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 2 n d ed itio n

Encyclopedia of

Philosophy
ABBAGNANO – BYZANTINE PHILOSOPHY

1 volume

2 n d ed it io n

Encyclopedia of

Philosophy
DONALD M. BORCHERT
Editor in Chief
 Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Second Edition
Donald M. Borchert, Editor in Chief

© 2006 Thomson Gale, a part of the Thomson For permission to use material from this Since this page cannot legibly accommo-
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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA

Encyclopedia of philosophy / Donald M. Borchert, editor in chief.—2nd ed.

p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-02-865780-2 (set hardcover : alk. paper)—
ISBN 0-02-865781-0 (vol 1)—ISBN 0-02-865782-9 (vol 2)—
ISBN 0-02-865783-7 (vol 3)—ISBN 0-02-865784-5 (vol 4)—
ISBN 0-02-865785-3 (vol 5)—ISBN 0-02-865786-1 (vol 6)—
ISBN 0-02-865787-X (vol 7)—ISBN 0-02-865788-8 (vol 8)—
ISBN 0-02-865789-6 (vol 9)—ISBN 0-02-865790-X (vol 10)
1. Philosophy–Encyclopedias. I. Borchert, Donald M., 1934-

B51.E53 2005
103–dc22
2005018573

This title is also available as an e-book.

ISBN 0-02-866072-2
Contact your Thomson Gale representative for ordering information.

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 editorial board

editor in chief consulting editors

DONALD M. BORCHERT LOUISE ANTONY
Professor of Philosophy, Department of Philosophy, Ohio Professor of Philosophy, Department of Philosophy, Ohio
University, and Executive Board, Institute for Applied and State University
Professional Ethics, Ohio University
JOHN BURGESS
Professor of Philosophy, Department of Philosophy,
associate editors Princeton University

DON GARRETT VICTOR CASTON

Professor of Philosophy, Department of Philosophy, New Professor of Philosophy and Classical Studies, Department
York University of Philosophy, University of Michigan

JAEGWON KIM RICHARD P. HAYES

William Herbert Perry Faunce Professor of Philosophy, Assistant Professor of Philosophy, Department of
Department of Philosophy, Brown University Philosophy, University of New Mexico

JEFFREY C. KING
BARRY LOEWER
Professor of Philosophy, Department of Philosophy,
Professor of Philosophy, Department of Philosophy,
University of Southern California
Rutgers University
OLIVER N. LEAMAN
DOUGLAS MACLEAN
Professor of Philosophy, Department of Philosophy,
Professor of Philosophy, Department of Philosophy, University of Kentucky
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
VLADIMIR MARCHENKOV
ERNEST SOSA Assistant Professor of Aesthetics, School of
Romeo Elton Professor of Natural Theology and Professor Interdisciplinary Arts, Ohio University
of Philosophy, Department of Philosophy, Brown
THOMAS NENON
University; Distinguished Visiting Professor, Rutgers
Professor of Philosophy, Department of Philosophy,
University
University of Memphis
MICHAEL TOOLEY
KARL H. POTTER
Professor of Philosophy, Department of Philosophy, Emeritus Professor of Philosophy, Department of
University of Colorado at Boulder Philosophy, University of Washington
SUSAN WOLF PHILIP QUINN
Edna J. Koury Professor of Philosophy, Department of Professor of Philosophy, Department of Philosophy,
Philosophy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill University of Notre Dame
editorial board

JENEFER ROBINSON JAMES P. STERBA

Professor of Philosophy, Department of Philosophy, Professor of Philosophy, Department of Philosophy,
University of Cincinnati University of Notre Dame

KWONG-LOI SHUN CHARLES TALIAFERRO

Vice President and Principal, University of Toronto at Professor of Philosophy, Department of Philosophy, St.
Scarborough Olaf College

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PHILOSOPHY
VI • 2nd edition
 contents
volume 1
PREFACE TO 2ND EDITION
INTRODUCTION TO 1ST EDITION
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
LIST OF ARTICLES

