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STP 1497

Residual Stress Effects on Fatigue

and Fracture Testing and
Incorporation of Results into
Design

Jeffrey O. Bunch and M. R. Mitchell, editors

ASTM Stock Number: STP1497

ASTM
100 Barr Harbor Drive
PO Box C700
West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959

Printed in the U.S.A.

ISBN: 0-8031-4472-5
ISBN: 978-0-8031-4472-9
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Residual Stress Effects on Fatigue and Fracture Testing and Incorporation of Results into Design /
Jeffrey O. Bunch, editor. I, Michael R. Mitchell, II
p. cm. -- (STP 1497)
ISBN 0-8031-4472-5 ISBN 978-0-8031-4472-9
1. Impact--Testing--Equipment and supplies. 2. Pendulum. 3. Notched bar testing--Equipment and
supplies. J. O. Bunch, I. Michael R. Mitchell, II., :ASTM special technical publication ; 1497.

TA418.34.P46
620.1'125--dc22 2007
2006016951

Copyright © 2007 AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS INTERNATIONAL,

West Conshohocken, PA. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced or copied, in
whole or in part, in any printed, mechanical, electronic, film, or other distribution and storage media,
without the written consent of the publisher.

Photocopy Rights

Authorization to photocopy items for internal, personal, or educational classroom use, or the inter-
nal, personal, or educational classroom use of specific clients, is granted by the American Society
for Testing and Materials International (ASTM) provided that the appropriate fee is paid to the
Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923; Tel: 978-750-8400; online:
http://www.copyright.com/.

Peer Review Policy

Each paper published in this volume was evaluated by two peer reviewers and at least one editor.
The authors addressed all of the reviewers’ comments to the satisfaction of both the technical
editor(s) and the ASTM International Committee on Publications.
The quality of the papers in this publication reflects not only the obvious efforts of the au-
thors and the technical editor(s), but also the work of the peer reviewers. In keeping with long-stand-
ing publication practices, ASTM International maintains the anonymity of the peer reviewers. The
ASTM International Committee on Publications acknowledges with appreciation their dedication and
contribution of time and effort on behalf of ASTM International.

Printed in Lancaster, PA
January 2007
Foreword

This publication, Residual Stress Effects on Fatigue and Fracture Testing and Incorporation of
Results into Design, contains papers presented at the Symposium on Residual Stress, which was held
in Salt Lake City, UT on 19-20 May, 2004. The symposium was sponsored by ASTM International
Committee E08 on Fatigue and Fracture. Dr. Jeffrey O. Bunch, Boeing Integrated Defense Systems,
presided as symposium chairman and served as editor of this compilation. Co-chair of the sympo-
sium, was Dr. Michael R. Mitchell, Northern Arizona University.

Dr. Jeffrey O. Bunch

Boeing Integrated Defense Systems
Seattle, WA
Symposium Chairman and Editor

Dr. Michael R. Mitchell

Northern Arizona University
Flagstaff, AZ
Symposium Co-chair and Editor

iii
Contents

Overview vii

Predicting Fatigue Crack Growth in the Residual Stress Field of a Cold Worked
Hole—M. T. KOKALY, J. S. RANSOM, J. H. RESTIS, AND L. F. REID 1

Modeling the Formation and Growth of Cracks from Cold-Worked Holes—

W. T. Fujimoto 14

Effect of Shot Peening on Fatigue Crack Growth in 7075-T7351—T. HONDA,

M. RAMULU, AND A. S. KOBAYASHI 33

Thermal Residual Stress Relaxation in Powder Metal IN100 Superalloy—

D. J. BUCHANAN, R. JOHN, AND N. E. ASHBAUGH 47

Stress Intensity Factor Analysis and Fatigue Behavior of a Crack in the Residual
Stress Field of Welding—H. TERADA 58

A Design Methodology to Take Credit for Residual Stresses in Fatigue Limited

Designs—P. PREVÉY AND N. JAYARAMAN 69

Correlation Between Strength and Measured Residual Stress in Tempered Glass

Products—A. S. REDNER, E. MOGNATO, AND M. SCHIAVONATO 85

Influence of Cold Rolling Threads Before or After Heat Treatment on High

Strength Bolts for Different Fatigue Preload Conditions—N. J. HORN AND
R. I. STEPHENS 95

