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VOLUME 3 Asia & Oceania
Second Edition

Editors
Timothy L. Gall and Jeneen Hobby
 Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily © 2009 Gale, Cengage Learning
Life, Second Edition
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Worldmark encyclopedia of cultures and daily life / Timothy L. Gall,

editor. -- 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4144-4882-4 (set) -- ISBN 978-1-4144-4883-1 (vol. 1) -- ISBN
978-1-4144-4890-9 (vol. 2) -- ISBN 978-1-4144-4891-6 (vol. 3) -- ISBN
978-1-4144-4892-3 (vol. 4) -- ISBN 978-1-4144-6430-5 (vol. 5)
1. Ethnology--Encyclopedias, Juvenile. 2. Manners and
customs--Encyclopedias, Juvenile. [1. Ethnology--Encyclopedias. 2. Manners
and customs--Encyclopedias.] I. Gall, Timothy L. II. Title: Encyclopedia
of cultures and daily life.
GN333.W67 2009
305.8003--dc22
2009004744

This title is also available as an e-book.

ISBN: 978-1-4144-4893-0
Contact your Gale sales representative for ordering information.

Printed in the United States of America

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 13 12 11 10 09
CONTENTS

Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Dai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

Country Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xi Dani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxi Derong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Dong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Druze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Acehnese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Emirians (United Arab Emirates) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Afghanis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Ewenki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Ahirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Fijians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Ainu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Filipinos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
‘Alawis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Gaoshan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Ambonese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Goans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Andamanese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Gonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Andhras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Greek Cypriots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Anglo Australians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Gujaratis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Anglo Indians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Gurungs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Asmat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Hakka. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Assamese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Han . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Australian Aborigines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Hani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Azerbaijanis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Hazaras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Bahrainis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Hiligaynon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Bai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Hindus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Bajau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Hmong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Balinese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Hui . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Balūchī . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Iatmul. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Banglādeshīs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Iban . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Banias. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Ifugao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Banjarese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Ilocanos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Batak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Ilongot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Bedu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 People of India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Bengālīs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Indo-Fijians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Bhils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Indonesians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Bhutanese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Iranians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Bhutia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Iraqis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Brahmans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Israelis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Brahui . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Jains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Bruneians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Japanese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Buddhistsin south Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Jats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
Bugis, Makassarese, and Mandarese. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Javanese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
Burman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Jews of Cochin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Buyi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Jordanians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
Chākmās . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Kachins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
Cham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Kadazan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
Chamārs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Kalinga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
Chin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Kammu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
China and her national minorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Karakalpaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460

Volume 3: Asia & Oceania WORLDMARK ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CULTURES AND DAILY LIFE
vi Contents

Karens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467 Konds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510

Kashmiris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472 Korean Chinese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
Kazakh Chinese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479 Kurds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
Kazakhs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482 Kuwaitis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
Kelabit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
Khasi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Khmer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
Kolis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
Kols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506 For entries on the Kyrgz through Zhuang see Vol. 4

WORLDMARK ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CULTURES AND DAILY LIFE Volume 3: Asia & Oceania
INTRODUCTION
by
Rhoads Murphey

The first humans, or their immediate ancestors, seem clear- Russian explorers and conquerors crossed the Ural Mountains,
ly to have evolved in East Africa. By about two million years the conventional boundary between Europe and Asia, seized
ago these creatures had spread to Asia and Europe. Archeol- Kazakstan and Astrakhan immediately east of the Caspian
ogists have labeled them Homo erectus, and their bones and Sea by the early seventeenth century, and reached the Pacific
tools have been found in China, Java, and elsewhere in Asia. by 1639. Their chief objective was to obtain furs, long Siberia’s
Over the time since their arrival in Asia, the minor physical major export, but they also sought to colonize this vast area in
differences that distinguish modern Asians from Africans or the name of the Czar (the ruler of Russia). Russians became,
Europeans gradually emerged. The cold areas of Siberia were and remain, the dominant settlers of Siberia in a narrowing
penetrated by people later and more slowly, but by about half a wedge of patches as far east as Irkutsk near Lake Baikal, with
million years ago, that migration had also been accomplished. a further extension in the valley of the Amur River that forms
Australia was settled by people from Asia, probably via a land the boundary with China. Siberia is the center of the route fol-
bridge linking the two continents at a time of lower sea level, lowed by the Trans-Siberian Railway, completed by 1905, and
by about 50,000 years ago. By about the same time, people also the cities along it are dominated by Russian inhabitants. Al-
spread via Southeast Asia into Oceania (the islands of the Pa- though they have been drawn into the web of commerce, they
cific east of Indonesia). are still hunting and gathering, mining for gold, and produc-
The native people of Siberia—Yakuts, Tungus, Kazakhs, Uz- ing timber for export from the huge Siberian forests.
beks, and many others—spoke different languages and had Oceania was penetrated by Westerners beginning in the late
quite separate cultures. The Uzbeks and a few others who oc- eighteenth century. These Westerners were largely explorers
cupied dry areas had developed irrigated farming in scattered and whalers, many of the latter from New England. The cul-
oases by about the beginning of the Christian era. The other tures and peoples of Oceania were not too affected until the
Siberian groups remained dependent on hunting, gathering, advent of missionaries and permanent white settlers, who (in
and trapping in the vast forests. Hawaii especially) attempted to convert the Polynesians to
evangelical and puritanical Christianity, which condemned
AUSTR ALIA AND OCEANIA many aspects of their traditional culture. Europeans, including
Most of the inhabitants of Oceania also practiced hunting, missionaries, had invaded New Zealand by 1820 ad, although
gathering, and trapping until quite late, although they prac- the islands were not formally taken over by Great Britain un-
ticed rudimentary agriculture, based on cultivation of coco- til 1840. Many of the Maori inhabitants there were killed in
nuts and taro and including the raising of pigs and fishing, by small wars with the new arrivals. However, Maoris still consti-
the second millennium bc. There are three major groups of the tute about five percent of the total population, with a number
peoples of Oceania, each speaking a different language. (In the of mixed Maori-white descent.
case of New Guinea, by far the largest unit of Melanesia, the Australia was first settled by whites, predominantly British,
people spoke many different languages). The groups are Mela- late in the 1780s. They quickly drove off or killed aborigines
nesians, so called from their dark skin color, since mela means who lived in the better-watered areas along the coasts, pushing
black; Micronesians, inhabiting a great number of small islands their settlements inland, where large areas of wheat and other
south and east of Melanesia; and Polynesians, settled over a crops were planted, and even larger areas were converted to
huge arc of the Pacific on smaller islands as far east as Hawaii, grazing for sheep and cattle. Aborigines now survive on reser-
speaking a common language, and sharing a common culture. vations in the driest and most remote areas, but are dwindling
(Polynesians of New Zealand have been known as Maoris since in numbers. Most now hold low-paying jobs in the dominant
the fourteenth century ad.) The Polynesians are renowned for white economy, in areas including the big cities along the
their long sea voyages in small outrigger canoes, which carried coast.
them over great distances in search of new islands to settle.
The aborigines of Australia are a different group that mi- SOUTH AND SOUTHEAST ASIA
grated from the Asian mainland much earlier than those who The rest of Asia south of the former USSR and east of Afghani-
peopled Oceania. Thus, these Australian aborigines are largely stan—sometimes called Monsoon Asia—is composed of the
unrelated to the Melanesians, Micronesians, or Polynesians; modern states of Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Sikkim, Ban-
they survived in Australia with a relatively primitive technol- gladesh, and Sri Lanka (together constituting what is called
ogy centered on hunting and gathering without even domesti- South Asia); Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam,
cated animals. Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, and the Philippines (together
In Siberia there was little change in culture or technology constituting Southeast Asia); China, Korea, and Japan. Peoples
until the coming of Russian people in their expansion across of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age were settled in all of these
Asia, beginning in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries ad. areas from about one million bc to about 25000 bc. The early