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF

PHILOSOPHY
2nd edition
Abbagnano–Byzantine Philosophy

volume 2
Cabanis–Destutt de Tracy

volume 3
Determinables–Fuzzy Logic

volume 4
Gadamer–Just War Theory

volume 5
Kabbalah–Marxist Philosophy

volume 6
Masaryk–Nussbaum

volume 7
Oakeshott–Presupposition

volume 8
Price–Sextus Empiricus

volume 9
Shaftesbury–Zubiri

volume 10
APPENDIX: ADDITIONAL ARTICLES
THEMATIC OUTLINE
BIBLIOGRAPHIES
INDEX

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PHILOSOPHY
2nd edition
 editorial and
production staff

executive vice president and publisher proofreaders

Frank Menchaca Archie Hobson, John Krol, Amy Unterburger

d i r e c t o r, n e w p r o d u c t d e v e l o p m e n t bibliographic researcher
Hélène Potter Michael Farmer

project editors translators

Jane A. Malonis Names of translators appear throughout the body of the
Carol A. Schwartz Encyclopedia, at the end of each article that has been
rendered into English.
contributing editors
indexer
Erin Bealmear, Deirdre S. Blanchfield, Steve Cusack, Angela
Coughlin Indexing Services
Doolin, Susan Doty, Jason Everett, Alan Hedblad, Monica
Hubbard, Lynn Koch, Melissa McDade, Bradley J. Morgan, product design
Scot Peacock, Drew Silver, Ken Wachsberger
Kate Scheible
editorial technical support graphic art
Josh Kondek, Andrew Malonis, Mark Mikula, Mark Springer Argosy Publishing

manuscript editors composition

Robert A. Arlt, Dorothy Bauhoff, Sharon R. Gunton, Evi Seoud
William Kaufman, Eric Lagergren, Steven M. Long, Gina
Misiroglu, Marie L. Thompson, Alan Thwaits, Amy manufacturing
Unterburger Wendy Blurton

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PHILOSOPHY
2nd edition • IX
 preface to the
second edition

N early four decades ago, in 1967, Macmillan

published its eight-volume Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
With Paul Edwards as its exceptionally able editor in
ics in philosophy broadly construed. That was a winning
formula: substantive articles by talented scholars explor-
ing the full spectrum of philosophical topics. It would
chief, the Encyclopedia became a highly respected, pre- also guide the Second Edition.
mier reference work consulted by countless professors
Second, while that winning formula involved in-
and students as they pursued the examined life. Indeed,
depth and broad coverage, nevertheless it did not and
it would be safe to say that most if not all of the scholars
could not aspire to exhaustive coverage of all philosoph-
who have contributed to the new Second Edition of the
ical topics given the constraints imposed by the limited
Encyclopedia leaned on the First Edition for philosophi-
print space available. Whether the space available was the
cal insight during their formative years as young acade-
eight volumes of the First Edition or the one volume of
micians. For them to be able to participate in reshaping a
the Supplement or the ten volumes of the Second Edition,
reference resource that figured importantly in their intel-
a policy of selectivity had to be pursued with the
lectual development has been a unique opportunity and
unavoidable exclusion of some material that could have
a privilege.
been, and perhaps should have been, included.
When Macmillan invited me to serve as editor in
Third, to maintain the tradition of excellence estab-
chief for the new ten-volume Second Edition, the task
lished by the First Edition, an editor in chief needs to be
appeared daunting because of its magnitude. But it also
surrounded by a group of distinguished philosophers
seemed manageable because backing me up was a valu-
who represent expertise in diverse subfields and who are
able learning experience I had as the editor in chief for
willing to commit considerable time and effort to serve
Macmillan’s single-volume Supplement, published in
on an editorial board. I was fortunate indeed to have the
1996, that updated the Encyclopedia. Among the insights
support of an editorial team for the Supplement consist-
I gained from that experience three were especially
ing of K. Danner Clouser, Paul Horwich, Jaegwon Kim,
important.
Joseph J. Kockelmans, Helen E. Longino, Vann McGee,
First, it seemed that the Encyclopedia had gained the Louis Pojman, Ernest Sosa, and Michael Tooley. Because
respect of academicians because its articles provided of them, and the highly competent authors they helped
substantive discussions by exceptionally competent to recruit, the Supplement continued Macmillan’s tradi-
scholars and its coverage embraced a wide range of top- tion of publishing highly regarded reference works.

