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 EW 102
A Second Course in Electronic Warfare
For a listing of recent titles in the Artech House Radar Library,
turn to the back of this book.
 EW 102
A Second Course in Electronic Warfare

David L. Adamy

Artech House
Boston • London
www.artechhouse.com
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Adamy, David.
EW 102: a second course in electronic warfare /David L. Adamy.
p. cm. — (Artech House radar library)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-58053-686-7 (alk. paper)
1. Electronics in military engineering. I. Title. II. Series.
UG485.A3322 2004
623’.043—dc22 2004050666

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Adamy, David
EW 102: a second course in electronic warfare. — (Artech House radar library)
1. Electronics in military engineering
I. Title
623’.043

ISBN 1-58053-686-7

Cover design by Igor Valdman

© 2004 Horizon House Publications, Inc.

All rights reserved.

All rights reserved. Printed and bound in the United States of America. No part of this book
may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission
in writing from the publisher.
All terms mentioned in this book that are known to be trademarks or service marks have been
appropriately capitalized. Artech House cannot attest to the accuracy of this information. Use of
a term in this book should not be regarded as affecting the validity of any trademark or service
mark.

International Standard Book Number: 1-58053-686-7

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 Like EW 101 which came before it, this book is dedicated to my colleagues in the
EW profession—in and out of uniform. Some of you have gone repeatedly into
harm’s way, and most of you have often worked long into the night to do things that
are beyond the comprehension of the average person. Ours is a strange and
challenging profession, but most of us can’t imagine following any other.
.
Contents
Preface xv

1 Introduction 1

1.1 Generalities About EW 3

1.2 Information Warfare 5

1.3 How to Understand Electronic Warfare 6

2 Threats 9

2.1 Some Definitions 9

2.1.1 Threats Versus Threat Signals 9
2.1.2 Radars Versus Communication 10
2.1.3 Types of Threats 10
2.1.4 Radar-Guided Weapons 11
2.1.5 Laser-Guided Weapons 11
2.1.6 Infrared Energy: Guided Weapons 12
2.1.7 Lethal Communications 12
2.1.8 Radar Resolution Cell 13

vii
viii EW 102: A Second Course in Electronic Warfare

2.2 Frequency Ranges 13

2.3 Threat Guidance Approaches 15

2.3.1 Active Guidance 15
2.3.2 Semiactive Guidance 16
2.3.3 Command Guidance 16
2.3.4 Passive Guidance 17

2.4 Scan Characteristics of Threat Radars 17

2.4.1 The Radar Scan 17
2.4.2 Antenna Beamwidth 18
2.4.3 Antenna Beam Pointing 19

2.5 Modulation Characteristics of Threat Radars 22

2.5.1 Pulse Radars 22
2.5.2 Pulse Doppler Radars 25
2.5.3 Continuous Wave Radars 25
2.5.4 Threat Radar Applications 26

2.6 Communication Signal Threats 26

2.6.1 The Nature of Communication Signals 27
2.6.2 Tactical Communication 27
2.6.3 Digital Data Links 29
2.6.4 Satellite Links 30

3 Radar Characteristics 33

3.1 The Radar Function 33

3.1.1 Types of Radars 34
3.1.2 Basic Radar Block Diagrams 35

3.2 Radar Range Equation 36

3.2.1 Radar Cross Section 39
3.2.2 Radar Detection Range 40

3.3 Detection Range Versus Detectability Range 42

3.3.1 Estimating the Sensitivity of the Radar Receiver 43
3.3.2 Example of Radar Detection Range Calculation 44
 Contents ix

3.3.3 Detectability Range 44

3.4 Radar Modulation 48

3.5 Pulse Modulation 48

3.5.1 Unintentional Modulation on Pulses 50
3.5.2 Pulse Compression 51
3.5.3 Chirped Pulses 51
3.5.4 Digital Modulation on Pulses 53

3.6 CW and Pulse Doppler Radars 54

3.6.1 Doppler Shift 55
3.6.2 CW Radar 56
3.6.3 FM Ranging 56
3.6.4 Pulse Doppler Radar 58

3.7 Moving Target Indicator Radars 58

3.7.1 Basic MTI Operation 59
3.7.2 MTI Data Rates 61
3.7.3 Airborne Moving Target Indicator (AMTI) Radar 62

3.8 Synthetic Aperture Radars 63

3.8.1 Range Resolution 63
3.8.2 Azimuth Resolution 64
3.8.3 Focused Array SAR 66

3.9 Low Probability of Intercept Radars 67

3.9.1 LPI Techniques 67
3.9.2 Levels of LPI 68
3.9.3 LPID Radars 68
3.9.4 Detection Versus Detectability 70
3.9.5 LPI Figure of Merit 71
3.9.6 Other Factors Impacting Detection Range 72

4 Infrared and Electro-Optical Considerations in

Electronic Warfare 77

4.1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 77

x EW 102: A Second Course in Electronic Warware

4.1.1 Infrared Spectrum 78

4.1.2 Blackbody Radiation 79
4.1.3 IR Transmission 80
4.1.4 EW Applications in the IR Range 80
4.1.5 Electro-Optical Devices 82