Volume 3: Asia & Oceania WORLDMARK ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CULTURES AND DAILY LIFE
2 Introduction

habitation by Homo erectus, including Peking Man and Java eas, and are thus subject to seasonal flooding, which had to be
Man, gradually gave way to the universal spread of Homo sa- protected against. Techniques of irrigation and flood control
piens, or Modern Man. But the pace of other change remained were developed at about the same time in Egypt. The names of
slow until about 30000 bc, when the last phase of glacial ice the cities supported by the newly productive agriculture are re-
advanced and its subsequent retreat changed the physical envi- corded in the world’s first written texts, scratched on clay tab-
ronment and stimulated new adaptations. Fire had been used lets while they were still wet: Ur, Eridu, Nippur, and others.
since about one million bc, but after about 30000 bc stone The Neolithic revolution was completed with the develop-
tools slowly improved and population probably increased. ment of metalworking and the production of bronze tools and
The big change was the Neolithic revolution from about weapons. In Mesopotamia by about 4000 bc successive experi-
10000 bc, including the appearance of settled agriculture. ments mixing copper with tin and lead in varying proportions
Neolithic means New Stone Age and finer and finer stone tools produced bronze, which made all these innovations possible,
continued to be made. These were increasingly supplemented including the division of labor whereby some people were able
by tools of bone, including such delicate items as bone nee- to pursue non-farm occupations such as smelting and work-
dles for sewing and bone fishhooks. Clothing— leather suits, ing metals. Perhaps through trade, agricultural and irrigation
suits or jackets made of fur pelts sewn together, fur hats, and techniques spread east from Mesopotamia and western Iran,
leather boots—could now be made much less crudely and fit- and by about 3500 bc were fully developed in eastern Iran,
ted to each individual. Hunting could now be supplemented Afghanistan, and the fringes of the Indus valley. By or before
on a larger scale by fishing, and population again increased. 3000 bc irrigated agriculture was established on the floodplain
Agriculture began in two quite different and widely separated of the Indus and its major tributaries, where the first true cities
areas: the uplands of southwest Asia surrounding the Tigris- of monsoon Asia arose, growing out of Neolithic villages and
Euphrates lowland of Mesopotamia, and the coastal or near- towns. There and in Mesopotamia and Egypt cities had bureau-
coastal areas of mainland Southeast Asia, especially in what crats, tax collectors, priests, metalworkers, scribes, schools,
are now Thailand and Vietnam. and traffic problems, almost all the features of our own times.
Neolithic settlements in what is now Turkey, Palestine, In mainland Southeast Asia, the other equally early hearth
Syria, northern Iraq, and Iran began the transition from gath- of agriculture, upland fringes of river valleys and areas along
ering grains, including the ancestors of wheat, in the wild to the coast had probably begun to practice farming soon after
planing the seeds in tended fields. Wheat, barley, and other 10000 bc. On the coast, gathering and early cultivation could
steppe (dry climate) grasses were native to this area of winter be supplemented by fishing and by collecting from shellfish
rains. Neolithic stone-toothed sickles, dated to about 10000 beds. This is an area of warm temperatures, ample rainfall, and
bc, have been found there with a sheen on them from cutting an unbroken growing season. Rice and several tropical root
such grasses with their grain heads. Dating from a little lat- crops such as taro and yams were native there in wild form.
er, small hoards of stored grain have been found. It must have Root crops are easily cultivated in this tropical climate by set-
been a longish process of adaptation from gathering grains in ting cuttings in the ground. Rice was probably domesticated
the wild to planting them, perhaps originally by accident, in somewhere to this area. Unlike the dry Middle East, the con-
fields that could be prepared and tended until harvest. Fields stant humidity and high temperatures meant that no organic
growing only the desired plants could obviously yield far more remains lasted very long, and we thus cannot date any of these
than could be gathered in the wild. But they did require care, developments accurately. But stone tools and the evidence from
and hence a permanent settlement was developed, usually one charcoal fires suggest that by at least 8000 bc, in what is now
where a supplement of water was available. Soon after 10000 northern Vietnam, local people had moved from gathering to
bc stone mortars (grinders) appeared, indicating that the agriculture. By about 4000 bc, as in Mesopotamia, bronze ob-
grain was ground into flour and that it helped support a popu- jects had begun to appear there and in nearby northern Thai-
lation beginning to grow well beyond what could be sustained land (although this was long before the Thais, migrating south
by hunting and gathering. from south China, occupied the area). Chickens and pigs,
By about 7000 bc there were large and numerous storage both native to mainland Southeast Asia, are also identifiable
pits for grain, and clay pots for the same purpose and for stor- at these sites, and at one there is a large cemetery, suggesting a
ing and carrying water. By this time cultivated wheat, barley, large population. Later, perhaps by about 2000 bc, agriculture,
and peas had evolved into more productive forms than their by then further evolved, moved down from the early upland
wild ancestors, probably through purposeful selection of the sites to the fertile floodplains of the great Southeast Asia riv-
best seeds by the cultivators. Sheep, goats, and dogs were do- ers, Irrwaddy (in Burma), Mekong, and others, a move which
mesticated instead of being hunted, and in the case of dogs, paralleled the earlier one in Mesopotamia.
used as hunting assistants. A thousand years later cattle and Most of the modern inhabitants of Southeast Asia came
pigs had joined the list of domesticates. By about 4000 bc or originally from what is now China, including Tibet, many
slightly earlier agricultural techniques were advanced enough thousands of years ago, although they surely interbred with
and populations large enough to allow the expansion of settle- other people already there. It seems to have been other waves
ments into the different environment of the Tigris-Euphrates of migrants from the Chinese course area that produced the
lowland, and somewhat later to the Indus valley in what is now people called Malays, who became the dominant inhabitants
Pakistan. Most of these areas were desert or near-desert, but of the Malay Peninsula, what is now Indonesia, and the Phil-
the river floodplains, with their fertile soils and long grow- ippines. Ethnically and physically the varied Malay people
ing seasons of high temperatures, were very productive if they are broadly similar, speaking related languages and sharing a
could be given water through controlled irrigation. Both rivers generally common culture, but they did not penetrate beyond
are fed by rains and melting snow in their mountain source ar- what is now eastern Indonesia. The areas east of there belong

