1.

Explain the nature and nurture controversy in intelligence with

suitable examples.
The nature–nurture controversy is one of the oldest debates in psychology,
especially regarding intelligence. It concerns whether intelligence is primarily
the result of heredity (nature) or environmental influences (nurture).
Nature (Heredity) Perspective
Supporters of heredity argue that intelligence is largely determined by genetic
factors. Research on twin studies shows that identical twins raised apart often
have more similar IQ scores than fraternal twins raised together. Studies on
adopted children reveal that their intelligence resembles that of their biological
parents more than their adoptive parents. For example, if parents are highly
intelligent, their children often display above-average intelligence, even if raised
in a different environment. This indicates a strong genetic basis.
Nurture (Environment) Perspective
The environmental view stresses that intelligence develops through learning,
experience, and social context. Factors such as family environment, quality of
education, nutrition, and cultural background significantly affect intellectual
growth. For instance, children from enriched environments with stimulating toys,
books, and supportive teachers perform better on intelligence tests than those
deprived of such opportunities. Programs like Head Start in the U.S. show that
early educational intervention can raise IQ levels.
Conclusion
Thus, the nature–nurture controversy has shifted to an interactionist
perspective, acknowledging that both heredity and environment jointly
determine intelligence. Heredity sets the limits, while environment decides how
far one can go within those limits.
2. Discuss the concept of Emotional Intelligence (EI) and its components
with examples. Also mention importance of EI.
The concept of Emotional Intelligence (EI) was popularized by Daniel
Goleman (1995), although it was first proposed by Peter Salovey and John
Mayer (1990). Emotional Intelligence refers to the ability to perceive,
understand, manage, and regulate one’s own emotions and those of
others in order to guide thinking and behavior. Unlike IQ, which measures
cognitive ability, EI focuses on the emotional and social competencies that
contribute to success in life.
Components of Emotional Intelligence
1. Self-awareness – The ability to recognize and understand one’s
emotions. For example, a student who realizes they are anxious before an
exam can prepare strategies to calm themselves.
2. Self-regulation – The capacity to control impulses and adapt to changing
situations. For instance, an employee who receives criticism without losing
temper demonstrates self-regulation.
 3. Motivation – The inner drive to achieve goals despite obstacles. For
example, athletes who continue practicing after repeated failures show
high EI.
4. Empathy – The ability to understand and share the feelings of others. For
instance, a teacher who senses a student’s distress and offers support
reflects empathy.
5. Social skills – The capacity to build healthy relationships, communicate
effectively, and resolve conflicts. Leaders who inspire teamwork are good
examples.
Importance of Emotional Intelligence
 Personal growth: EI helps individuals manage stress, cope with
challenges, and maintain emotional balance.
 Better relationships: It promotes empathy, cooperation, and conflict
resolution in families, friendships, and workplaces.
 Academic and professional success: Research shows that people with
high EI perform better in leadership, teaching, business, and counseling
roles.
 Mental health: It reduces the risk of anxiety, depression, and
interpersonal conflicts.
Conclusion
In today’s world, Emotional Intelligence is as important as cognitive
intelligence. It not only enhances success in studies and careers but also
ensures emotional well-being and stronger social bonds.
3. Explain Freud’s psychosexual stages of personality development.
Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, proposed that personality
develops through a series of psychosexual stages in childhood. He
believed that at each stage, the child’s pleasure-seeking energies (libido) focus
on a specific erogenous zone. Successful resolution of conflicts at each stage
leads to a healthy personality, while fixation results in maladaptive behaviors.
Stages of Psychosexual Development
1. Oral Stage (0–1 year)
o Focus of pleasure: Mouth (sucking, biting, chewing).

o Key task: Weaning.

o Fixation: Overeating, smoking, nail-biting, or dependence on others.

o Example: A child finds comfort in thumb-sucking.

