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GODS AND MEN IN EGYPT
3000 BCE TO 395 CE

FRANCOISE DUNAND AND

CHRISTIANE ZIVIE-COCHE
TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH BY DAVID LORTON

In their wide-ranging interpretation of the reli-

gion of ancient Egypt, Frangoise Dunand and
Christiane Zivie-Coche explore how, over a
period of roughly 3500 years, the Egyptians con-
ceptualized their relations with the gods.
Drawing on the insights of anthropology, the
authors discuss such topics as the identities,
images, and functions of the gods; rituals and
liturgies; personal forms of piety expressing
humanity’s need to establish a direct relation
with the divine; and the afterlife, a central fea-
ture of Egyptian religion. That religion, the
authors assert, was characterized by the remark-
able continuity of its ritual practices and the
ideas of which they were an expression.
Throughout, Dunand and Zivie-Coche take
advantage of the most recent archaeological dis-
coveries and scholarship. Gods and Men in Egypt
is unique in its coverage of Egyptian religious
expression in the Ptolemaic and Roman peri-
ods. Written with nonspecialist readers in mind,
it is largely concerned with the continuation of
Egypt's traditional religion in these periods, but
it also includes fascinating accounts of Judaism
in Egypt and the appearance and spread of
Christianity there.
 BL
2441.3
D8613
2004

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GODS AND MEN

IN EGYPT
3000 BCE TO 395 CE

CCC
CSCC
CECE.
AE

CETTE
Lee

FRANCOISE DUNAND AND

CHRISTIANE ZIVIE-COCHE
TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH BY
DAVID LORTON

CORNELL UNIVERSITY PRESS

Ithaca and London

LA ADA AS J AAA
AVAWAAWAWAVAVAVIAV/VAV/LUAWAV/AWIVAVAPAWAV/VILY aA NAAN TN ENN TT
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This translation was prepared with the generous assistance of the French
Ministry of Culture—Centre national du livre/Ouvrage publié avec le
concours du Ministére francais chargé de la culture—Centre National du
Livre

Originally published by © Armand Colin, 2002, © VUEF/Armand Colin

2002.

Copyright © 2004 by Cornell University

All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or
parts thereof, must not be reproduced in any form without permission
in writing from the publisher. For information, address Cornell Univer-
sity Press, Sage House, 512 East State Street, Ithaca, New York 14850.

First published 2004 by Cornell University Press

Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Dunand, Francoise.
[Dieux et hommes en Egypte. English]
Gods and men in Egypt : 3,000 BCE to 395 CE / by Francoise Dunand
and Christiane Zivie-Coche ; translated from the French by David Lorton.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8014-4165-X (alk. paper)
1. Egypt—Religion. 2. Mythology, Egyptian. I. Zivie-Coche,
Christiane. II. Title.
BL2441.3.D8613 2004
299’ .31—dc22
2004001927

Cornell University Press strives to use environmentally responsible sup-

pliers and materials to the fullest extent possible in the publishing of its
books. Such materials include vegetable-based, low-VOC inks and acid-
free papers that are recycled, totally chlorine-free, or partly composed
of nonwood fibers. For further information, visit our website at www.
cornellpress.cornell.edu.

Cloth printing 10987654321

CONTENTS

Preface, by Christiane Zivie-Coche

Translator’s Note

BOOK I. PHARAONIC EGYPT

Christiane Zivie-Coche

PART I. THE WORLD OF THE GODS

1. What Is a God?
The Gods Exist
Netjer, God
Figures of the Divine
Name, Person, and Function
The Organization of the Divine
Stories About the Gods
What Transcendence?

2. Cosmogonies, Creation, and Time

Egyptian Ontology
Before Creation, Nun
The Emergence of Being
The Place of the Emergence of Being
The Time of the Emergence of Being
The Techniques of Creation
Creation and Its Categories
Time and Creation

3. The Gods on Earth

The Chronological Evolution of Temples and the Problem of Sources
The Dwelling of the God
The Cult: Rituals and Liturgies
The Grammar of the Temple
The Officiants
V1 CONTENTS

PART II. THE LIVING AND THE DEAD

4. Of Men and Gods 107
Personal Piety: Attempt at Definition 107
Personal Piety and Institutions 111
Magic 122
Personal Piety in the Course of a Lifetime 128
Modes of Human-Divine Relationship 136
The Conduct of Life 143

5. “Death Will Come” 153

Knowing Death 154
What to Do? 166
Terra Incognita and Its Paths 183

BOOK II. PTOLEMAIC AND ROMAN EGYPT

Francoise Dunand
PART I. RELIGION AND POWER
1. From the Lagides to the Roman Emperors: The New Pharaohs
and Their Politico-Religious Ideology 197
The Sacralization of Power 198
Themes and Instruments of Royal Propaganda 202

2. The Reactions of the Priests 206

The Ptolemaic Period: An Ambiguous Game of
Opposition/Collaboration 206
The Roman Period: A Muzzled and Resigned Clergy 210

3. A New God: The “Creation” of Sarapis 214

The Greek Contribution and the Egyptian Contribution 214
Who Was Sarapis? 216
Sarapis: Dynastic God, God of the Polis, God “for the Greeks”? 218
PART II. THE RELIGIOUS UNIVERSE
4. The Vitality of the Traditional Religion 225
The Sanctuaries 225
Upsurge in Theological Activity 233
“All the Egyptians Render a Cult to Them”: Isis and Osiris 235
5. New Gods and Cults 240
Greek Gods and Cults 240
Royal Cult and Imperial Cult 247
Judaism in Egypt 253
Birth and Spread of Christianity in Egypt 259
CONTENTS Vil