WORLDMARK ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CULTURES AND DAILY LIFE Volume 3: Asia & Oceania
 Introduction 3

within Oceania, outlined above as Melanesia, Micronesia, several centuries thereafter, and early Christianity was carried
and Polynesia. As they migrated south and east, the Malays to India in the first century ad. After the fall of the Kushans
brought agriculture and domesticated animals with them. The India relapsed into its more normal pattern of separate region-
fertile volcanic island of Java came to support by far the great- al kingdoms until the rise of the Gupta empire which ruled the
est concentration of population. north from about 320 ad to about 550 ad. It was destroyed by
new invaders from central Asia, probably Iranians, one more in
INDIA (SOUTH ASIA) the long succession of ethnically and culturally different out-
The Indus civilization collapsed by about 2000 bc, but we do siders drawn into India through its western passes and woven
not know for sure who its people were. We cannot read the into the Indian fabric to form a hybrid population and culture.
script they wrote on clay tablets, but it seems likely that they Outside groups however never conquered the south, which still
were relatively dark-skinned ancestors of the present inhab- speaks languages of the north. In the sixth century bc, the is-
itants of southern India. Beginning about 1700 bc or slightly land of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) off the southern tip of India
later, the north was invaded over several centuries by a lighter- was settled by the Sinhalese from north India largely displac-
skinned central Asian or Iranian people who called themselves ing the original less technically developed inhabitants, the Ve-
Aryans, speaking an early form of Sanskrit, the ancestor of the ddas. Later Dravidian migrants from south India, the Tamils,
modern languages of the north, and through its Iranian (Per- settled in the north of the island, with their Hindu faith, but
sian) connection also those of modern Europe. In the years the Sinhalese had earlier been converted to Buddhism, which
following 2000 bc these Indo-European people, as they are remains the major religion.
called, migrated both east into India and west into what is now Beginning in the twelft h century ad India was again in-
Greece and Turkey from an original homeland probably in vaded, this time by Afghans and Turks from central Asia who
what is now Iran, bringing their language with them. In India brought with them the crusading religion of Islam. They were
they intermarried with the people already there, but although fiercely intolerant of other religions, and forced many Indians
they remained a minority their military skills conquered the to convert to Islam while oppressing Hindus, but never con-
north, while mountain barriers and southern resistance kept quered the south. The Delhi Sultanate, which ruled most of the
them largely out of the south. The new rulers of the north north from 1206 to 1526, was replaced by the Mughal Dynasty
evolved the religion of Hinduism, a blend of the ideas of the In- which conquered Delhi and established a new empire that last-
dus civilization with those brought in from Iran, centered on ed into the new colonial order established by the British. The
the supreme gods Vishnu, Brahma, and Shiva, with many less- Mughals also came from central Asia, but were the carriers of
er gods, but basically monotheistic (one god) in its belief in a a largely Persian culture as well as of Islam. Originally toler-
single creative principle and the sanctity of all life, or the great ant of Hindus, still the great majority of Indians, they later be-
chain of being. According to Hindus, the faithful following of came less so and thus helped to sow the seeds of antagonism
dharma or duty produces a good karma or character, which between Hindus and Muslims, although they never conquered
in turn determines identity in the next re-birth; a bad karma the south. By 1600 the population of undivided India was
may result in re-birth as an animal or insect, while a good one about 100 million.
can even result in escape from the endless cycle of re-birth to The last invaders of India were the British, never more than
a bodiless reunion with the godhead, or moksha, equivalent to 100,000 in total but the dominant group after about 1800 out
the Buddhist nirvana. Hinduism spread to all parts of India of a population which reached 200 million by 1800 and 400
and remains the dominant religion even in the south. million by the end of the Colonial period. The British trans-
Buddhism is a later offshoot from Hinduism that was de- formed the country in partnership with many Indians. Some
veloped in the sixth century bc, sharing most of its beliefs but of the British married Indian wives and produced a new hy-
centered on denial of worldly preoccupations, following the brid group of Anglo-Indians, while building a huge rail net-
four noble truths announced by the Buddha: Life is full of pain, work and stimulating the beginnings of industrialization.
suffering, and impermanence. This is caused by desire. To end Their early coastal trade bases: Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras,
suffering, end desire. To end desire, end worldly attachments became the biggest cities in India, as Calcutta and Bombay still
and live a charitable and holy life. Buddhism gradually was re- are, while Madras was overtaken after independence in 1947
absorbed into Hinduism by the thirteenth century ad, and the by the capital of Delhi-New Delhi, a twin city where the Mu-
few remaining Buddhists were slaughtered by the Islamic in- ghals had also ruled. South India had been ruled in Mughal
vaders early in that century. By the beginning of the Christian times, as under the Delhi Sultanate, by many independent
era Buddhism had spread to Southeast Asia and China, and kingdoms, and it still preserves a distinct regional culture, dis-
from China to Korea and Japan, although it was later extin- tinguished from the north also by its different languages, col-
guished in the land of its birth. Most Indians, both Hindus and lectively known as Dravidian. Modern India is thus a mixture
Muslims (followers of Islam) take religion far more seriously of peoples, languages, and religions, more diverse than in any
than any people elsewhere, and religion is still a major part of modern state. At independence in 1947, India was partitioned
South Asian life. at Muslim insistence into Pakistan in the northwest, where
The Mauryan empire, which ruled the north from 322 bc there was a Muslim majority, and, later, Bangladesh in the east,
to about 180 bc, was followed by fresh invasions by several also a largely Muslim area, leaving what is now the Republic of
central Asian groups including those who formed the Kushan India occupying the largest share of the sub-continent. South
kingdom which ruled north India from about 100 bc to about Asia as a whole now has a population well over one billion,
200 ad. Before the Mauryas Alexander the Great of Macedon larger even than China’s.
had also invaded India and left behind several Greek kingdoms The small Himalayan kingdom of Nepal, independent
in the northwest. Trade with the Mediterranean continued for since 1923, also has a mixed population, including Tibetans

Volume 3: Asia & Oceania WORLDMARK ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CULTURES AND DAILY LIFE
4 Introduction

