engineer Adhémar Jean Barré de Saint-Venant presented to the French Academy of Sciences the classical torsion theory that forms the basis for present-day analysis. Saint-Venant showed that when a noncircular bar is twisted, transverse section that was planar prior to twisting does not remain plane after twisting, The original cross-section plane surface becomes a warped surface. In torsion situa: ions the out-of-plane, or warping effect, must b or pure twisting, effect.’ ‘onsidered in addition to the rotation, smmary of Saint-Venant’s work, see Isaac Tadhunter and Karl Peasson, A History and of the Strength of Materials, Vol. Il, 1893 (reprinted by Dover Publications, li 1960, np. 17-51) Throughout Chapters 8 and 9, the symbol 4 is used forthe angle of twist, and shoaik! not be confused with the resitance factor # used for Load and Resistance Factor Design. The resistance factor ¢ in these chapters is wsed subscripted: dy to indicate bending. New York wo a a366 © Chapter® Torsion In this ehapter primary emphasis is given to the recognition of torsion on the structural members, such as T-shaped, channel, angle, and zee sections; how the ion stresses imay be approximated und ow such members may be selected to resist roy effects Also included is a brief treatment of torsional stffess and the Compotation of sional stresses on closed thin-wall sections as well as torsional buckling " EOUS SE 8.2 PURE TORSION OF HOMOG} TIONS A review of shear stress under torsion alone and of torsional stiffness seems a des -givning prior to constdering structural shapes in locations where the warping of eross-section is restrained Consider # torsional moment T acting on a solid shaft of homogencous material uniform cross-section, as shown in Fig, 8.2.1. Assume no out-of-plane warping, o¢ a that out-of-plane warping has negligible effect on the angle of twist ¢. This assu will be nearly correct so long as the cross-section is small compared to the length of shaft and aiso that no significant reenteant corners exist. tis further assumed that no gj lortion of the cross-section occurs during twisting. The rate of twist (twist per unit en may therefore be expressed as ; dd 6 = rate of twist = <> (824 Which can be thought of as torsional curvarure (rate of change of angle). Since itis the ative rotation of the cross-sections at < and 2 + dz that causes strain, the magnitude of placement at a given point is proportional to the distance r from the center of twist strain angle y, or unit shear strain, at any element r from the center is Figure 8.2.1 ‘Torsion of a prismatic shaft a} ©)Section 8.2 PureTorsion of Homogeneous Sections * 367 ‘sing the shear movulis'G, Hoake's law pivés the anit shear stress v as aes 623) ‘Thus, as shown in Fig. 8.2.1b, the elemental torque is P= eda = ryG dA = PldgidjG aA S24) ‘The total resisting moment for equilibrium is and Since dé/dz and G are constants-at any section, ae : Paa= oie (25) l, dz where J J,r°dA. Equation 8.2.5 may be thought of as analogous to flexur moment M equals rigidity EF times curv. . bending ature dy/d<%, ere torsional moment T equals ‘orsional rigidity G/ times torsional curvature (rate of change of angle). Shear stress may then be computed using Eqs, 8.2.2 and 82.3, de 3 vaye = rib 626) a and a6 oT dz” Gi Which gives ont 132.7) . Thus as long as the assumptions of this development reasonably apply, torsional sheat stress is proportional to the radial distance from the cemter of twist Circular Sections For the speci ¢ ease of the circular section of diameter 1, no warping of the sections occurs G.e., no assumption is required) and J = polar moment of inertia = 714/32. Thus, for maximum shear stress at r = ¢/2, Rectangular Sections The analysis as applied to rectangles becomes complex since the shear stress is affected by ‘warping. though essentially the angle of twist is unaffected As an approximation, consider the element of Fig. 8.2.2 sulajected to shear, in which db (8.29) “ae aaa368 © Chapter Torsion Figure #2. Torsion of & rectangular ing end effects, the shear stress may be expressed ax Fora thin rectangle, 0 dds new = 16% Way orysing Fig, 8.2.5. Tr org 254 From the theory of elasticity [81-8 3}, the maximam shear stress ts,, occurs