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Beowulf & Other Stories
To whom it may concern
Beowulf &
Other Stories
A New Introduction to
Old English, Old Icelandic
and Anglo-Norman Literatures
Second edition

Edited by Richard North and Joe Allard

First published 2007 by Pearson Education Limited
Second edition 2012

Published 2014 by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Copyright © 2007, 2012, Taylor & Francis.

The rights of Richard North and Joe Allard to be identified as authors

of this work have been asserted by them in accordance
with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or
by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission
in writing from the publishers.

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical
treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In
using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of
others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products
liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products,
instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

ISBN 13: 978-1-4082-8603-6 (pbk)

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A CIP catalogue record for this book can be obtained from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Beowulf and other stories : a new introduction to old English, old Icelandic
and Anglo-Norman literatures / edited by Richard North and Joe Allard. – 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4082-8603-6 (pbk.)
1. Literature, Medieval – History and criticism. 2. English literature – Old English,
ca. 450-1100 – History and criticism. 3. Old Norse literature – History and criticism.
4. Anglo-Norman literature – History and criticism. I. North, Richard, 1961– II. Allard,
Joe, 1948–
PN681.B38 2011
809’.02 – dc22
2011016877
Set by 35 in 9/13.5pt Stone Serif
 Contents

List of plates and maps vii

Preface to the second edition ix
Acknowledgements x
Publisher’s acknowledgements xiii

1 Why read Old English literature? 1

An introduction to this book
Richard North, David Crystal and Joe Allard
Names to look out for 26
Richard North and Joe Allard
2 Is it relevant? 38
Old English influence on The Lord of the Rings
Clive Tolley
3 Is violence what Old English literature is about? 63
Beowulf and other battlers: an introduction to Beowulf
Andy Orchard
4 Is there more like Beowulf? 95
Old English minor heroic poems
Richard North
5 What else is there? 130
Joyous play and bitter tears: the Riddles and the Elegies
Jennifer Neville
6 How Christian is OE literature? 160
The Dream of the Rood and Anglo-Saxon Northumbria
Éamonn Ó Carragáin and Richard North
7 How did OE literature start? 189
Cædmon the cowherd and Old English biblical verse
Bryan Weston Wyly
vi CONTENTS

8 Were all the poets monks? 219

Monasteries and courts: Alcuin and Offa
Andy Orchard

9 What was it like to be in the Anglo-Saxon or Viking world? 246

Material culture: archaeology and text
Michael Bintley

10 Did the Anglo-Saxons write fiction? 274

Old English prose: King Alfred and his books
Susan Irvine

11 How difficult is the Old English language? 300

The Old English language
Peter S. Baker

12 When were the Vikings in England? 329

Viking wars and The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
Jayne Carroll

Notes on the Old Norse language 351

Richard North

13 What gods did the Vikings worship? 379

Viking religion: Old Norse mythology
Terry Gunnell

14 Just who were the Vikings anyway? 404

Sagas of Icelanders
Joe Allard

15 Were there stories in late OE literature? 445

Prose writers of the English Benedictine Reform
Stewart Brookes

16 What happened when the Normans arrived? 485

Anglo-Norman literature: the road to Middle English
Patricia Gillies

Epilogue 520
The end of Old English?
David Crystal

The editors and the contributors 530

Index 534
 List of plates and maps

Plates
1 The pagan protective boar figure on the Benty Grange helmet
2 An Anglo-Saxon manuscript of Prudentius’ Psychomachia
3 The York helmet, with a Christian inscription cross-wise over the
top
4 The Franks Casket
5 The Exeter Book of Anglo-Saxon poetry: first page of The Wanderer
6 The Vercelli Book, opening of The Dream of the Rood
7 Twelfth-century mosaic in San Clemente Church, Rome
8 The five gems of the Ahenny Stone High Cross
9 The Ruthwell High Cross
10 Gabriel with Mary: Annunciation panel on the Ruthwell Cross
11 A symbol for the Gospel of St John in the Book of Durrow
12 King Alfred’s Preface to his translation of Gregory’s Pastoral Care
13 King Alfred’s Jewel
14 jórr rising with the giant Hymir to catch the World Serpent. From
Melsted’s Edda
15 Óginn steals the mead of poetry in bird shape, from Melsted’s Edda
16 Arthur Rackham’s illustration of Freyja from 1911 to Wagner’s Das
Rheingold
17 Codex Regius of the Poetic Edda
18 An lcelandic sitting-room at the beginning of the nineteenth century
by Auguste Meyer
19 The entry into Jerusalem from the Benedictional of Æthelwold
viii LIST OF PLATES AND MAPS

20 A lord with his comitatus: Éomer and the Riders of Rohan from
The Return of The King
21 An elephant and a two-headed man in the Marvels of the East
22 Reconstructed tenth–eleventh century Viking longhouse at Trelleborg,
Denmark
23 A reconstructed Grubenhaus, at West Stow, Suffolk
24 One of a pair of drinking horns: Anglo-Saxon, late sixth century, from
the burial at Taplow, Buckinghamshire
25 A small sample of gold objects from the Staffordshire Hoard
26 The ‘Beagnoth’ Seax: Anglo-Saxon, ninth–tenth century, from the River
Thames at Battersea, London
27 The Gokstad Viking ship, ninth century
28 The princely burial ground at Sutton Hoo. The Mound 2 ship burial
stands in the right foreground, lower mounds can be seen in the middle
and far distance
29 The Bewcastle Cross, Cumbria