with both Hinduism and Buddhism practiced. The neighbor- ferent peoples, called by the French, who ruled Vietnam from
ing kingdoms of Bhutan and Sikkim remain under Indian su- 1886 to 1954, simply “Montagnards.” Malaya (known as Malay-
pervision while nominally independent. There is a long list of sia since 1963), occupying the tail of mainland Southeast Asia,
people called “tribals,” by no means all of them primitive and was until recently thinly settled by Malays, with the towns be-
some highly developed. “Tribals” are concentrated in moun- ing populated primarily with people who originated in Chi-
tainous central India and along the mountain borders of India, na. As a British colony, Malaya boomed after 1890, when the
Pakistan, and Bangladesh. discovery of tin and the developed of new rubber plantations
Ceylon (called Sri Lanka since 1975) had never been politi- produced major exports. As such, Malaya attracted large num-
cally united with India but in larger terms belongs within In- bers of migrant Chinese and Indians as laborers, who became
dian culture, except for its continued adherence to Buddhism. a dominant presence in the country. Chinese entrepreneurs
It became independent in 1948, but then was torn by violence prospered, handling much of Malaya’s trade with Indonesia.
between the dominant Sinhalese and the minority Tamils, Following Malaya’s independence in 1957, Singapore was sepa-
about 18 percent of the population. Roughly half of the Tam- rated from the new state in 1965 and at the same time other
ils have lived there for some 2000 years after migrating from formerly British areas in northern Borneo were added, to form
nearby south India. The other half are more recent arrivals in the new state of Malaysia, primarily to reduce the proportion
the nineteenth century who came to work on the tea and rub- of Chinese and to give Malays a stronger majority. North Bor-
ber plantations, and remain an underprivileged group. Tamil neo includes some Chinese, but also more tribal groups such as
terrorism in support of their demands for regional autonomy Dyaks, Bugis, and others. Independent Singapore remains as a
has been met by harsh reprisal in an atmosphere close to civil tiny city-state, 80 percent Chinese and 8 percent Indian.
war. Indonesia is both the largest and the most diverse country
of Southeast Asia, composed of some 3000 islands inhabited
SOUTHEAST ASIA by a great variety of people and never governed as a unit until
The label of Southeast Asia is a term of convenience rather the Dutch colonial rulers took over most of it at the end of the
than one that suggests regional coherence. It includes nine nineteenth century. The island of Java has always been by far
modern states: Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia (Kampu- the most populous and most developed; its language, Javanese,
chea), Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, and the Phil- was not shared by the other islands, although its Malay culture
ippines, which have never operated as a political unit. Most of was. Cultural influences from classical India were formative
them also contain a variety of minority peoples, and most won from the third century bc to the fourteenth century ad and
their independence from Western colonialism only after the survive in the Hindu-Buddhist religion of the island of Bali.
World War II. Burma (which the military dictatorship there re- From the fifteenth century Islam began to spread into what is
named Myanmar) is dominated by the lowland Burmese who now Indonesia via the trade routes from India, and is now the
settled in the valley of the Irrawaddy before recorded history. official state religion, but Christianity was established especial-
Burma contains in its hill and mountain fringes a number of ly in the outer islands beyond Java by Portuguese, Dutch, and
separate people who have similar origins in southwestern Chi- American missionaries, and original animism remains vigor-
na but different cultures and languages; Shans, Kachins, and ous in many areas.
Karens are the largest such groups, in the past beyond the con- Modern Indonesia includes the large islands of Sumatra and
trol of the Burmese government and now in chronic rebellion. Borneo (except for its northern coast), Celebes or Sulawesi far-
The traditional capital was at Mandalay (earlier at Paga) in the ther east, the several small islands of the Muluccas or Spice Is-
mid-Irrawaddy valley. Thailand (formerly Siam) is numerically lands beyond, and many others directly east of Java, including
more dominated by the lowland Thais of the Menam or Chao Bali, each of these with its own original language. In 1960 the
Praya River, even though they seem to have become the main new Indonesian state, independent of Holland from 1949, forc-
inhabitants more recently than the Burmese; they too came ibly took over the western half of New Guinea and named it
originally from south China, but probably in successive waves Irian, thus adding a veritable welter of unrelated aborigines in
over many centuries, the last being in the thirteenth century hundreds of different tribal groupings. To try to give the new
ad. Laos is a small mountain country chronically split into state some coherence, the Indonesian government created a
factions, but the inhabitants are preponderantly Thai. Cambo- new national language, Indonesian, based almost entirely on
dia is what remains of the once far more extensive Khmer em- Malay, long the universal trade language of maritime Southeast
pire, which included much of what is now southern and central Asia. It was taught in all schools, and most people in Indonesia
Thailand and southern Vietnam. The Khmers also originated necessarily became bi-lingual, retaining their own languages
in south China, following the valley of the Mekong River. among themselves. The capital remained at Djakarta in west
The Vietnamese are closely related to the Chinese and were Java, where the Dutch had ruled. Java has long been extremely
for a thousand years incorporated into the Chinese empire. densely settled but also highly productive with its rich volcanic
They reclaimed their independence in the tenth century ad soils and unbroken growing season. The other islands, except
and have always been a separate people with their own lan- for parts of Sumatra and Bali, are by contrast thinly populated.
guage. Their early center was in the valley of the Red River with The Javanese may be regarded as a single people, but the rest of
their capital at Hanoi, but beginning in the thirteenth century Indonesia, with a total population now of about 200 million, is
ad they extended their occupation and rule southward, at the made up of a very long list of separate cultural and language
expense of the Khmers, and by the fifteenth century were the groups, including tribal groups.
dominant inhabitants of the lower course of the Mekong River The Philippines is even more fragmented than Indonesia—
and its delta in southern Vietnam. The western mountain bor- some 7000 islands rather than only 3000—and thus preserves
ders of Vietnam have long been occupied by a variety of dif- many regional cultural differences. But conquest by Spain in

WORLDMARK ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CULTURES AND DAILY LIFE Volume 3: Asia & Oceania
 Introduction 5

the sixteenth century, and by the United States in the twenti- south China as central control weakened. This was the period
eth, have brought nearly universal conversion to Christianity, of Confucius (c. 551–c. 79 bc), who aimed to treat the chaos of
a high literacy rate, and the rise of strong national conscious- his time by a return to order, following what he called the rules
ness, despite the survival of many small tribal groups and of an earlier golden era. His rough contemporary Lao Tzu re-
their separate cultures in the mountainous areas, even on the jected the Confucian prescriptions in favor of a philosophy
main island of Luzon, where Manila, the capital is also locat- based on inaction and contemplation, the heart of the religion
ed. There is a somewhat larger community of Muslims on the he founded known as Taoism (Daoism), or simply “The Way.”
southernmost island of Mindanao, a group known as Moros, The Ch’in conquered all of the other rival states in a series
relics of the early spread of Islam. Otherwise English has re- of lightening campaigns culminating in 221 bc, and imposed
placed Spanish as the major common language, although the its own imperial model on what had heretofore been a wide va-
official state language is Tagalog, a Malay-related language of riety of regional cultures, including both spoken and written
lowland Luzon. languages. Until this occurred, one could not speak of China
or the Chinese as a single people but as a collection of sepa-
CHINA rate groups united for the first time by the Ch’in as the first
This most populous country in the world is dominated by eth- all-China empire. The Ch’in conquered much of the south plus
nic Chinese called Han, but also includes a great number of northern Vietnam, but its rule was oppressive and it fell in a
ethnic and cultural minorities, altogether 6 percent of the to- series of revolts, to be succeeded by the Han dynasty in 202 bc.
tal. The main non-Han groups are the Tibetans, Mongols, and Under the Han, which ruled until 220 ad, most of the area now
Uighurs (in Sinkiang-Kinjiang), but others include the Man- within China’s modern borders was conquered, and the move-
chus of Manchuria, the Khirghiz and Kazaka of Kinjiang, and ment of the Chinese southward acquired new momentum. The
a great number of groups scattered around south and south- Chinese still call themselves “people of Han.” The Han empire
west China too numerous to mention. The latter were the orig- included southern Manchuria, settled in large numbers by Han
inal inhabitants of most of south China but have been pushed Chinese, northern Vietnam, parts of Inner Mongolia, and the
off the best lands and into the mountains by the advancing far western desert of Sinkiang (Xinjiang), through which the
wave of Han Chinese migration from the north, spread over silk road ran, guarded by Han watchtowers and garrisons. To
the period from the fourth century bc to the present. There begin with, most of the south was still occupied by non-Han
were several centers of early civilization in China where set- people, but over the following centuries they were displaced
tled agriculture, bronze-making, and writing were gradually by the movement of Hans from the north, especially after the
evolved. The best preserved evidence is in the dry north, in fall of the dynasty in 220 ad and the invasion of the north by
the middle Yellow River valley, where a fully developed late barbarians from the steppe. The Han census recorded a total
Neolithic site has been excavated at Banpo near modern Sian population of 60 million, but the real total was almost certain-
(Xian). Southern sites are less well preserved in a warm humid ly at least 80. We have only guesses for earlier periods, but the
climate, but equally early developments with some archeologi-
population of the whole of China in Shang times has been esti-
cal evidence have been found in the lower Yangtze valley and
mated at 5–10 million, and by mid-Chou at 20–30 million.
south of there. By about 2000 bc the Black Pottery Culture or
Buddhism had spread to China under the Han, via central
Lung Shan in the north was building cities with pounded earth
Asia, and in the “time of troubles” after 220 its other-world-
walls, making bronze, and producing early writing, while such
ly message of salvation attracted many followers, although in
developments were also present in the south.
Given the early evolution of agriculture, bronze, and domes- many cases it blended with the Taoism already there. With the
ticated animals in adjacent Southeast Asia, it seems probable revival of empire under the T’ang dynasty (618–907) there was
that these techniques spread early into south China and were new resistance to this alien religion with its denial of the ma-
diff used northward from there. This included rice, the water terial world, and in the ninth century the T’ang government
buffalo, pigs, and chickens, all native to mainland Southeast confiscated the large Buddhist landholdings as a threat to the
Asia. There are no major mountain barriers between Thailand state. From that time on Buddhism remained a small minority
or Vietnam and south China, and until more modern times it religion, merged with Taoism, in a society where Confucian-
is best to think of this area as a single cultural unit. It is hard ism was again dominant. The T’ang reclaimed the empire won
to imagine Chinese agriculture without even one of these im- by the Han, and established new contacts with central Asia,
ports from Southeast Asia, something which strengthens the while briefly occupying Tibet, although Chinese control there
case for origins in south China as early as those in the north. was not achieved until the eighteenth century. Korea, occupied
By 1600 bc the first authenticated Chinese dynasty, the Shang, as part of the Han empire, was not obliged to accept status as a
had emerged in the Yellow River valley, leaving behind writ- tributary state, as was Vietnam after the fall of the T’ang. The
ten records using characters close to those still in use. Bronze Sung (Song) dynasty (960–1279) continued this arrangement
making reached a height of perfection never surpassed else- but gave up the costly and unprofitable effort to hold Inner
where, and the Shang capitals, which were frequently moved, Mongolia, Sinkiang, and Tibet—until it was overwhelmed by
became true cities. Shang technology was probably matched the Mongol invasion which also conquered most of the rest of
in all respects in central and south China, which belonged to Asia and swept even into Europe. By 1350 the hated Mongols
different cultures. The Shang were overthrown in 1027 bc by had largely been driven out of China, and the Ming dynasty
the Chou (Zhen) who founded a new dynasty which lasted un- (1368–1644) reaffirmed the traditional Chinese system, as did
til 221 bc when it was in turn overthrown by the Ch’in (Qin) its successor the Ch’ing (Qing-1644–1911). Population totals
conquest. The last several centuries of the Chou however were reached 100 million in the Sung, 150 in the Ming, and 450 by
marked by the rise of rival regional states in north, central, and the end of the Ch’ing.