An Integrated Approach to the Determination and Consequences of Residual

Stress on the Fatigue Performance of Welded Aircraft Structures—L. EDWARDS,
M. E. FITZPATRICK, P. E. IRVING, I. SINCLAIR, X. ZHANG, AND D. YAPP 116

Residual Stress Measurements in Welded and Plastically Deformed Target

Structural Materials—A. K. ROY, A. VENKATESH, S. DRONAVALLI,
V. MARTHANDAM, D. WELLS, F. SELIM, AND R. ROGGE 133

Novel Applications of the Deep-Hole Drilling Technique for Measuring Through-

Thickness Residual Stress Distributions—E. J. KINGSTON, D. STEFANESCU,
A. H. MAHMOUDI, C. E. TRUMAN, AND D. J. SMITH 146

v
Overview

This book represents the research of several authors presented at the Symposium on Residual Stress
Effects on Fatigue and Fracture Testing and Incorporation of Results into Design held in Salt Lake
City, Utah, May 19-20, 2004. This symposium brought together researchers, practitioners of resid-
ual stress measurement techniques, structural analysts, and designers specializing in the influence of
residual stress on fatigue and fracture. The intent of the symposium was to foster continued dialogue
between these groups and thereby provide each with an understanding of the state of knowledge con-
cerning residual stresses and their effect on structural integrity. Residual stresses can be present due
to processing and manufacturing of materials and structures, so it is imperative to understand how and
why they can influence the test data that we used in structural design methodologies. Residual
stresses may also be intentionally engineered into structures in attempts to improve fatigue life, and
it is equally important that designers understand how to account for these potential effects on fatigue
life.

ASTM Committee E08 on Fatigue and Fracture is committed to providing timely information on the
state-of-the-art of fatigue and fracture testing and lifetime prediction methods. Contained in this STP
is a continuation of that commitment. Manuscripts covering the influence of processing and methods
to account for residual stresses in predicting fatigue life are provided in this volume. Also included
are manuscripts in which are discussed several applications of residual stress measurement methods.
Engineered residual stresses further address fatigue crack growth and fatigue lifetime predictions of
cold-worked holes and the influence of shot peening.

Future workshops and symposia sponsored by ASTM Committee E08 on Fatigue and Fracture are
planned and will continue to foster dialogue on this highly important subject in fatigue and fracture.

Dr. Jeffrey O. Bunch

Boeing Integrated Defense Systems
Seattle, WA
Symposium Chairman and Editor

Dr. Michael R. Mitchell

Northern Arizona University
Flagstaff, AZ
Symposium Co-chair and Editor

vii
 Journal of ASTM International, May 2005, Vol. 2, No. 5
Paper ID JAI12556
Available online at www.astm.org

Matthew T. Kokaly,1 Ph.D., Joy S. Ransom,1 B.S., Jude H. Restis,1 M.Sc., and Len Reid,1 M.Sc.

Predicting Fatigue Crack Growth in the Residual Stress Field

of a Cold Worked Hole

ABSTRACT: Cold working of holes generates compressive residual stresses resulting in a significant
fatigue life improvement over a non-cold worked hole. Current fatigue life prediction methods for cold
worked holes are based on two-dimensional (2-D) linear superposition of stress intensity factor, K,
solutions of the non-cold worked hole and the residual stresses. Such predictions have shown various
levels of agreement with the overall fatigue life and have generally underpredicted the crack growth over
the majority of life. An inverse process was used to generate K solutions for the residual stresses of two
experimental data sets using AFGROW and the crack growth data from the experiments. The inverse K
solutions were inconsistent with the residual stress distribution indicating that it contained mechanisms or
features not inherent to the 2-D weight function method. The predicted fatigue life was found to be very
sensitive to a ± 1 % variance in the inversely generated K solution. This sensitivity of the K method is a
very important issue that must be addressed in the future. A 2-D FEA model indicated that the crack
remained completely closed over a range of crack lengths despite experimental crack growth indicating
that the model was not an accurate physical representation of the real crack. The results of this study
combined with the significantly faster crack growth observed on the side of the hole corresponding to the
entry side of the mandrel and the through thickness residual hoop stress variation show that the current
methodology based on a 2-D assumptions is inadequate in predicting the fatigue crack growth from cold
worked holes for the range of specimen thicknesses in this study. It is suggested that further research
focus on incorporating the through thickness stress variance in a solution that predicts crack growth both
in the radial and through thickness directions to capture the peculiar crack growth associated with cold
working.
KEYWORDS: cold working, residual stress, fatigue, crack growth, stress intensity factor