2. Anal Stage (1–3 years)

o Focus: Anus (toilet training).

o Key task: Learning control.

 o Fixation: Excessive orderliness (anal-retentive) or messiness (anal-
expulsive).
o Example: A child proud of controlling toilet habits may develop
discipline.
3. Phallic Stage (3–6 years)
o Focus: Genitals.

o Key task: Resolving the Oedipus complex (boys) and Electra

complex (girls).
o Fixation: Vanity, recklessness, or relationship problems.

o Example: A boy competing for his mother’s attention but later

identifying with his father.
4. Latency Stage (6–12 years)
o Sexual impulses are dormant; energy is directed towards school,
hobbies, and friendships.
o Example: Children focus on social and academic skills rather than
sexuality.
5. Genital Stage (12 years onwards)
o Focus: Mature sexual interests and relationships.

o Successful resolution: Ability to love and work productively.

o Example: Adolescents forming healthy romantic bonds.

Conclusion
Freud’s theory emphasized that early childhood experiences strongly
influence adult personality. Though criticized for its emphasis on sexuality,
the psychosexual model remains significant for highlighting the importance of
early development in shaping personality.
4. Describe Allport’s Trait Theory of Personality with examples.
Gordon Allport, one of the pioneers of personality psychology, proposed the Trait
Theory of Personality. He defined personality as a dynamic organization of
traits that influence behavior. Unlike Freud, who emphasized the unconscious,
Allport focused on conscious, present characteristics that make each person
unique.
Types of Traits
1. Cardinal Traits
o These are dominant traits that shape a person’s entire life.

o Few people possess them, but when present, they define

personality.
 o Example: Mother Teresa’s altruism or Mahatma Gandhi’s non-
violence.
2. Central Traits
o General characteristics that form the basic foundation of
personality.
o Everyone has 5–10 central traits.

o Example: honesty, sociability, kindness, or shyness. A teacher may

be described as hardworking, disciplined, and caring.
3. Secondary Traits
o These are situational or less consistent traits that appear in specific
contexts.
o Example: A normally calm person becoming impatient in traffic, or
someone preferring a specific style of clothing.
Key Features of Allport’s Theory
 Uniqueness of individuals: He believed no two people are exactly alike
because each has a unique set of traits.
 Functional autonomy: Motives of adult behavior become independent of
childhood experiences. For example, a person who once studied hard to
impress parents may later pursue learning for self-satisfaction.
 Present focus: Allport emphasized the “here and now” instead of
dwelling excessively on the past.
Conclusion
Allport’s trait theory highlights that personality is a combination of stable
traits, which can be cardinal, central, or secondary. His approach was
humanistic, emphasizing individuality and conscious choices, making it a
valuable contribution to understanding personality in daily life.
5. Explain the humanistic approach to personality with reference to
Maslow’s theory. Elaborate with an example.
The humanistic approach to personality emerged as a reaction against the
pessimism of psychoanalysis and the determinism of behaviorism. Humanistic
psychologists, such as Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, emphasized free
will, personal growth, and the innate goodness of human beings. They believed
personality is shaped by the individual’s striving for self-actualization rather
than by unconscious conflicts or external conditioning.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow proposed that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy, progressing
from basic survival needs to higher psychological growth.
1. Physiological Needs – Basic requirements such as food, water, sleep.
 o Example: A hungry student cannot focus on studies until hunger is
satisfied.
2. Safety Needs – Protection, stability, and security.
o Example: Children need a safe environment to feel secure and
develop.
3. Love and Belongingness Needs – Affection, relationships, acceptance.
o Example: A teenager seeks friendship and peer approval.

4. Esteem Needs – Respect, recognition, self-confidence.

o Example: An employee feels valued when appreciated for their
work.
5. Self-actualization Needs – Realizing one’s fullest potential, creativity,
and growth.
o Example: A musician dedicating life to creating meaningful art.

Humanistic Personality Perspective

 Maslow emphasized that people are motivated to grow once lower
needs are satisfied.
 Self-actualized individuals are independent, creative, ethical, and
compassionate.
 Example: Mahatma Gandhi demonstrated self-actualization by dedicating
his life to truth and non-violence for humanity.
Conclusion
The humanistic approach, through Maslow’s theory, presents an optimistic
view of personality. It stresses that humans are not controlled solely by
instincts or environment but are capable of personal growth, self-awareness, and
reaching their highest potential.
6. Describe stress and its types, including a theory of stress.
Stress is a state of mental and physical tension that occurs when individuals
perceive a mismatch between the demands placed on them and their
ability to cope. It is a part of everyday life and can be both positive
(eustress), motivating individuals to perform better, or negative (distress),
leading to health and psychological problems.
Types of Stress
1. Acute Stress
o Short-term stress that arises from immediate challenges.

o Example: Nervousness before an exam or job interview.