4.2 IR Guided Missiles 82

4.2.1 IR Sensors 82
4.2.2 IR Missiles 83

4.3 IR Line Scanners 87

4.3.1 Mine Detection Application 87

4.4 Infrared Imagery 90

4.4.1 The FLIR 90
4.4.2 IR Imagery Tracking 93
4.4.3 Infrared Search and Track 93

4.5 Night-Vision Devices 94

4.5.1 Types of Devices 94
4.5.2 Classical Night Operations 95
4.5.3 History of Development 95
4.5.4 Spectral Response 96
4.5.5 Implementation 96

4.6 Laser Target Designation 98

4.6.1 Laser Designator Operation 98
4.6.2 Laser Warning 99
4.6.3 Countermeasures Against Laser-Homing Missiles 100

4.7 Infrared Countermeasures 101

4.7.1 Flares 101
4.7.2 IR Jammers 103
4.7.3 IR Decoys 104
4.7.4 IR Chaff 105

5 EW Against Communications Signals 107

5.1 Frequency Ranges 107

 Contents xi

5.2 HF Propagation 108

5.2.1 The Ionosphere 109
5.2.2 Ionospheric Reflection 110
5.2.3 HF Propagation Paths 111
5.2.4 Single-Site Locators 112
5.2.5 Emitter Location from Airborne Systems 112

5.3 VHF/UHF Propagation 113

5.3.1 Propagation Models 113
5.3.2 Free Space Propagation 113
5.3.3 Two-Ray Propagation 114
5.3.4 Knife-Edge Propagation 116

5.4 Signals in the Propagation Medium 116

5.5 Background Noise 120

5.6 Digital Communication 121

5.6.1 Digital Signals 122
5.6.2 Digitization 122
5.6.3 Digitizing Imagery 124
5.6.4 Digital Signal Format 125
5.6.5 RF Modulations for Digital Signals 126
5.6.6 Signal-to-Noise Ratio 128
5.6.7 Bit-Error Rate Versus RFSNR 128
5.6.8 Bandwidth Required for Digital Signals 129
5.6.9 Impact of Signal Bandwidth on Electronic Warfare 132

5.7 Spread Spectrum Signals 133

5.7.1 Frequency-Hopping Signals 134
5.7.2 Chirp Signals 135
5.7.3 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Signals 136

5.8 Communications Jamming 137

5.8.1 Jamming-to-Signal Ratio 138
5.8.2 Operation Near the Earth 139
5.8.3 Other Losses 140
5.8.4 Digital Versus Analog Signals 140
xii EW 102: A Second Course in Electronic Warware

5.9 Jamming Spread Spectrum Signals 141

5.9.1 Jamming Frequency Hop Signals 141
5.9.2 Jamming Chirp Signals 147
5.9.3 Jamming DSSS Signals 147
5.9.4 Impact of Error-Correction Coding 149

5.10 Location of Spread Spectrum Transmitters 150

5.10.1 Location of Frequency-Hopping Transmitters 150
5.10.2 Location of Chirped Transmitters 153
5.10.3 Location of Direct Sequence Transmitters 153
5.10.4 Precision Emitter Location Techniques 153

6 Accuracy of Emitter Location Systems 155

6.1 Basic Emitter Location Approaches 156

6.2 Angle Measurement Techniques 157

6.2.1 Rotating Directional Antenna 157
6.2.2 Multiple Antenna Amplitude Comparison 158
6.2.3 Watson-Watt Technique 159
6.2.4 Doppler Technique 159
6.2.5 Distance Measuring Techniques 160
6.2.6 Interferometric Direction Finding 162

6.3 Precision Emitter Location Techniques 164

6.3.1 Time Difference of Arrival Method 164
6.3.2 Precision Emitter Location by FDOA 167
6.3.3 FDOA Against Moving Transmitters 169
6.3.4 Combined FDOA and TDOA 170

6.4 Emitter Location–Reporting Location Accuracy 171

6.4.1 RMS Error 171
6.4.2 Circular Error Probable 173
6.4.3 Elliptical Error Probable 174

6.5 Emitter Location—Error Budget 174

6.5.1 Combination of Error Elements 175
 Contents xiii

6.5.2 Impact of Reflections on AOA Error 176

6.5.3 Station Location Accuracy 176
6.5.4 Error Budget Items for Angle-of-Arrival Emitter
Location Approaches 177
6.5.5 Error Related to Signal-to-Noise Ratio 178
6.5.6 Calibration Errors 179
6.5.7 Combination of AOA System Errors 179

6.6 Conversion of AOA Errors to Location Errors 179

6.6.1 Measurement Accuracy 179
6.6.2 Circular Error Probable 182

6.7 Location Errors in Precision Location Systems 183

6.7.1 TDOA System Accuracy 183
6.7.2 Location Errors in FDOA Emitter Location Systems 187

7 Communication Satellite Links 191

7.1 The Nature of Communication Satellites 191

7.2 Terms and Definitions 192

7.3 Noise Temperature 195

7.3.1 System Noise Temperature 195
7.3.2 Antenna Noise Temperature 196
7.3.3 Line Temperature 197
7.3.4 Receiver Noise Temperature 197
7.3.5 A Noise Temperature Example 199

7.4 Link Losses 200

7.4.1 Spreading Loss 200
7.4.2 Atmospheric Loss 201
7.4.3 Rain and Fog Attenuation 202
7.4.4 Faraday Rotation 204

7.5 Link Losses in Typical Links 205

7.5.1 A Synchronous Satellite 205
7.5.2 Low-Earth-Satellite Link 208
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