ay riupoint of the long side of a rectangle and acts parallel to it. The magnitude isa func of the ratio b/t(lengchiwidth) and may be expressed as, at ax =p 824 and the torsional constant. may be expressed as J kab! 2 where the values of fy and k> may be found in Table 8.2.1 TABLE 8.2.1 Velues of &, and & for Eqs, 8.2.12 and 8.2.13 Lo ee 2 30 fe PABLO AST ABS ADT BR 2 a 203.281 L-shaped, Channel, and Tee Sections Ay will be observed from a study of Table 8.2.1 the values of ky and kp become neatly stant for large ratios ft. Thus the torsional constants for sections composed of thin gles may be computed as the sum of the values for the individual components. Such approach will give an approximation which neglects the contribution in the filles re where the components are joined. For most common structural shapes this approximat causes fittle error, thas ze Dye (au where b is the long dimension and ¢ the thin dimension of the rectangular elements. More accurate expressions for various structural shapes have been developed Lyse and Johnston {8.4], Chang and Johnston [8.5], Kubo, Johnston, and Eney [86h E] Darwish and Johnston [8.7] In addition to the torsional properties in the AISC Manual, torsional design aid lications are available by AISC [8.8], Hotchkiss (8.9), and Heins and Kuo (8.10)Section 8.3 Shear Stresses Due to Bending of Thin-Wall Open CrossSections * 369 SHEAR STRESSES DUE TO BENDING OF THIN-WALL CROSS-SECTIONS ‘Before treating the computation of stresses due to torsion of thin-wall open sections festrained from warping, a review of shear stress resulting from general flexure will be developed. Recognition of a torsion situation precedes concern about calculation of result- ing stresses, Extensive treatment of thin-wall members of open cross-section is given by Timoshenko (8.11), Referring to the general thin-wall seotion of Fig. 8.3.1, where x and y are centroidal axes, consider equilibrium.of the element rds dz acted upon by flexural stress a and shear stress 7, both of which result from bending moment. The shear stress + multiplied by the thickness r may be termed the shear flow +. Force equilibeium in the = direction requires alr) as dsdz + Paes 0 ad ae attr) ae. or as (832) 1, Assume moment is applied in the yz plane only, ie., My = 0. The flexural stress due to bending, as given by Eq, 7.10.18, is 17.10.18) (83.8) Recognizing that ¥, = #M Jae, and substituting Eq, 8.3.3 into Eq, 8.3.2 gives BD) Si thy Bat (834) 8” Isp = Ty vi \ a ww370 * Chapters Torsion sting to find 11 ata distance s from a free edge gives the shear flow 71 as 26 eee * 4 f mas [sas on pe ak plane only, be, ©. The lexus, 2. Assume moment is applied in the x2 p dae to hen 1 by Fg. 710.18 8 ing as giv a, (Igy + 8) (7.1013) recognizing that V; = aM,/42, and integrating to get the shear flow ; Moments applied in both ve and xz planes. Uf shear stresses are desired they Taking 407, gives in a manner similar to Eq, 8.3.5, bbe computed by superimposing the results from Eqs. 8.3.5 and 8.3.6. It is to be observed from Fig. 8.3.1b that equilibrium requires that the shear ¥, in y direction equal the components of rf in the y direetion summed over the entire se tion. Similarly V, equals the summation of 7f components in the x direction, Rotatio ‘equilibrium must also be satistied; the moment about the centroid of the section i Fig. 8.3.16) [ora fs which will be zero in some cases (such as T-shaped and Z-shaped sections). If suet re tional equilibrium is automatically satisfied when the flexural shears act through the e troid, then no torsion will occur simultancously with bending. 