2. Chronic Stress
o Long-term stress resulting from ongoing difficulties.
 o Example: Financial problems, unhappy marriage, or job
dissatisfaction.
3. Episodic Acute Stress
o When acute stress occurs frequently, due to repeated pressures or a
busy lifestyle.
o Example: A student constantly anxious about deadlines and exams.

Theory of Stress: General Adaptation Syndrome (Hans Selye, 1956)

Hans Selye proposed the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS), describing
how the body responds to prolonged stress in three stages:
1. Alarm Reaction Stage
o The body recognizes the stressor and activates the "fight-or-flight"
response.
o Example: Increased heart rate before delivering a speech.

2. Resistance Stage
o The body attempts to cope with the stressor. Energy is mobilized,
but prolonged effort causes strain.
o Example: A student studying continuously for exams despite
fatigue.
3. Exhaustion Stage
o If stress persists, resources get depleted, leading to burnout, illness,
or depression.
o Example: Long-term work stress causing hypertension or anxiety
disorders.
Conclusion
Stress is a natural part of life, but its impact depends on its type, duration, and
intensity. While short-term stress can improve performance, prolonged stress
can harm mental and physical health, making stress management crucial for
well-being.
7. Describe three types of coping strategies with suitable examples.
Coping strategies are the cognitive and behavioral efforts individuals use to
deal with stress and difficult situations. Psychologists Richard Lazarus and Susan
Folkman identified major coping strategies that help people manage stress. The
effectiveness of a strategy depends on the nature of the stressor and the
individual’s resources.
1. Problem-Focused Coping
This strategy involves directly dealing with the cause of stress by
attempting to solve or minimize the problem.
  Example: A student preparing for exams makes a study schedule and
seeks help from teachers to improve performance.
 It is most effective when the stressor is controllable.
2. Emotion-Focused Coping
When the problem cannot be easily changed, individuals attempt to manage
their emotional reactions. This may include distraction, relaxation, or
reframing the situation.
 Example: Someone facing job loss may practice meditation, talk to friends
for emotional support, or reframe it as an opportunity for a new career.
 This reduces distress and helps individuals maintain emotional stability.
3. Avoidance-Oriented Coping
In this strategy, individuals try to ignore or escape the stressor temporarily. It
may include withdrawal, denial, or engaging in alternative activities to avoid
thinking about the problem.
 Example: Watching movies or going out with friends to avoid worrying
about an upcoming exam.
 While it may provide short-term relief, excessive use can be maladaptive if
it prevents solving real issues.
Conclusion
Effective coping involves using a flexible combination of strategies depending
on the situation. Problem-focused coping helps when challenges can be solved,
emotion-focused coping provides resilience when problems are uncontrollable,
and avoidance may offer temporary relief. Together, these strategies help
individuals adapt and maintain psychological well-being.
8. Explain anxiety disorders and its types in detail.
Anxiety is a state of uneasiness, apprehension, and excessive worry about the
future. While mild anxiety is normal and may even improve performance,
anxiety disorders occur when anxiety becomes intense, persistent, and
interferes with daily functioning. According to DSM-5, anxiety disorders are
among the most common psychological disorders.
Types of Anxiety Disorders
1. Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
o Characterized by chronic, excessive worry about everyday events,
often without a clear cause.
o Symptoms: restlessness, muscle tension, irritability, sleep
disturbance.
o Example: A person constantly worrying about health, finances, and
family safety even when there is no real threat.
2. Phobias
 o Intense, irrational fear of a specific object, activity, or situation.

o Subtypes:

 Specific Phobia: Fear of snakes, heights, or flying.