Maps
1 Barbarians in the late Roman Empire 7
2 Scandinavia in the time of Beowulf 97
3 Northumbria in the seventh century 98
4 The Mercian supremacy 225
5 Carolingian France 228
6 England in the tenth century 275
7 Viking expansion 338
8 Iceland in the settlement years 406
 Preface to the second edition

A lthough it is not really acceptable to quote one’s reviews,

we thought we should post some comments about the first
edition of Beowulf & Other Stories to express our gratitude for the genuinely
enthusiastic response our book has had:

I have to say that I was very disappointed with this book.

The writers – editors sorry (. . .) write like adolescents.
Such things should only be done by drunk historians and never put to paper.
For some reason the editors seem to think ‘Oxfordian’ is the correct adjective for
Oxford graduates. It is of course Oxonian.

The warmth of this reaction has since inspired us to make a revised edition of
Beowulf & Other Stories, complete with changes here and there (Benedictines
are up, ‘Oxonian’ is now in) and with an entirely new chapter by Mike
Bintley on Anglo-Saxon material culture including the drink!
Thanks are due also to Philip Langeskov, who asked us, not long after the first
edition hit the bookshops, if we would like to write a new Anthology, to be a
companion volume to Beowulf & Other Stories. To his surprise, we said yes. After
three years’ hard labour, during which Phil moved into a beach-hut in East
Anglia, we can at last present you with The Longman Anthology of Old English, Old
Icelandic and Anglo-Norman Literatures (Harlow, 2011). This magnificent new book
has not only lots of Beowulf in it and the other works in Old English, Old
Icelandic, a few in Anglo-Norman and Occitan (that’s Provençal to you, edited
by P. H. Gillies), but runes too, and also poems in Welsh, Irish, Old High German,
even Castilian. We have added translations and notes, with even more texts
online which can be ordered for a Custom Version. This Anthology will comple-
ment our second edition of Beowulf & Other Stories, which has a new extended
chapter on ‘Prose Writers of the English Benedictine Reform’ by Stewart Brookes,
as well as Mike Bintley’s on ‘Material Culture: Archaeology and Text’, complete
with eight new colour plates and a discussion of the Anglo-Saxons and
Vikings through their archaeology. So why not buy both books now . . .

Richard North and Joe Allard

 Acknowledgements

T his book was written in the Dark Ages of the early twenty-first
century to illuminate the old and medieval glories of the late
seventh to fourteenth. Forgive the sentimentality – we wanted to show you
how good the poem Beowulf really is and how interesting the other stories
in Old English, Old Icelandic or Anglo-Norman literatures really are. Some
people of our generation never learned this, but we acknowledge them
anyway for their stimulating words. One is a former restaurant critic and
winner of the 2005 Bad Sex in Fiction Award, Giles Coren, who finally
settled Beowulf ’s hash in The Times on 17 September the same year when
the film Beowulf and Grendel premiered in Toronto. ‘A cultural artefact fit for
modern consumption?’, he asked. ‘I’m not convinced. For Beowulf is by no
means a work of complexity and depth.’ He had read some Beowulf in Old
English at Oxford (OE gecoren means ‘chosen’) and still had the book on his
shelves. ‘There is no growth in Beowulf ’, he claimed, ‘No learning. No more
moral or intellectual development than in a gory video game.’ He summed it
up by saying ‘Beowulf is rubbish, its popularity based, as the Queen Mother’s
was, purely on the coincidence of survival.’ This was too much. Republicans
also read Beowulf. The poem is popular because it is good.
Even more sadly, its quality escaped A.N. Wilson, author of Betjeman
and other famous biographies. In his view, the poet of Beowulf never existed.
‘The Beowulf poet was created’, Wilson writes, ‘by Victorian and early
20th century Eng Lit scholars’ who were suffering from an inferiority complex
about German literature. Long ago A.N. taught this poem in the original
for seven years (‘seven years, I should say, largely wasted’) to students in
Oxford. ‘When I think I could have spent seven years’, he lamented, ‘teach-
ing Goethe’s Faust or Dante’s Inferno, I very nearly weep at the waste.’ This
neurasthenia was published in The Sunday Telegraph on 30 January 2000.
The occasion was the award of the Whitbread Prize a week earlier to Seamus
Heaney for his translation of Beowulf (Faber), about which Mr Wilson was
(and presumably still is) not very happy. That was because he had wanted
Harry Potter to win it instead. ‘Beowulf is just a rather dull folk tale’, he
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xi