8.4 SHEAR CENTER ‘when flex ng thtongh ‘The shear center is the Jocation in a cross-section where no torsion 06: shears act in planes passing through that location. In other words, forces a. shear center will causc no torsional stresses to develop, i. { “(nied b Since the shear center does not necessarily coincide with the centroid of the section, shear center must be located in order to evaluate the torsional stress. For Ishaped Z-shaped sections, the shear center coincides with the centroid, but for channels angles it does not. Referring to Fig. 8.3.1, consider the shears V, and V, acting at distances from centroid yp and xg, respectively, such that the corsional moment with respect to the eet is the same as. {(77)r ds integrated from zero to n, thus iB, = yay — Vary = A (rt) ds ™Section8.4 ShearCenter * 3717 In other words, the torsional moment is (Vxy ~ Viv) when the Toads are applied in planes passing through the centroid but is zero if the loads are in planes passing through the shear center, ie., the point whose coordinates are (0.30) It is observed that the location of shear center is independent of the magnitude or type of loading, but is dependent only an the cross-sectional configuration. To determine the shear center location, first let one of the shears be zero, say Vy = 0: then from Eq. 8.4.2. et coed tijeds (8.4.3) ‘< dos where according to Eq. 8.3.6, v, 4 “4 et di, | yas — 1 | weds peel hner=e fe) Alternately, letting V, = 0 gives from Eq. 8.4.2. Xo oe SAF nee, (344) 1 gore where according to Eq. 83.5, aah heh a 5 ” = f reas tof was| ie TEL hy fs EXAMPLE 8.4.1 Locate the shear center for the chasinel section of Fig. 8.4.1 Solution: Many practical cases can be solved without using the general formulas, Egy. 8.4.3 and 8.4.4, Since the shear center location is a problem in equilibrium, moments may most con veniently be taken through a point that eliminates the greatest number of forces. Thus, letting V, = 0 and taking moments about point A of Fig. 84.12, changes the equilibrium equation, Eq, 8.4.2. to | Vaq = Vek = f (a1)hds @ v Reasve oe Figue 84.1 is fo Cnnel of Example 5372 © Chapters Torsion where according to Eq. 8.3.5 wy For these thin-wall sections, the length slong which integration is performed is meas at mid-thickness, Substituting Eg. (b) into Eq, (2), and using y = ~h/2 where = 7 gives @ Thus the shear center Jacatipn along the a-axis 1s ree @ measured in the positive x direction to the left of the channel web. For the shear center coordinate: measuted along the y-axis, apply ¥ snd let ¥, = g and because af symmetry ¥, must act at y = 0 for equilibrium, To demwwsirate, let ¥, applic atthe distance sy below the x-axis and take moments ahout poet A. Satstying equilibrium, : at)y ds I me 4 where according to Eq. 8.36, -V, aa] xtds 4 Jo To illustrate numerically, use b= 4 in, = 12m, ands = centroid of the channel (refer to Fig. 84.1e) is located 12 WHICH 386 the SAx _ 20(6/2)ue __2(4)(2) EA” (h + 2b), 12% 264) Bin, (4)°2 ~ 20(08)?lty. = 29.87 Vio 32 Baia hf 2 Substitution of 71 into Eq. (e) gives h tay, fs? vi == yy ) = BS oo5 bias (j ») [#6 eresspam RON in Bigs gue 8.1 Common torsional loading 5 TORSIONAL STRESSES IN I-SHAPED STEEL SECTIONS Section 85 Torsional Stresses in |-Shaped Steel Sections © 373 Thus its shown that y is zero. The shear center may also be located as follows. First com ute, by integrating over each : sess distribution of Fig. 8.4.1, the shear forces acting in GPh ofthe component clements ofthe section, Then the shear center is located such that «oF Vy counteract all of the shear forces acting on the components to produce equilibriam, In solving for the shear center location, the solution may be made as iMustrated, and then checked by veritying that the forces are in equilibrium. * The structural engineer must recognize a torsion situation and be able to apply approxi mate design methods and perform a stress analysis when necessary, even though only Cceusionally will torsion be severe enough 10 control the design of a section. Rolled steel Sections under uniform and nonuniform torsion have been studied analytically and expeti: mentally by many investigators, The development in this section is similar to that of Timoshenko (8.11, Lyse and Johnston [8.4], Kubo, Johnston, and Eney [8.6], Goldberg {8.12}, and Chu and Johnson {8.13}. Discussions of some of the practical aspects, along with solutioas for various loading and support cases, are given by Hotchkiss [8.9] and Johnston (8.14J; charts for design are avaitable in the handbook from AISC [8.8] and in the paper by Johnston [8.14]; and design tables using the B modified flexure analogy method developed by the authors are presented in Sec. 8,6. Lin (8.15, 8.16) has given additional and expanded vahue tables, Application of load in a plane other than the one through the shear center (see