 Social Anxiety Disorder: Fear of being judged in social
situations (e.g., public speaking).
o These fears often lead to avoidance behavior that restricts life
activities.
3. Panic Disorder
o Sudden episodes of extreme fear accompanied by physical
symptoms like heart palpitations, sweating, breathlessness, or
dizziness.
o Example: A person experiencing a panic attack while shopping and
fearing they might die or lose control.
4. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) (earlier considered anxiety
disorder, now separate but related)
o Involves recurrent, intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive
behaviors (compulsions).
o Example: Repeated hand-washing to reduce fear of contamination.

5. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

o Follows exposure to a traumatic event such as war, natural disaster,
or assault.
o Symptoms: nightmares, flashbacks, hyper-vigilance, and emotional
numbness.
Conclusion
Anxiety disorders are serious but treatable conditions. They can be managed
effectively through psychotherapy (such as cognitive-behavioral therapy),
relaxation techniques, medication, and social support, helping individuals regain
control over their lives.
9. Describe the techniques of Behaviour Therapy.
Behaviour Therapy is based on the principles of learning (classical and operant
conditioning). It focuses on eliminating maladaptive behaviours and developing
adaptive ones through systematic techniques. Unlike psychoanalysis, it deals
with observable behaviour rather than unconscious conflicts.
Major Techniques of Behaviour Therapy
1. Systematic Desensitization (Joseph Wolpe)
o Used for treating phobias and anxiety.

o The client is gradually exposed to anxiety-provoking situations while

being trained in relaxation.
 o Example: A person afraid of elevators may first imagine riding one,
then watch others, and finally ride it calmly.
2. Token Economy
o Based on operant conditioning.

o Desired behaviours are reinforced with tokens (points, stars) that

can be exchanged for rewards.
o Example: In a classroom, students earn stars for completing
homework, which can later be traded for privileges.
3. Aversive Conditioning
o Undesirable behaviour is paired with an unpleasant stimulus to
reduce it.
o Example: A person trying to quit smoking may be given a medicine
that induces nausea when combined with cigarettes.
4. Flooding (Exposure Therapy)
o The client is directly exposed to a highly anxiety-provoking situation
until fear decreases.
o Example: Someone with a fear of dogs is encouraged to spend
extended time with a friendly dog until the fear subsides.
5. Social Skills Training / Modelling
o Clients learn adaptive behaviours by observing and imitating a role
model or therapist.
o Example: A shy student can learn conversation skills by role-playing
with the therapist.
Conclusion
Behaviour therapy is highly effective for treating phobias, addictions, anxiety,
and behavioural problems. By applying learning principles, it helps clients
replace maladaptive behaviours with healthy, adaptive responses, leading to
lasting positive changes.
10. Discuss the ethical issues in psychotherapy.
Psychotherapy is a professional relationship between a therapist and a client,
where sensitive and personal information is shared. Since clients are often
vulnerable, therapists must follow strict ethical principles to protect their
dignity, rights, and well-being.
Major Ethical Issues in Psychotherapy
1. Confidentiality
o Information shared in therapy must remain private. Breach of
confidentiality can harm trust.
 o Exceptions are allowed only when there is risk of harm to self,
others, or when required by law.
o Example: If a client expresses intent to commit suicide, the
therapist may inform family or authorities.
2. Informed Consent
o Clients must be fully informed about the nature, goals, techniques,
duration, and possible risks of therapy before agreeing to
participate.
o This ensures voluntary participation and prevents exploitation.

3. Avoiding Dual Relationships and Exploitation

o Therapists must not use the therapeutic relationship for personal,
financial, or emotional gain.
o They should avoid dual roles, such as being both a therapist and a
close friend, as it may create conflicts of interest.
4. Professional Competence
o Therapists must practice within their area of expertise, use
evidence-based methods, and engage in continuous professional
development.
o Using outdated or harmful techniques is unethical.

5. Respect for Client’s Autonomy and Dignity

o Therapists should not impose their values, religion, or beliefs on
clients.
o They must respect cultural, gender, and individual differences.

o Example: Supporting a client’s independent decision-making rather

than forcing choices.
Conclusion
Ethical guidelines in psychotherapy ensure that clients receive safe, respectful,
and effective treatment. They safeguard trust, prevent misuse of power, and
uphold the dignity of the client, making psychotherapy a responsible and
professional practice.