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PHILOSOPHY
2nd edition • XI
preface to the second edition

Editorial Board Formation From the very beginning, our project’s goal was not
Upon accepting the role of editor in chief for the Second to replace the First Edition and the Supplement but to
Edition, I immediately turned to three of my former edi- build the Second Edition on the foundation of their out-
torial colleagues—Jaegwon Kim, Michael Tooley, and standing scholarly work. Accordingly, the task set before
Ernest Sosa—and invited them to become the core of a each editor was to analyze all the entries in the First Edi-
new Board of Associate Editors that would assist me in tion and the Supplement that were pertinent to his or her
planning the new edition. The guidance provided by domain in order to determine which entries should be
these three colleagues has been astute, seasoned, and truly retained “as is” in the Second Edition with perhaps only a
indispensable from the early planning stages until the day bibliographical update, which entries should be retained
of publication. With their assistance we were able to but needed an updating addendum, and which entries
recruit Don Garrett, Barry Loewer, Doug MacLean, and should be replaced by entirely new ones. In addition, all
Susan Wolf to join the Board of Associate Editors. Then editors were given the opportunity to commission
we constituted a Board of Consulting Editors that would entirely new entries in their subfields. Each editor also
add expertise in specific subfields of philosophy not had the responsibility to review and assess all new mate-
already covered by the specializations of the associate edi- rial appearing in his or her subfield. This generic descrip-
tors. The result was the impressive editorial team of dis- tion of the work of our subfield editors for the Second
tinguished philosophers listed below. Their areas of Edition masks all too easily the many hours of painstak-
editorial oversight are noted after their names. ing effort devoted to this project by these scholars.
In early autumn of 2004, regrettably, our editorial
The Board of Associate Editors
colleague Phil Quinn passed away after a brief struggle
Don Garrett—Modern Philosophy with esophageal cancer. Prior to his death, however, Phil
Jaegwon Kim—Philosophy of Mind had overseen his domain with an extraordinarily watch-
Barry Loewer—Philosophy of Science ful and skilled eye. He had analyzed in detail every entry
relating to the philosophy of religion in the First Edition
Doug MacLean—Ethics and Applied Ethics
and the Supplement, and sent me copious notes and
Ernest Sosa—Epistemology recommendations for either improving, retaining, or
Michael Tooley—Metaphysics replacing those entries. He also made specific recommen-
dations for new entries to be commissioned and wrote
Susan Wolf—Ethics and Applied Ethics
detailed scope descriptions for those entries. When his ill-
The Board of Consulting Editors ness forced him to withdraw from his teaching at the Uni-
Louise Antony—Feminist Philosophy versity of Notre Dame, he continued to work on the
Second Edition, which provided concrete purpose for the
John Burgess—Logic, Philosophy of Logic, Philoso- day at hand. Phil worked carefully, deliberately, and had
phy of Mathematics his eye on the prize of excellence. His fine work made it
Victor Caston—Ancient Philosophy, Medieval Phi- relatively easy for our colleague Charles Taliaferro to
losophy assume Phil’s responsibilities on the editorial team.
Richard P. Hayes—Buddhist Philosophy If the Second Edition continues the tradition of
Jeffrey King—Philosophy of Language excellence initiated by the First Edition, as I believe it will,
that accomplishment will be due in no small measure to
Oliver Leaman—Islamic Philosophy, Judaic Philoso-
the exceptionally high quality work provided by our edi-
phy
tors who, like Phil, have given of their time and talent to
Vladimir Marchenkov—Russian Philosophy enhance the work of philosophy.
Thomas Nenon—Continental Philosophy
Karl H. Potter—Indian Philosophy Development of the Second
Edition’s Content
Philip Quinn—Philosophy of Religion
Our strategy of building the Second Edition on the foun-
Jenefer Robinson—Aesthetics, Philosophy of Art
dation of the First Edition and the Supplement requires a
Kwong-loi Shun—Chinese Philosophy few additional comments.
James Sterba—Social and Political Philosophy Carefully and judiciously our editorial team selected
Charles Taliaferro—Philosophy of Religion those entries from the First Edition and the Supplement

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PHILOSOPHY
XII • 2nd edition
 preface to the second edition