Fig, 8.5.1) will cause the member to owist unless external restraints prevent such twist ing. The torsional stress due to twisting consists of both shear and flexural stresses. ‘These stresses must be superimposed on the shear and flexural stresses that exist in the absence of torsion Torsion may be categorized into two types: pure torsion, of as it is often called Saint-Venant’s torsion, and warping torsion, Pure torsion assumes that a cross-sections plane prior to application of torsion remains a plane and only element rotation occurs during torsion. A circular shaft subjected to torsion is a situation where pure torsion exists as the only type. Warping torsion is the out-of-plane effect that arises when the flanges are laterally displaced during twisting, analogous to bending from Taterally applied loads, 1, Pure torsion (Saint-Venant’s Torsion). Just as flexural curvature (change in slope per unit length) can be expressed as M/EJ = d°y/dz*, i¢., moment divided by flexural rigidity equals flexural curvature, in pure torsion the torsional moment M divided by the torsional rigidity GJ equals the torsional curvature (change in angle of bwist & per unit374 © Chapters Torsion Figure 8.5.2 Torsion of an T-shaped Figure 8.5.3 Warping shear force: ‘on I-shaped section. Tsing prevented A Canter oto fang afer “Twisting prevent ahi end Seaton AA length), Recalling previously derived Fag, 8.2.5 for T, which now becomes the compara M, due to pure torsion Where M, = Pure torsional moment (Saint-Venant torsion) G = shear modulus of elasticity = E/[2(1 + 72)], in terms of the tension-compression modulus of elasticity F and Poisson's ratio J = torsional constant (see See. 8.2) In accordance with Eq, 8.2.7, stress due to M, is proportional to the distance from center of twist. 2. Warping torston. A beam subjected to torsion M, compression flange bent in one direction laterally while its tension Flange is bent inthe th Whenever the cross-section is such that it would warp (become & nonplanar section) i restrained, the restrained system has stresses induced. The torsional situ illustrates a beam that is prevented trom twisting at each end but the top Manze defies lar ally by an amount wy, This tateral flange bending catises flexural normal stresses (en anid compression} as well as shear stresses actos the flange width. Thus, torsion may be thought of as being composed of two parts: (1) rotation of ‘ments, the pure torsion part, and (2) translation producing lateral bending, the werping 3. Differential equation for torsion on - and channel-shaped sections. Consider deflected position of a flange centerline, as in Fig. 85.2, where uy is the loteral deflee of one of the flanges at a section a distance z from the end of the member: & is the tvs Angle at the same section, and ¥ (Fig. 8.5.3) is the horizontal shear force d=veloped in flange at the section due to lateral bending. An important assumption is that the w temains a plane during rotation, so that the flanges deflect laterally an equal amount. the web is assumed thick enough compared to the flanges so that is does not bend d twisting as a result of high torsional resistance of the flanges. Except for thin-web itders, it hs been shown [8.6, 8.17] that assuming no lateral bending in the web, xe as in Fig. 8.5.2, will haveeae) a PY ae ee ne og Section 85 Torsional Stresses in Shaped Steel Sections © 375 effect on the warping torsion com Since rarely are thin-web plate sional stress exists, stich ca From geometry, ponent, Js sufficiently correct for practical purposes. kirders used! without stiffeners, and certainly not when tor eS are not of practical importance (852) for small values of @. For understanding of torsion on T- and channel-shaped sections Eq, 8.5.2 is the single most important relationship. The twist angle is directly propor. onal to the lateral deflection. Torsion boundary conditions are analogous to lateral bending boundary conditions. Differentiating three times wi respect to z in Eg. $5.2 gives Buy (ny db ae ahae For one flange the curvature relationship is Puy, El, where My isthe lateral bending moment on one flange, J, is flange about the y-axis ofthe beam, and the minus sign atscs fn a shovin in Fig. 8.5.2. Aso, since