Introduction
Cold working of a hole generates large compressive stresses that result in a significant
fatigue life improvement over a non-cold worked hole. This fatigue life improvement, while
extensively documented, has not been easy to predict using conventional analytical methods.
The success of the stress intensity factor, K, in predicting fatigue crack growth in other fatigue
situations has resulted in numerous attempts to modify known solutions to fit that of a cold
worked hole. Most of these are composed of a linear superposition of the known non-cold
worked hole K solution and a K solution based on the residual stresses (often derived via a
weight function) to generate an effective K.
Keff = Knon-cold worked + Kresidual stresses (1)
These attempts have resulted in varying degrees of success in predicting the overall fatigue
life of holes [1–4] but at the same time have significantly underestimated the crack length over
the majority of life.

Manuscript received 6 April 2004; accepted for publication 2 November 2004; published May 2005. Presented at
ASTM Symposium on Residual Stress Effects on Fatigue and Fracture Testing and Incorporation of Results into
Design on 19-21 May 2004 in Salt Lake City, UT.
1
Fatigue Technology, Inc., Seattle, WA.
Copyright © 2005 by ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959.

1
2 RESIDUAL STRESS EFFECTS ON FATIGUE AND FRACTURE

The underprediction of the crack length over time can result in erroneous damage tolerance
and inspection intervals if such an analysis is used. To correctly establish inspection limits and to
accurately assess the replacement of a part in a damage tolerance program, the entire crack
growth from small cracks to failure must be more accurately determined over a significant
portion of the life.

Cold Working a Hole

Cold working of a hole is typically achieved by pulling an oversized mandrel through a split
sleeve inserted into the hole. The radial expansion of the hole is large enough to cause plastic
deformation in the parent material. Once the mandrel exits the material, a stress equilibrium is
reached between the plastically deformed material (in compression) and the material surrounding
the plastic zone (in tension). The plastic zone and compressive stresses extend approximately
one radius from the edge of the hole. It is important to note that the residual stress field is not
uniform through the thickness of the part due to axial material flow during the mandrel pull
through process and free edge effects during relaxation as seen in Fig. 1 for a 7xxx series
aluminum. Two-dimensional (2-D) plane stress models of the process are typically representative
of the material at the free edges, while plane strain models are typically representative of the
stresses near the center of the parent material.

Mandrel
Entry Side

Mandrel Exit Side

FIG. 1—Cold worked hole through thickness residual hoop stress gradient in a typical 7xxx
series aluminum.
 KOKALY ET AL. ON COLD WORKED HOLE 3

Objective
The objective of this study was to investigate the usefulness of combining experimental,
analytical, and numerical methods to further understanding of the crack growth mechanisms and
current prediction methodologies of fatigue cracks growing from cold worked holes.

Method of Approach
This introductory study was divided into two parts:

• K solution investigation: The K solution was calculated inversely using data from the
literature and from a new round of testing to further understand the K method as applied
to cold worked holes. Crack length (a) versus the number of cycles (N) data was used in
an inverse approach with AFGROW to determine the K solution due to the residual
stresses (Kresidual stress in Eq 1) required to match the crack growth curves. The robustness
of K based methods was explored by examining the effect of varying the inversely
calculated K solution on the crack growth prediction. General features about the K
solution were also noted.
• Finite Element Analysis: A ½ symmetry two-dimensional (2-D) FEA model of the test
specimens was created to observe the crack mechanics at various crack lengths.

Kresidual stress Investigation

Kresidual stress can be determined indirectly from a fatigue test when the crack length versus the
number of cycles has been recorded. The AFGROW crack prediction software contains an
option to enter modifications to the stress intensity factor of a given crack model at various crack
lengths. This option can be used in an inverse process to match the crack growth curve of an
experiment. The resulting Kresidual stress distribution should be representative of the contribution of
the residual stresses to Keff.
Two different sets of experimental data were used in the inverse process: the results of an
earlier study by Saunder and Grandt [5] and results of testing performed at Fatigue Technology,
Incorporated (FTI). The tests were very similar with a few exceptions. Details of the two
specimens are given in Table 1, and details of the two tests are shown in Table 2. The level of
expansion was determined by the FTI standard system based on the size of the hole.