that were so well done that they merited retention. To vir- We have modified and expanded the philosophical
tually all of these entries we added bibliographical inclusiveness of the First Edition in several ways. Both the
updates and to many of them we added substantive analytic and continental philosophical traditions are well
addenda. We prized these entries because, appearing represented in the new topics and new personal entries, as
together with the new entries, they enabled the reader to well as in the style of presentation offered by our authors.
view high quality philosophizing over the course of In addition, enhanced cultural diversity is evident in the
almost a half century thereby adding a measure of histor- major space we have provided for topics relating to Bud-
ical gravitas to our project. dhist philosophy, Chinese philosophy, Islamic philoso-
phy, and Indian philosophy. Because of space limitations
Notwithstanding our respect for the First Edition
a number of First Edition entries devoted to national
and the Supplement, we added 450 entries on new topics,
philosophies (such as American, British, and German)
and nearly 300 completely fresh and newly authored
were not retained. The major figures from those countries
treatments of important topics that were originally cov-
and their contributions to philosophy have, however,
ered within the First Edition or Supplement. The pres-
been included in the Second Edition via personal and
ence of all of this new material is a clear indication of the
topical entries. Importantly, we have retained and
vigorous and innovative philosophical activity that has
expanded the entries on Japanese philosophy, Latin
occurred within the discipline since the Encyclopedia
American philosophy, and Russian philosophy, and have
made its debut almost four decades ago. Entirely new
added entries on African philosophy and Korean philos-
subfields have appeared such as feminist philosophy, the
ophy.
philosophy of sex and love, and applied ethics. New
important topics in virtually every subfield have been To preserve and enhance the detailed record of philo-
explored ranging from artificial intelligence to animal sophical bibliographies, dictionaries, encyclopedias, and
rights. New scholars, whose distinctive contributions to journals contained in the First Edition entries devoted
the discipline needed description in substantive personal exclusively to these topics, we moved these articles to the
entries, have appeared on the philosophical landscape. last volume of the Second Edition and increased substan-
Among such individuals are Karl-Otto Apel, Mohammed tially the space that had been allocated to them in the
Arkoun, Nancy Cartwright, Daniel Dennett, Fred Dretske, First Edition. The very large number of new philosophi-
Ronald Dworkin, John Earman, Hassan Hanafi, Virginia cal bibliographies, dictionaries, encyclopedias, and jour-
Held, Julia Kristeva, Jacques Lacan, John McDowell, nals that have been published in a multitude of languages
Ruth Millikan, Richard Montague, Thomas Nagel, Seyyed during the last half century testifies not only to the vital-
Hossein Nasr, Martha Nussbaum, Derek Parfit, Hilary ity of philosophy but also to the increasing cultural diver-
Putnam, Peter Singer, Gregory Vlastos, Richard sity on its landscape.
Wollheim, and many, many more.
A Few Final Points
We also added updates to 90 articles, with those
updates provided by their original authors. Additionally, Several additional features of our editorial practices are
150 scholarly updates to existing articles have been important to note. In retaining entries from the First Edi-
included by means of “addenda,” with each addendum tion, we have studiously avoided changing the text of
compiled by an author other than the original writer, thus those entries in the interest of preserving the philosophi-
allowing for a fresh perspective that augments discussion cal and authorial integrity of those entries. Some of the
of the topic at hand. Approximately 430 of the almost authors, however, of those First Edition entries were
1,200 classic First Edition or Supplement articles that available and wished to revise their entries. We, of course,
appear in the Second Edition have been strengthened fur- welcomed their modifications. On some occasions, with-
ther by the inclusion of new bibliographic citations. Clas- out compromising the integrity of an entry, we made
sic articles from the First Edition and Supplement are some minor changes in the retained First Edition entries,
clearly identifiable via specific dates in the author bylines such as inserting the year of death in the biographical
that follow each article. Author bylines followed by part of a personal entry.
“(1967)” indicate that the article originally appeared in The entries in the Second Edition vary in readability
the First Edition, while bylines followed by “(1996)” indi- level. Many entries will be readily accessible to the general
cate first publication within the Supplement. The designa- public. Others will require some familiarity with the spe-
tion “(2005)” denotes first publication within the Second cialized vocabulary of philosophers. Still other entries
Edition. will presuppose some acquaintance with logic. All the

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PHILOSOPHY
2nd edition • XIII
preface to the second edition