retorted, ‘set to repetitive verse forms, about a Dark Age Desperate Dan
killing fictitious monsters.’ If that is what his students had learned, clearly
something had to be done.
A third old Oxonian would tell you Beowulf is not an English poem
at all. When The Guardian extracted from modern poet James Fenton’s
An Introduction to English Poetry on 25 May 2002, the puff was that he ‘cele-
brates English poetry in all its variety’. Not enough variety to include Old
English poems! ‘English poetry’, he says, ‘begins whenever we decide to say
the modern English language begins, and it extends as far as we decide to
say that the English language extends.’ So is reading English poetry now
a kind of convenience shopping? ‘Some people think that English poetry
begins with the Anglo-Saxons’, writes Fenton. ‘I don’t, because I can’t accept
that there is any continuity between the traditions of Anglo-Saxon poetry
and those established in English poetry by the time of, say, Shakespeare.’ So
no Old English poetry is English unless it takes us into the Renaissance! How
enlightened. Looking at these and other gems from the flâneur profession,
the editors decided that something had to be done.
So we started this book and got some friends to help write it. This book
will be in all the good bookshops and we hope in many of the bad ones. It
aims to counter prejudice and put the record straight about Beowulf and the
other subjects above. Ours is not a gathering of separate essays or articles
such as you would find in a commemorative volume. It is, so we could put
it given the above mentioned video game, a collaborative venture heading
in one direction, two or three drivers in the cab and a platoon of mercen-
aries in the back, all driving down damnation alley with the cops in hot
pursuit. Our mission, could we as teachers but choose to neglect it, is to
bring our subjects into the minds of the generations to come.
We had a lot of fun editing and writing this book and credit must go
where it is due. We acknowledge ourselves for any and all errors in this
book. Positively, we acknowledge Daisy, Chris, Pamela, Inma, Sanae and Jon,
who read draft chapters and always gave us the right steer. Many thanks
to them and also to Gavin, who didn’t read the chapter we gave him (that
was useful too). Thanks go to our anonymous first reviewers. Among other
friends, colleagues and simple associates special praise must be reserved
for Fu, who, in the darkest days of this project two autumns ago, kept up
our spirits by cracking the Peitsche in her inimitable way. Clive tried out
his chapter on the girls of the Queen’s School, Chester, to whom we are
grateful. Here and there our students in UCL and Essex also gave advice.
Our thanks, of course, to all those contributing chapters to this book for
their enthusiasm, erudition and sense of guilt. In the last respect, there are
xii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

several contenders for the prize, but here we think it is Andy who shone
in particular because he best of all knew how to submit his chapters only
when they were just right. Last, but not least, we thank Philip from Pearson
Education for supporting the project, getting it rolling and paying for
several bibulous lunches in exchange for adding his words to the text. We
think we could have had some more wine, Philip, but without your words
the book might have been dry too. A big thank you, then, to Chris Allard,
Peter Baker, Stewart Brookes, Jayne Carroll, Melanie Carter, Pamela Clunies-
Ross, David Crystal, Patricia Gillies, Terry Gunnell, Susan Irvine, Sanae
Kasahara, F.C. Koffrae, Philip Langeskov, Daisy Neijmann, Jennifer Neville,
Éamonn Ó Carragáin, Andy Orchard, Steve Orchard, Gavin Phipps, Inma
Ridao, R.T. Rumple, Clive Tolley, Jon Wood, Bryan Weston Wyly and all the
girls at the Queen’s School, Chester.

Richard North and Joe Allard

2007
 Publisher’s acknowledgements

W e are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce

copyright material:

Maps
Map 1 from The Barbarian Conversion from Paganism to Christianity, Henry
Holt & Co (Fletcher, R. 1997), Reprinted by permission of HarperCollins
Publishers Ltd and HL Studios; Maps 4 and 6 from www.trin.ac.uk/sdk13/
RPMaps/MapPolDev.jpg courtesy of Professor Simon Keynes.

Text
Extracts on pages 48–50 from The Monsters and the Critics and Other Essays,
HarperCollins (Tolkien, J.R.R. (edited by Tolkien, C.) 1983), reprinted by
permissions of HarperCollins Publishers Ltd. © Beowulf: The Monster and
the Critics © The J.R.R. Tolkien Copyright Trust 1983; extract on pages
54–5 from History of Norway and the Passion and Miracles of the Blessed Olafr,
Viking Society for Northern Research (Phelpstead, C. (ed.) and Kunin, D.
(trans.) 2001).

Plates
The publisher would like to thank the following for their kind permission
to reproduce their photographs:

Plate 1 Museums Sheffield; Plate 2 The Master and Fellows of Corpus Christi
College, Cambridge; Plate 3 York Archaeological Trust; Plates 4, 24 and 26
© The Trustees of The British Museum. All rights reserved; Plate 5 Dean and
Chapter of Exeter Cathedral; Plate 6 Cathedral Library, Vercelli; Plates 7 and
18 Richard North; Plate 8 Peter Harbison: P. Belzeaux; Plate 9 Ross Trench-
Jellicoe; Plate 10 Corpus of Anglo-Saxon Stone Sculpture: photographer T.
Middlemass; Plate 11 The Board of Trinity College Dublin; Plate 12 Bodleian
Libraries, University of Oxford (MS. Hatton, fol. 1r); Plate 13 Ashmolean Museum,
University of Oxford; Plates 14, 15 and 17 Árni Magnússon Institute, Iceland;
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