TABLE 1—Specimen parameters.

Saunder and Grandt [5] FTI

Type of Specimen Dogbone Dogbone
Material 7075-T651 7075-T651
Specimen Width 63.5 mm 59.7 mm
Specimen Thickness 6.35 mm 5.08 mm
Final Hole Size 6.35 mm 9.91 mm
Initial Crack Size 1.24 mm 0.51 mm
Special Notes Pre-cracked before coldworking, Pre-cracked after coldworking,
hole was offset with e/D = 4.0 hole was centered
4 RESIDUAL STRESS EFFECTS ON FATIGUE AND FRACTURE

TABLE 2—Fatigue test parameters.

Saunder and Grandt [5] FTI

Type of Fatigue Loading Constant Amplitude Constant Amplitude
R Ratio 0.05 0.05
Peak Stress 206 MPa 172 MPa
Number of Specimens 1 Cold Worked 1 Cold Worked, 1 Non-Cold
Worked

The results of Saunder and Grandt [5] were subjected first to the inverse process. Saunder
and Grandt fitted a segmented Walker Equation to their experimental da/dN versus ∆K data and
to additional data given in [6] for the 7075-T651 aluminum used in their study. The same
relation was used here. Test specimens consisted of dogbones with different offset 6.35 mm-in.
cold worked holes. Since edge margins (e/D) can significantly affect the residual stress field and
resulting crack growth, only the data from the specimen with e/D = 4.0 were used in this study.
The data with e/D = 4.5 were not used, as they did not appear consistent with the rest of the data.
Figure 2 shows the average crack length (a) versus number of cycles (N) for the e/D = 4.0
specimen. It should be noted that a large difference between the size of the crack on the entry
and exit sides was observed, though it is not shown here. The majority of the fatigue life
occurred when the crack length was less than approximately 2.54-mm long. A simple 2-D plane
stress FEA model confirmed that the edge of the compressive zone for a hole this size in 7075-
T651 extended approximately 2.54-mm from the edge of the hole as seen in Fig. 3.
Figure 2 also shows the a versus N curve obtained from the AFGROW inverse process. The
experimental and inverse curves were nearly identical as expected. The values of Kresidual stress
versus crack length used to generate the AFGROW a versus N curve are provided in Fig. 4.
Kresidual stress was nearly constant over a range of crack lengths from ~1.52-mm to 2.54-mm. This
same crack length range was associated with nearly 100 000 of the total 120 000 cycles of the
fatigue life. Over that same range, the residual stress decreased significantly as seen in Fig. 3.

25

20
Crack Length (mm)

15
Experimental Average
Afgrow Inverse Fit
10

0
0 50000 100000 150000
Number of Cycles

FIG. 2—Crack growth data of Saunder and Grandt [5].

 KOKALY ET AL. ON COLD WORKED HOLE 5

200

100
Residual Hoop Stress (MPa)

-100

-200

-300

-400

-500

-600
0 5 10 15 20 25
Distance From Edge of Hole (mm)

FIG. 3—2-D FEA residual hoop stress distribution around a 6.35 mm cold worked hole in
7075-T651.
0
K Residual Stress (MPa*m^0.5)

-5

-10

-15

-20

-25
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Crack Length (mm)

FIG. 4—Kresidual stress from the AFGROW inverse analysis on data of Saunder and Grandt [5].

The effect of increasing and decreasing Kresidual stress on the fatigue life was examined to
determine the sensitivity of the K based method. Unfortunately, estimates of the level of error
inherent in the prediction of K via the current linear superposition method (errors in the residual
stress profile and material properties) were lacking. A value of ± 1 % was chosen with high
confidence that the level of actual error was higher.
The results are shown in Fig. 5. The 1 % variance of Kresidual stress translated into a range of
fatigue life from 96 000–160 000 cycles, severely underpredicting and overpredicting the actual
fatigue life of 120 000 cycles. The majority of the difference in life again occurred over a small
range of crack lengths bound by the compressive zone. This level of sensitivity is troubling
since errors in material data and estimates of the residual stress field are expected to be larger
than 1 %. This sensitivity issue must be addressed before methods employing K will yield
reliable and consistent predictions of crack growth from cold worked holes.
6 RESIDUAL STRESS EFFECTS ON FATIGUE AND FRACTURE

25

20
Crack Length (mm)

15 AFGROW Kres Fit

Kres reduced 1%
10 Kres increased 1%

0
0 50000 100000 150000 200000
Number of Cycles

FIG. 5—Effect of ± 1 % Change in Kresidual stress on the predicted fatigue life.