Volume 3: Asia & Oceania WORLDMARK ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CULTURES AND DAILY LIFE
6 Introduction

With the fall of the Ch’ing in 1911, China lapsed into the technically more advanced, more powerful, and more numer-
chaos of the warlord years, briefly and incompletely relieved by ous people has become dominant over another population, it
the nationalist government from its capital at Nanking (Nan- tends to overwhelm the latter and to force it to accept the rule
jing) for the ten years between 1927 and the full-scale Japanese and ways of the dominant group. (We have ample evidence in
attack on China in 1937. The long and bloody anti-Japanese the fate of the North American Indians.) Non-Hans are about
war helped to destroy the nationalist government and to build 6 percent of the total Chinese population, but the numbers
up support for the Chinese Communist Party with its effective have become vaguer as many Hans marry non-Hans in order
guerrilla resistance to the hated Japanese in north China. The to get the benefits reserved for the latter. Muslims are listed as
Japanese had taken Manchuria in 1931 and developed its rich by far the largest minority, although nearly all are in fact Han
resources to create the largest industrial complex in East Asia, Chinese. Total population of China doubled between 1949 and
but Manchuria had been massively settled by Han Chinese 1982 and is now over one billion.
from the late nineteenth century and was reclaimed by the
communist guerrillas at the end of the war. The remnants of KOREA
the nationalist government and its army, defeated by the com- The Korean people came originally from eastern Siberia and
munist advance into south China, fled to the offshore island of northern Manchuria, as their spoken language, unrelated to
Taiwan, where the nationalists still rule. Chinese but akin to Japanese, suggests. We do not know when
Taiwan had been settled by Han Chinese from the early sev- this migration into the mountainous Korean peninsula may
enteenth century, slowly displacing the aboriginal occupants have taken place, but it was well before the beginning of any
who now live largely on reservations, distantly related to but written records. By 2000 bc agriculture and domesticated ani-
basically different from the Han. Taiwan had been ruled as mals spread to Korea from China; bronze-making was diff used
part of the Japanese empire from 1895, but under nationalist from China somewhat later. The early Koreans were tribal peo-
control it experienced vigorous economic growth on founda-
ples dependent on hunting, gathering, and fishing. As their
tions laid by the Japanese in industry, agriculture, and com-
culture merged into farming, permanent villages and towns
munications. Meanwhile the new communist government on
arose, and bronze weapons and ornaments began to be made.
the mainland declared the founding of the People’s Republic in
Northern Korea, adjacent to Manchuria, was incorporated
1949, and announced a new policy toward the many non-Han
in the Han empire and settled significantly by Han Chinese,
minorities, who were to be given recognition as members of
who introduced most elements of Chinese culture, at least to
the greater Chinese family. Tibet, brutally re-occupied in the
the Korean upper classes. Chinese influences continued after
1950s, Sinkiang, and Inner Mongolia were designated as “Au-
tonomous Areas,” but the hand of the Chinese state was strong the fall of the Han dynasty, but Korea divided into three ri-
and the people of these areas continued to be dominated by val kingdoms which were later unified by the state of Koryo
Han Chinese, who held all power together with their local col- (the origin of the name Korea) in the tenth century. Buddhism
laborators. Smaller areas in mountainous south China where had spread to Korea from China during the Han dynasty and
non-Hans remained numerically important were designated spread widely, but after the founding of the Yi dynasty in 1392
as “Autonomous Regions,” including large sections of Kiangsi Confucianism was favored and Korean Buddhism declined.
(Jiangxi) Province. But “autonomy” remained a cruel joke, and Korea, especially its upper class culture, became a faithful
there were pressures on all non-Hans to conform to the stan- echo of China while retaining its Korean distinctiveness. Ko-
dard Chinese way if they were to succeed in the new society. reans referred to China as “Elder Brother” and looked up to
One reason for Chinese reassertion of control was that most the Chinese model in all things, producing their own accom-
of these areas, especially Tibet, Sinkiang, and Inner Mongo- plishments in ceramics, printing, and the early use of move-
lia, lay along the country’s international borders and hence had able type as well as a magnificent art in the Chinese style but
some strategic significance, especially after China and Russia recognizably Korean.
became adversaries rather than allies in the late 1950s. An- The early tribes at the beginning of Korean history slowly
other reason was the new government’s determination to re- merged into a single Korean people, and no traces of any ear-
claim all of the territory held by the great Chinese empires of ly distinctions remain. Korea was conquered by the Mongols
the past, and thus to establish its credentials as their succes- and was terribly exploited, including the forcing of its army
sor. Chinese behavior in Tibet, where there has been an effort and navy to aid in the Mongol conquest of China and its fruit-
to suppress Tibetan Buddhism and to root out other elements less attempt to conquer Japan. After the Mongol collapse, Ko-
of Tibetan identity, has been so brutal, especially toward Ti- rea slowly recovered but then had to fight a Japanese invasion
betan protests, that it has attracted international censure. In by the warlord Hideyoshi from 1592 to 1598 which devastat-
Inner Mongolia, the tide of Han Chinese settlers has engulfed ed the country. There were some Korean successes against the
the remaining Mongol population and now outnumbers it by Japanese, but Hideyoshi died in 1598 and his troops quickly
at least twenty to one, replacing the traditional pastoral no- returned to Japan. The Yi dynasty slowly lost effectiveness
madic economy with commercial agriculture and industrial- and was crippled by factional fighting among different upper
ization. Outer Mongolia, where Mongols are still the (slight) class groups. It stubbornly resisted foreign pressures to open
majority, declared its independence from China in 1921, but the country to trade and clung to traditional Korean culture,
there too the trend is toward agriculture and industry rather trying to prevent the disruption that inevitably comes with
than the traditional pastoral nomadism. In Sinkiang, Chinese change. In the end, the Japanese took over Korea in 1895 and
technicians, managers, and political bosses are almost as nu- ruled in oppressively until their defeat in the second world war
merous as the indigenous Uighurs, and the capital at Urumchi in 1945. Korea’s population grew from an estimated five mil-
(Ulumuqi) has become a major industrial center. Wherever a lion in 1669 to 9 million by 1800 and continued to rise slowly