V = aM Puy -V ‘ as El, 4 Using Ege. 85.3 und 8.5.5 gives £( 5.6 Referring to Pig. 8.5.3, the torsional moment compouent &t,.. cous 7 f die Flanges, equals the Mange shear force V tin o ah. This uss near resistance to warping is contributed by the set My = Vyh = 105 Hops mete equal the torsional moment on the girder. To attack such a problem one must first deter- mine the relationship between the angle of twist ¢ and the applied torsional moment T. ,__, Forexample, in Fig. 8.7.1 the loading system causes equal torsional moments at the points on member AB. Assuming the girder torsionally simply supported at ends A and B, using either the differential equation solution formulas ar the curves of Torsional Analysis of Steel Members [8.8] (Case 4, p. 64), for AL. = 15(12)/51.3 = 3.51, one finds the angle of twist & at point a i ~ = 0.09 Oey i or Sao = 16.2% GI for T applied at a. In addition the value of at point a for T applied at ¢ is T. a bap = 0.07(180) —& = 12.6 GI GI Finally, for 7, mer, r ba = (16.2 + 126)— = 28—— (162 + 126) = 8; The twist angle J, must be compatible with the end slope of the beam; using slope deflection. | | cab} the fixed-end moment for beam ab at a beam slope at a May = Mray + 2 bt T where beam slope at b A = relative deflection between @ and b After having established the necessary slope deflection equations For moments, joint equilibrium and shear conditions are necessary, after which simultaneous equations must be solved. One such jomt equation is that at joint a,390 © Chapters Torsion Figure 87.2 Torsional restraint conditions. (Adapted fiom Hotchkiss (8.9), Fig, 8) After solving for the slopes, then the torsional moments can be found: for the tor moment at 4 T= bqGI/288 15 hay In the Goldbeig [8.12] example using members having properties similar ty tha 71s the vale of T obtained was 1.55 in.-kps using an approximate method of gat fying deformation compatibility Suppose one had taken the simple beam reaction for member ab, 0.5(7) = 3p, and assume use of AISC Manual Table 10-1, “All-Bolted Double-Angle Connectiong: Fig. 1321). If the eccentricity had been taken to the bolt line on the outstanding (24 in.), the torsional moment would have been far too great, while if the eccentyciyy been taken as one-half the W10X45 (Fig. 8.7.1) web thickness (0.3502), the toning moment would have been far too small “The proper torsional momient ean only be obtained (6 ring deformation compatibility: 0 approximately) hy cous Torsional End Restraint If a torsional situation is deemed to require analysis, the torsional end restraint must he evaluated. Under AISC:B..6 two basi types of construction are permite: Type FR (ly restrained) which is the traditional “rigid frame” constnuetion; and Type PR (pariait restiained) which includes “simple” or “conventional” framing where there is assumed be negligible flexural restraint at the joint, xs well as “Semi-rigid” framing wheve a detgg, flexural restraint exists that is less than Type FR. The correlation of “simple” and “rigid framing with torsional restraint i shownig Fig. 8.7.2. Again, the lateral bending analogy will help in visualizing the torsional resi conditions, Figure 8.7.2a shows the analogy situation of zero deflection and zero momen Upper flange {a} AISC simple framing connection Mo aM, +My: My=0 Plates 8 ~~ ates Plates 4 4b) AISC nigid framing connection (AISC Type FR) with : additional stiffening platesSection 8.8 Torsion—Laterally Stable Beams * 391 The single bond orsonaly to = 0 and dP pede? = 0, Kix wened tha = O only if ws supe connection extends over a significant portion of the beam depth, Sore on 2 SHOWS the analogy situation Of 2er0 defwotion aim 72% slope which heath ee oes Oually t0 & = 0 and diaz ~ 0, Hotchkiss (8.9) sates the ends of the 823] rane be boxed in (lates A, Big. 8.7.25) co as to aatore d/de = 0, Oalvo (8.20, Far ye istussed torsional restraint and indicates that “boxing” enol suficient to obtain areca, Natta ats, weking settee patea WebUt ae tous ok EHO Pen tetiing then slong the beaon for a length equal to the exin deyth, jx used aiid the Bram is then welded to a thick column flange the authors believe iis ersenilly “worsion. ally fixed”. Furthermore, if the column