6. Problems and Controversies 267

Changes in the Image of the Gods 267
Polytheisms and Monotheisms: From Coexistence to Conflict 276

PART III. HUMAN BEHAVIORS

7. Official Liturgies: The World of the Temples and Its Activities 285
A Greek Festival: The Ptolemaia of Alexandria 285
Ar Egyptian Festival: The “Festival of the Uplifting of the Sky
and the Creation of the Potter’s Wheel” at Esna 289
In the World of the Temples: The Daily Life of an Egyptian Temple 294

8. From “Learned” Religion to “Popular” Religion 299

Outside the World of the Temples: Private Religious Practice 299
A Form of Consecration: Reclusion in the Temples 306
From Everyday Cares to Anguish Before the Unknown:
Oracles and Magic 311

9. Funerary Beliefs and Rituals 319

Images of the Hereafter: Egyptian Vision and Greek Vision 319
The Persistence of Traditional Practices 325
From “Pagan” Funerary Rituals to Christian Customs:
A Manifest Continuity 333

Conclusion Bh

Glossary of Gods and Goddesses 343

Maps 351
Chronology 353
Bibliography 357
Index 369
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PREFACE

POLYTHEISM AND MONOTHEISM

What is religion, or a religion? At first glance, the answer might seem obvious.
People know, or think they know, what religion means, especially their own. But
things are not so simple. A single word covers different realities far removed from
one another, according to whether we are considering an ancient polytheistic re-
ligion, a revealed monotheism, or an African animism. Still, these realities un-
doubtedly have something in common, for it is always a question of the attitude
of humankind in the face of the invisible, of modalities of humankind’s rela-
tionship to the imaginary realm of religion that we must try to understand from
the inside, following the approach proper to each culture. There is a great risk
and temptation to analyze, and often to judge, a religion by our own criteria, of
our Western system of thought, and to pursue an enterprise authorized by many
centuries of usage, namely, that of mental ethnocentrism.
Egypt has not escaped this process. From the outset of Egyptology, and even
long before it, in the time of the Greek historiographers and that of more mod-
ern Egyptomaniacs, manifestations of the religious in the pharaonic era have
aroused a curiosity that has been attentive but often mixed with misunder-
standing or sarcasm. If we wish to indulge in paradox, we would stress that in
the language of that land, whose inhabitants Herodotus said were the most reli-
gious of peoples, there was no equivalent of our word religion. The Egyptians
undoubtedly had no need to forge such a concept, for the domain of the reli-
gious was in no way delimited and assigned to a precise place in their life; rather,
it had some of the characteristics of what we call philosophy, morality, and pol-
 PREFACE
x

itics. More than any other, the study and analysis of the phenomenon of religion,
which in human affairs touches on the invisible, are subject to two factors of
evaluation that often remain implicit or unacknowledged. The subjectivity of
the author, his or her personal convictions, which play more of a determining
role than is commonly admitted, is one of these factors. Paul Veyne has well
demonstrated that in history objectivity is an illusion. What, then, are we to say
about an ancient religion, when we are approaching one of the most sensitive ar-
eas in the functioning of the human mind? The second factor resides, in a rather
obvious manner, in the currents of thought that prevail at any given moment.
Clearly, scholars have renounced the positivism of the nineteenth century, and
the adherents of the school of Frazer are now held in little regard. Contempo-
rary understanding of religious phenomena has been highly influenced by an-
thropology and structuralism (more so than by psychoanalysis), but in twenty
years some new approach undoubtedly will shed fresh light on our perception
of homo religiosus. Scholars of Egyptian religion have often been preoccupied
with its origins, which remain obscure. Theories about fetishism or primitive an-
imism have been invalidated by a better understanding of the archaic docu-
mentation, and it is scarcely useful to return to them, any more than to the
notion of a progressive transition from a zoomorphism to an anthropomor-
phism of the gods and goddesses, which is categorically contradicted by the phe-
nomenon of animal cults in the later stages of Egyptian history.
The heart of the problem has always been the opposition between monothe-
ism and polytheism and the desire, whether explicit or surreptitiously dissimu-
lated, to catch sight of the traces of a monotheism, even a bastard one, beneath
the excrescences of polytheism. There have been various theories about either a
monotheism present in the original substrate of Egyptian religion before being
eventually corrupted or a monotheism emerging from the dross of divine pro-
fusion so as to approach a unity. These different theses have been thoroughly
studied by Erik Hornung in his work Conceptions of God in Ancient Egypt: The
One and the Many.
Western thought has difficulty abandoning a scale ofvalues that places mono-
theism and the uniqueness of God on a higher level than divine plurality while
at the same time allowing for the postulation, if only tacitly, of a solid link be-
tween Egypt and the religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. “Egypt, cra-
dle of monotheism,” proclaim the publicity posters conceived by the official
tourism bureaus. To speak of a religion, even a dead one, is never a neutral thing,
never without emotional or even political implications for the present. We might
believe that this somewhat scholastic quarreling is a thing of the past, at least in
the sphere of the history of religions, but it is not. “Encore le monothéisme”
(monotheism once again) is the title of an article by Philippe Derchain, for to
the multiplicity of the divine described by Hornung there is now opposed the
primacy of the transcendence discovered by Jan Assmann in Egyptian religion
at the end of the New Kingdom, the ancestor of all gnostic doctrines.
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