WORLDMARK ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CULTURES AND DAILY LIFE Volume 3: Asia & Oceania
 Introduction 7

during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries to a 1995 total show that there was trade with China, but we do not know for
of over 60 million in north and south Korean combined. sure who the Yayoi people were, most probably a mix of the
In 1945, the newly independent Korea was partitioned be- early Japanese and those already there. By the third century
tween a Russian puppet government in the north and an ad, with the Japanese migration largely complete, Yayoi sites
American puppet regime in the South, as a reflection of the included large earthen mounds over the tombs of prominent
Cold War. This led directly to war when the North invaded the men, a practice that seems clearly to have been derived from
South in 1950, a campaign that was halted just short of suc- earlier Korean models. Much of Yayoi culture, and its people,
cess by an American-dominated United Nations force in aid may most accurately be seen as provincial Korean. By the fift h
of their South Korean allies, who drove slowly north, devastat- century iron swords and armor appeared that were similar to or
ing the country yet again as they advanced. A stalemate was identical with Korean equivalents, as were the jeweled crowns
reached, and the armistice signed in 1953 returned matters al- and other ornaments found in some of the tombs. Houses were
most exactly to where they had been before, the country still now raised off the ground, agriculture was becoming more
divided roughly along the 38th parallel. Since then the South, productive with the help of iron tools, and pottery had be-
still a police state, has seen strong economic growth, while the come harder and more highly fired. Kyushu and Honshu had
even more repressive communist government in the North was reached the technological levels achieved in China some 2000
less successful. Dangerous tensions between the two halves of years earlier and in Korea perhaps 1000 years thereafter. But
the artificially divided country remained. Japan still lacked writing and we have no evidence of true cit-
ies or what the population totals may have been.
J A PA N The earliest written accounts of Japanese and Chinese,
As an island country—four main islands and many smaller compiled in the third century ad, describe the route via Ko-
ones—120 miles off the coast of Korea at the nearest point, rea. The country was shown as divided into a hundred “king-
Japan has preserved a separate identity and its culture has doms”—probably better called “clans”—of about a thousand
remained a distinctive variant from those on the Asian main- households each. The earliest Japanese written accounts, us-
land. Like the Koreans, the present-day Japanese people can be ing the characters adopted from China, did not appear until
traced back to migrants from northeast Asia or eastern Siberia, the eighth century, strikingly late. They are a mixture of pious
speaking an Altaic language related to Korean but not to Chi- and often contradictory myths, especially for the early periods,
nese. There were probably, however, some movements of people with some more factual accounts of later events. They recount
into Japan from south China and perhaps from the south Pa- the story of the divine creation of the Japanese islands, and the
cific. Paleolithic cultures were widespread in Japan by at least descent of the Japanese emperor from Amterasu, the sun god-
50000 bc, and by about 6000 bc a variety of Neolithic cultures dess. We can infer that by the fift h century the earlier clan ba-
had arisen, of which the best known is called Jomon. Some Jo- sis of Japanese society was giving way to an infant state called
mon groups had begun to practice a rudimentary agriculture Yamato, on the Yamato plain, a label that the Japanese came to
about 300 bc, presumably diff used from China via Korea. They apply to themselves as a nation. The emperor was both a tem-
made cord-marked pottery, lived in sunken pit shelters, and poral and a spiritual ruler who presided over the worship of
engaged in hunting, gathering, and fishing. But the direct and the sun goddess and the forces of nature. In later times this
principal ancestors of the modern Japanese did not begin to nature worship came to be called Shinto, or the “Way of the
arrive, again via Korea, until some time between 300 bc and Gods,” but it was never a fully developed religion and had no
200 ad, in successive waves. Other and unrelated groups al- coherent philosophy or moral code.
ready inhabiting the Japanese islands, including those of the Immigration from Korea continued into the ninth century,
Jomon culture, were absorbed by conquest and intermarriage, and until the sixth century the Japanese retained a foothold on
and the survivors of the Japanese invasion were slowly driven the southeast Korean coast. There may have been some form of
northward. The principal group among the aborigines was the alliance between groups on both sides of the Tsushima Straits,
Ainu, related to the Causasian family and with more facial and which now separate the two countries. Large numbers of Ko-
body hair than most East Asians. The Ainu seem to have been reans lived in Japan, where they seem to have dominated or at
the principal opponents of the advancing wave of Japanese in- least been prominent in Japanese society. A genealogical record
vaders as they moved north from their original beachheads in of 815 ad, one of the earliest Japanese written texts, listed over
the southern island of Kyushu, closest to Korea, and by about a third of the aristocracy as claiming Korean or Chinese an-
500 ad had established their chief center on the mainland of cestry, clearly a mark of distinction. Koreans also served in Ja-
Honshu, on the Yamato Plain between modern Osaka, Nara, pan as skilled artisans, metallurgists, and other technologists.
and Kyoto. For a long time the boundary with the Ainu lay For some centuries there seem to have been periodic raids in
just north of Kyoto along the line of Lake Biwa, although there both directions across the Straits of Tsushima, but by the fift h
was doubtless some interbreeding that may help to explain the century such violent interactions faded. Those remaining in
greater hairiness of most Japanese than other East Asians. Japan continued to move northward, mainly against the Ainu,
Meanwhile the Jomon culture was progressively displaced who were slowly overcome and now live as a tiny and dwin-
beginning in the third century bc by an early agricultural cul- dling group on reservations in the northernmost island of
ture called Yayoi. It is likely that the transition into settled ag- Hokkaido.
riculture was hastened by the arrival of the Japanese via Korea, Buddhism came to Japan from Korea in the sixth century
bringing with them other new techniques used by the Yayoi and brought with it further elements of Chinese and Korean
people: the potter’s wheel, cultivated rice, irrigation, and the culture. The pace and scope of such influences accelerated on
beginnings of bronze and then iron tools and weapons, all dif- a major scale with the rise of the T’ang dynasty of China in
fused from China. A few Chinese coins found at Yayoi sites 618. The T’ang model of cultural brilliance powerfully attract-