entries, it would be safe to say, require the kind of careful work on the Encyclopedia without the standard professo-
reading that is customary in the humanities and that rial demands on my time.
helps to fashion liberally educated persons. Also, I wish to note with appreciation the role played
A good number of entries—such as those dealing by LinDa L. Grams, the Administrative Assistant in the
with ancient, Buddhist, Chinese, Islamic, Judaic, and Philosophy Department at the University of Notre Dame,
Russian philosophies—use non-English language words who graciously served as a conduit of communication
that required transliteration and the use of diacritical between Phil Quinn and me during his all too brief serv-
marks. In our transliterations and use of diacritical marks ice as the editor overseeing the philosophy of religion.
we have tried to follow the standard practice adopted by In addition, there are four groups of people to whom
the contemporary leading scholars and the leading jour- all of us who use the Second Edition owe an expression of
nals in the particular subfield to which the entry belongs. appreciation. The first group is the staff of Macmillan
The bibliographies that accompany the entries are Reference and Thomson Gale. Frank Menchaca, Execu-
selective rather than exhaustive. They provide the refer- tive Vice President and Publisher, gave the support and
ences to the works of the scholars cited in the text of an encouragement of upper management to the Second Edi-
entry. The bibliographical entries in the tenth volume, tion to ensure that it would go to press in 2005 and that
however, which provide a record of philosophical bibli- it would continue the tradition of excellence that has
ographies, dictionaries, encyclopedias, and journals, are been the hallmark of the reference works published by
much more extensive but are not exhaustive. Macmillan through the years. Hélène Potter, Director of
Volume 10 fulfills at least three important purposes. New Product Development, aided by her associates in the
First, it houses the Appendix, which enabled us to include New York office, initiated the project and ever so adroitly
in the Encyclopedia a number of entries that, for a num- assisted the editorial team to plan the structure and con-
ber of reasons, did not move through the editorial process tent of the new edition, and to operationalize those plans
in time to be included in the main alphabetical arrange- in each editor’s domain of oversight. The five-person edi-
ment of the entries. For example, a few of our contribu- torial team at Macmillan in Farmington Hills, Michigan,
tors encountered unexpected delays in completing their has exhibited seemingly untiring energy to bring the
entries because of illness, and a few needed extra time project to press at the targeted time. The core team con-
because of other demanding professional commitments. sisted of Carol Schwartz, Senior Editor and Project Man-
Second, it provided a discrete location where the three ager, who quarterbacked the team; Jane Malonis, Senior
lengthy comprehensive bibliographical entries on philo- Editor and Project Manager; Brad Morgan, Senior Editor;
sophical dictionaries and encyclopedias, journals, and Deirdre S. Blanchfield, Editor; and Lynn Koch, Associate
bibliographies could be bundled together so that they Editor. This editorial team demonstrated the capacity to
would not distract from the topical and personal entries multi-task with incredible patience, resilience, diplomacy,
listed alphabetically in the main body of the set. Third, it and creativeness under many stressful conditions.
contains the Index, a critical access tool for the book’s The second group to whom we owe words of grati-
readers. tude consists of the hundreds of scholars who have con-
tributed the multitude of articles that are the substance of
Special Acknowledgments the Second Edition. The extraordinarily fine entries that
As editor in chief of this large project I owe a debt of grat- constitute the Second Edition were prepared by scholars
itude to many people. I begin with my colleagues at Ohio with recognized expertise in the topics on which they
University. The members of the Philosophy Department have written. That fact should assure the reader that for-
were a reservoir of philosophical expertise, good will, and ays into the new edition of the Encyclopedia will prove to
seasoned professional advice. The Philosophy Depart- be always educationally valuable. We are deeply grateful
ment’s Administrative Assistant, Penny Schall, helped to for the intellectual heft that these distinguished authors
lighten my tasks, especially with her computer skills. have contributed to the Second Edition.
Michael Farmer, the Head of Monographic Cataloging at The third group that merits our appreciation is one
Ohio University’s Alden Library, devoted many painstak- that is almost invisible. I refer to the friends and families
ing hours to updating the bibliographies of scores of First of our contributors who stood by patiently waiting for
Edition entries being retained in the Second Edition. The our contributors to complete their commitments to our
College of Arts and Sciences provided me a professional project. Their patience is appreciated. The important
leave at a crucial juncture in the project so that I could contribution to learning that will be made by the new

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PHILOSOPHY
XIV • 2nd edition
 preface to the second edition

Second Edition will ensure that the patience of these if, in their judgment, the entry at hand should be
friends and family members will not have been in vain. approved as is, if the entry needed revision, or if the entry
The fourth and final group that deserves apprecia- should be rejected. As I reviewed the editors’ assessments,
tion is the team of associate and consulting editors who I marveled at how often editors would characterize the
served on the Encyclopedia’s board. They are all very busy, entries as “superb” or “excellent” or “outstanding,” and I
very talented, and very distinguished philosophers. I am could almost feel the editor’s delight as those words were
amazed and delighted that they were able to find the time written on the review sheets. Occasionally, I even saw the
to do the tasks that Macmillan and I laid on them. I dare- words “the finest piece of this length on this topic that has
say, however, that they had a special reward accruing from yet been written.” Those words exuded the joy and intel-
the many hours they devoted to the project. Each of them lectual excitement which are truly the abiding rewards
was asked to assess the new entries in their subfields as that the editors, and hopefully all readers, will receive
those entries were submitted by the authors to Macmil- from this project.
lan. The editors were asked to indicate on a review sheet Donald M. Borchert, 2005

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PHILOSOPHY
2nd edition • XV
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