FTI conducted similar tests to Saunder and Grandt as seen in Tables 1 and 2. Tests were
performed on both a cold worked (Cx) and non-cold worked (NCx) specimen. The Cx specimen
was first cold worked at a diameter of 9.22 mm. A 0.38-mm long notch was introduced, and the
tip was sharpened with a razor blade. The specimen was then fatigue cracked at 172 MPa until
the crack extended a distance of 5.46 mm from the centerline of the hole. The hole was then
reamed to a diameter of 9.91 mm to clean up the notch. The same procedure was performed on
the NCx specimen without the cold working step.
To determine the validity of the AFGROW model and the use of material data from Saunder
and Grandt in the current investigation, the a versus N curve of the FTI NCx test was compared
with the AFGROW prediction using the material data from [5]. The AFGROW prediction
closely matched the experimental data for the NCx specimen indicating the validity of the non-
cold worked K solution used in AFGROW and the material data [5] as seen in Fig. 6.

25

20
Crack Length (mm)

Front Side
15
Back Side
Experiment Average
10
AFGROW

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Number of Cycles
FIG. 6—Comparison of NCx AFGROW prediction and FTI NCx data.
 KOKALY ET AL. ON COLD WORKED HOLE 7

The crack growth data for the Cx specimen is shown in Fig. 7. Similar to the Saunder and
Grandt data, the crack length was significantly higher on the mandrel entry side than the mandrel
exit side. The average of the cracks on these two surfaces was used in the AFGROW inverse
process. As with the analysis of the Saunder and Grandt data, the majority of life occurred over
a very small range of crack lengths. A simple 2-D plane stress model of the residual compressive
stress shows that this region also correlated with the approximate size of the compressive zone as
shown in Fig. 8.

20
18
16
Crack Length (mm)

14
Exit Side
12
Entry Side
10
Average Experimental
8
AFGROW inverse fit
6
4
2
0
0 100000 200000 300000 400000
Number of Cycles
FIG. 7—FTI crack growth data.

200

100
Residual Hoop Stress (MPa)

-100

-200

-300

-400

-500

-600
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Distance From Edge of Hole (mm)
FIG. 8—2-D FEA residual hoop stress distribution around a 9.91 mm cold worked hole in
7075-T651.

The Kresidual stress from the inverse process on the FTI data is given in Fig. 9. The curve is of a
similar shape to the results shown in Fig. 4 with a pronounced flat region. The flattened region
of the Kresidual stress solution again occurred over a region of decreasing residual compressive
stress. A Kresidual stress solution generated via weight function methods and the residual stress
8 RESIDUAL STRESS EFFECTS ON FATIGUE AND FRACTURE

profile result in a discrete peak value that decays with the residual compressive stress. The lack
of agreement between the inversely calculated K and the shape of K solutions derived from
weight function methods demonstrated that, at a minimum, additional K modifications are
needed in the 2-D method to accurately predict the crack growth and fatigue life. These K
modifications may not be able to be computed via a closed form solution since they are most
likely associated with modeling a 3-D problem (crack growth and residual stress distributions
through the thickness are neglected or averaged) in 2-D.
To further explore the behavior of K during the crack growth, ∆Keff was plotted versus
number of cycles in Fig. 10. To achieve the slow crack growth of the experiment, the range of
∆Keff was small and nearly constant over the majority of the life. The region of the da/dN versus
∆K curve responsible for ~88 % of the fatigue life is highlighted in Fig. 11. Together, Figs. 10
and 11 illustrate the reason for the extreme sensitivity of the K method seen in Fig. 5, as a small
change in ∆K has a large effect on the crack growth rate.

0
K Residual Stress (MPa*m^0.5)

-5

-10

-15

-20

-25
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Crack Length (mm)
FIG. 9—Kresidual stress from the AFGROW inverse analysis of current study.

35.0

30.0
∆ Keff (MPa*m^1/2)

25.0

20.0

15.0

10.0

5.0

0.0
0 50000 100000 150000 200000 250000 300000 350000 400000
Number of Cycles
FIG. 10—∆Keff from the AFGROW inverse analysis of current study.
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