Volume 3: Asia & Oceania WORLDMARK ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CULTURES AND DAILY LIFE
8 Introduction

ed the Japanese, who had by now reached a level in their own of Genji written about 1000 ad. Court women, such as Mura-
development where they were ready to move from a tribal and saki was, where literate, in both Chinese and the soon-devel-
pre-literature state to a Chinese-style civilization. Successive oped Japanese phonetic system called kana, which represented
embassies were sent from Japan to China beginning early in the sounds of spoken Japanese. But the splendor of court life at
the seventh century, to bring back all they could learn about Kyoto (Heian) was limited to a fortunate few. Most of the Japa-
Chinese ways, including writing and city-building. nese remained poor villagers, with limited exchange through
Japan is smaller than France or California and somewhat barter, and many, perhaps most of them were, in effect, serfs.
larger than the British Isles, but it is mainly covered with moun- This may help also to explain the relatively slow movement of
tains. Settlement has thus remained heavily concentrated on Japanese northward beyond Kyoto, not only because of Ainu
the narrow coastal plain between modern Tokyo and Osaka, resistance but because northern Japan was not a desirable
in a series of disconnected basins over an area roughly equiva- place to live during this period. The Japanese had arrived at the
lent to the coastal corridor between Boston and Washington, sub-tropical island of Kyushu, and southern or western Hon-
D.C. in the United States. In practice this makes Japan an even shu was not dramatically different. Northern Honshu, let alone
smaller country since so much of it, in the mountains, is thinly Hokkaido, was cold and snowy. Japanese culture had adapted
populated. Hokkaido, the northernmost island, was occupied to a mild winter climate with hot summers. Their traditional
by the Japanese very late, mainly after World War I. Mountains houses could be opened to the breezes on all sides by sliding
retarded Japanese economic development and political unifica- panels, there was minimal provision for heating, and people
tion came late, not until 1600, after many centuries of disunity wore loose-fitting clothes, although all of this could be related,
and chronic fighting among rival regional groups. Agriculture as some argue, to cultural or migratory influences from south
too has been hampered by the shortage of level land. Japan’s China or the south Pacific.
great agricultural advantage is its mild maritime climate, the The spread of Buddhism led to the building of many large
gift of the surrounding sea, which keeps it humid, mild in win- monasteries as well as temples, and armed monks began to
ter, and largely free of the droughts that plague north China. take part in fighting rival groups. Japanese Buddhism moved
The mountains are steep and come down close to the sea so far from the Buddha’s message of non-violence, and acquired
that nowhere are there extensive plains where soil can build magic elements such as the recitation of the Buddha’s name as
up. Fish from the surrounding seas have always formed an im- a means of salvation. At the same time, Japan became torn by
portant part of the diet, especially convenient since the bulk warfare between rival secular groups. This was the age of the
of the population lives close to the coast. The Chinese, in their samurai or warriors, who destroyed the rule of Heian and set up
superior attitude toward other peoples, called the Japanese successive military regimes headed by a shogun, who claimed
“hairy sea dwarfs,” since they were also generally shorter than to be the emperor’s military lieutenant but was in fact the real
the Chinese norm (perhaps the result of a different diet, lower power. The chronic fighting came to a climax in the civil wars
in meat); the “sea” is a reference to the highly successful Japa- of the sixteenth century, but was finally ended by the victory of
nese piracy along the coasts of China. a new shogunate, the Tokugawa, in 1600. The Tokugawa sho-
Beginning in 710, a Chinese-style capital city was built at guns largely unified the country for the first time but tried to
Nara, midway on the Yamato Plain, a direct copy of the T’ang suppress change of any kind as threatening their feudal-style
capital, and including many Buddhist temples, the first real rule. Nevertheless pressures for change built up, and by the
city in Japan. This was still a small country, and over half of 1850’s were ready to break out as trade had thrived and mer-
the original plan for Nara was never built. A Chinese-style law chants had grown newly prosperous. In 1853, the U.S. govern-
code was also issued, and a census taken, but the results it re- ment sent Matthew Perry to demand free trade access to Japan.
ported were not clear. In 794 a new emperor began the build- His mission, resulting in a commercial treaty, sparked a new
ing of a new capital at modern Kyoto (then called Heian), also wave of change, and in 1868 a largely nonviolent revolution
on the Chinese model, as its checkerboard pattern still shows. toppled the Tokugawa and put in power a new group of radi-
The Japanese, despite their admiration of Chinese civilization, cal reformers who were determined to save Japan from western
altered that system of government wherever necessary to fit pressures by building up its military and by pushing wholesale
Japan’s quite different circumstances. But on the whole they westernization as a source of strength.
successfully transplanted Chinese culture on a major scale, in- This change was called the Meiji Restoration, from the ti-
cluding T’ang music and dance, architecture, gardens, and the tle of the new boy emperor, who in fact he remained, as in the
tea ceremony, most of these things long since gone in China. past, an essentially powerless symbol, as the emperor still is
If you want to get a glimpse of T’ang China you must go to today. Under the direction of the new Meiji era leaders, Japan
Japan, where these and other adoptions have been carefully quickly industrialized and became a major world power, de-
preserved. feating China in 1894 (and acquiring Korea and Taiwan as a
One important difference between Japan and China was the result), and Russia in 1904. Japan was now acknowledged by
persistence in Japan of an hereditary and privileged aristocra- the Western powers as an equal, but Western sentiment be-
cy, as in Korea, where China had long before abolished it and gan to turn against the Japanese as pride in their military suc-
set up a system of competitive examinations as a basis for se- cesses and their growing ambition led them to make plans for
lecting officials. Officials in Korea and Japan came only from the conquest of China, beginning with Manchuria in 1931, and
the aristocracy. For other reasons, Japanese art, architecture, leading gradually to an all-out confrontation with the Unit-
and literature slowly diverged to some extent from their Chi- ed States and Britain at Pearl Harbor and Singapore in 1941.
nese origins, as was only to be expected. Japan also produced World War II destroyed most of Japan’s cities and factories, as
a number of outstanding women writers, including Lady Mu- well as killing over three and a half million Japanese, soldiers,
rasaki, author of the world’s first psychological novel, The Tale sailors, and civilians, including those who died in the nuclear