Fig. 8.7.2b) shoul 7.2) should be provided he Be (820) suggestion of welding « length of channel, angle, oF bent plate Feneen the flanges of one side of the web seems o bea more efRcien and economical Solu- Fy peends ofthe mernher mus be welded against ihe insides of he Slanges, and there mist Mea Neld vertically along the edges that bear against the web. Teta of several torsonal Peary aaincluding that proposed by Ojalyo [8.20], have been reported by Heins and Porocko {821), Vacharajitiptan and Trabsir (8.23] also discuss torsional restr The structural engineer should remen ign is made at the ends, fixed (ab/d2 = 0} burs, has flexible flanges, column stiffeners (plates B, a Tsection joints miber that in practical situstions where no special » the torsional restraint is neither sisple (1° h/dz? = 0) nor however, usually such that the end twist 3s nearly 2er0 (¢ = 0) LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN FOR TORSION ALLY STABLE BEAMS Nominal Strength ‘The nominal strength of a section subject to torsion or torsion combined with flexure is not readily determined. Such strength will certainly depend on the proportions of the see {ton and the relative magnitdes of the forces applied. The AISC ASD Specification (such as the 1978 Specification, See, 1.5.1.4,4) has traditionally limited the combined stress to f maxinum of 0.608, This implies that the nominal strength of the section under comt- bined bending and torsion is reached when the extreme fiber stress reaches the yield stress 'y- Thus, the entire cross-section will be elastic: no credit is given to ability of the crass Section to tunderga plastic deformation, Certainly this approach is conservative. An inter= esting review of the design of Ish; by Driver and Kennedy [8.35] AISC-H2 uses an inte two major axes, ‘aped beams for combined flexure and torsion is given action equation, where the nominal strength about each of the n conservatively be taken equal to its yield moments, (Note that in this chapter the strength reduction factor dy, is given the subscript to clearly distinguish it from the angle @ of twist.) Thus, the clastic biaxial bending stress equation, Eq. 7.11.1, can be used afler converting the torsional moment into « pair of lateral bending moments acting in opposite directions on each fa In the examples that follow, the beams are assumed to be stab torsional buckling Timit state does not control (see Chapter 9) such that the lateral- EXAMPLE 8.8.1 Select the I ightest W section of A992 steel to carry 0.55 kips/it dead Load, in addition to the af the beam, and live load of 2.0 kipsift. The superimposed Toad is applied eccen- tically 7 in. from the center of the web on the simply supported span of 28 ft as shown in Fig. 8.8.1, Assume the ends of the beam have torsional simple support.392 © Chapters Torsion ioure 8.3 Conditions for Example $.8.1 258 hips iM eum we ES pp pert (a) Venical support () Torsional suppor Solution: (a) Compute factored loads eeventrically applied. wey = 1.2(0.55) + 16(2.0) = 3.86 kips/ft by Coaipate factored moment M,.. Estimating the beam weight as 0.13 kipst, je moment My, is Mga = Jued? = [1386 + 12(0.13)](28)? ~ 394/0-6ips (©) Consider the torsion effect. The factored uniformly distributed torsional moments m, = 3.86(7) ~ 27.0 in.-kips/ft realy distributed lateral load acting on one flange ofthe beam, the lateral bending moment My acting om one flange is Consider m,/8i as the uni ‘Then using the flexure anak ‘without regard to the modification factor ‘As a first approximation, assume h = L4in, and B = 0.5 (approximation from ‘Table 8.6.3, for AL ~ 3). Thus the modified flexure analogy gives (2646 5{ 2646) — 04.5 tips os( =? kip ‘The design azceptabilty criterion is Mass. by Mnx — b>May and using the procedure discussed it Sec, 7.11 gives as = Me, Ma (Se Required Sy = - 3 394(12) 20945), es = p50(50) * 090(30) 2) = 256 in which the ratio $,/'S, is estimated at 3 (Table 7.11.1) for medium weight W114 sections, and My is doubled to give an equivalent moment acting on two flanges. ‘This would indicate 8 W14X176 having an $, = 281 in.” Since the scwal $5, ratio for W14 sections in this weight range is 2.6, the required S, is then reduced to 4, indicating W14145, :