WORLDMARK ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CULTURES AND DAILY LIFE Volume 3: Asia & Oceania
 Introduction 9

bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in the closing days of the ulation in 1000 ad has been estimated at about 5 million, in
war. the late sixteenth century at 15 million, and by the mid-nine-
The recovery of Japan from such a disaster has been almost teenth perhaps 30 million, but at each period most Japanese re-
miraculously rapid. By 1965 Japan had become the world’s mained poor. Now most Japanese are affluent, and enjoy a wide
third industrial power, thanks to its newly rebuilt factories but range of social services plus a highly effective education sys-
even more to the hard work and determination of its people. tem, which in turn is a major key to economic growth. Perhaps
High quality Japanese goods won buyers all over the world. Japan’s major shortcoming now is its limited living space. Over
The American Occupation from 1945 to 1952 helped to push 80 percent of Japanese live in cities—Tokyo being the world’s
Japan away from militarism and in the direction of American- largest at over 30 million—and most of them live in tiny apart-
style democracy, which has struck deep roots in Japan, in part ments. Space is at a premium, and very few Japanese begin to
no doubt because rapid economic growth has created a new have the living space many Americans take for granted. The
middle class and because general prosperity means that peo- countryside, although very beautiful, tends to be horrendously
ple are not seeking radical alternatives. Population growth has crowded on weekends and holidays by urbanites anxious for a
leveled off, as tends to happen when the survival of children break. But Japanese know that in other respects they are very
can be assumed and families concentrate instead on providing well off on any comparative scale.
well for their children. At nearly 130 million, Japan is clearly The remainder of this Asia volume treats in more detail each
a dominant country, but the huge increase in population has of the major areas: South Asia, Southeast Asia, China, Korea,
been accompanied by a steep rise in living standards. The pop- and Japan.

Volume 3: Asia & Oceania WORLDMARK ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CULTURES AND DAILY LIFE
 Acehnese 11

from 1873 to 1906 and cost the Dutch much in money and
ACEHNESE men.
The Indonesian Revolution took a particularly bloody form
in Aceh; ulama (Muslim religious leaders) directed popular
PRONUNCIATION: AH-cheh-neez fury against the uleebalang, who were virtually exterminated
LOCATION: Indonesia (Sumatra) as a class. In 1953, not wanting to be included with Christian
POPULATION: 2–3 million Batak in the province of North Sumatra, Acehnese began a
LANGUAGE: Acehnese revolt against Jakarta that lasted for 10 years. In the end, the
RELIGION: Islam central government granted Aceh the status of “Special Re-
RELATED ARTICLES: Vol. 3: Indonesians gion” (Daerah Istimewa), with autonomous jurisdiction over
religion, education, and customary law. This special status
1
INTRODUCTION notwithstanding, Suharto’s New Order regime (1966–1998)
Located at the northernmost tip of Sumatra, Aceh has been exploited Aceh’s natural resource bounty (natural gas, petro-
the region of Indonesia most exposed to influences from the leum, gold, silver, and copper) without benefiting the rural
Islamic Middle East and Islamized India. Even the physical ap- majority of Acehnese, provoking the emergence of a separat-
pearance of the coastal population reflects this: a great many ist Free Aceh Movement (GAM—Gerakan Aceh Merdeka)
Acehnese have Arab or Indian features. The Acehnese seem al- that went into armed rebellion in the late 1980s; this in turn
ways to have played a key role in the trade linking India and was answered by brutal military repression that killed 2,000
China. Their closest linguistic relatives are the Cham of central Acehnese in 1989–1991 and made thousands of others refugees
Vietnam; their languages preserve a common fund of Austro- within their own homeland or in neighboring provinces. The
Asiatic loanwords that indicate intimate contacts with Mon- years immediately after the fall of the Suharto regime in 1998
Khmer peoples. A network of kindred communities may have were marked by Acehnese continuing to mobilize to demand
run from Vietnam to Sumatra through the Malay Peninsula, autonomy and the central government going back and forth
particularly as the earliest trade passed over the Isthmus of between conceding greater autonomy and resuming military
Kra instead of rounding the peninsula, as it did later. offensives against GAM insurgents.
The most renowned early state recorded in the Acehnese re- The guerilla war was again in full swing when a massive
gion is Samudra (meaning “ocean,” from which the name “Su- earthquake and tsunami devastated Aceh on 26 December
matra” probably comes). Still pagan when Marco Polo stopped 2004, killing 230,000 and leaving over 500,000 homeless. The
there in 1292, it was already Muslim in 1323 when the famous epicenter of the earthquake was right off Aceh’s coast, though
Arab traveler Ibn Battuta passed through. Under a new name, the resulting tsunami struck as far as Thailand and Sri Lan-
Pasai, the kingdom became the model Islamic court in the ar- ka. The catastrophe led GAM and the Indonesian government,
chipelago. In its immediate vicinity, however, were other inde- under the mediation of Finnish ex-president Martti Ahtisaari,
pendent states: Barus, Daya, Lamri, and Aru. In the territory to reach a peace agreement (signed on 15 August 2005). With
of Lamri, Sultan Ali Mughayat Shah established the kingdom financial help for reconstruction coming from many foreign
of Aceh at the beginning of the 16th century. The new pow- governments and organizations, Aceh is recovering. In 2006
er profited from the Portuguese capture of Malacca; Muslim the economy began to experience positive growth (7.7%). Aceh
merchants (and later Protestant Dutch and English) sought now enjoys the expanded autonomy granted in 2002, including
refuge at Aceh, and the sultanate carried on a holy war against the implementation of Sharia (Islamic law), the right to retain
Malacca’s new Catholic rulers from 1540 to 1630. 80% of revenues from petroleum and natural gas production
These years, particularly during the reign of the autocrat- and receive foreign direct investment and not via the central
ic Sultan Iskandar Muda (“Young Alexander”), constituted government, and a new official name, “Nanggroe Aceh Darus-
Aceh’s Golden Age. Acehnese ships carried pepper to ports salam” (literally, “The State of Aceh, Abode of Peace,” i.e. “do-
in the Red Sea, providing half of Europe’s supply. Acehnese main of Islamic government”).
power extended far south on Sumatra (sultan’s viceroys were 2
placed over the Minangkabau, Simalungan Batak, and Karo L O C AT I O N A N D H O M E L A N D
Batak) and into the Malay peninsula (Kedah, Perak, Johor, and The Acehnese inhabit coastal lands along the northernmost
Pahang fell under its sway). end of Sumatra, as well as river valleys leading into the inte-
In 1629 an Acehnese armada was destroyed in an attempt to rior (the high mountains and thick forests of the interior are
take Malacca; from that point, Acehnese power began a slow the home of another ethnicity, the Batak-related Gayo people).
decline. Bloody succession struggles led the Acehnese aris- Acehnese comprise 50-70% of the population of the Nanggroe
tocracy to accept a series of female rulers in the 17th century, Aceh Darussalam, or 2–3 million people. There being no large
despite the conflict with Islam’s male bias. The power of the cities (the capital of Banda Aceh counts only 80,000 inhabit-
central government weakened as that of local lords (uleebal- ants), the majority of Acehnese live in small towns in the fertile
ang, who controlled river mouths and thus the trade of the in- coastal plain, most hugging the modern 600-km (375-mi) road
terior) grew. between Banda Aceh and Medan in neighboring North Suma-
The diff usion of political power to regional overlords did not tra province, Indonesia’s greatest metropolis west of Jakarta.
harm Aceh’s economic vitality. Its wealth, particularly in pep- 3
per, attracted attacks by foreigners, such as the Americans and L ANGUAGE
French, in the 1820s and 1830s. Because of a mutual defense The Acehnese language is related to Malay but is even closer
treaty between Aceh and Britain, the Dutch did not launch a to the Cham languages of central Vietnam. The vocabulary of
major invasion until 1871. Warfare with the Acehnese lasted Acehnese and Cham includes some basic words adopted from

Volume 3: Asia & Oceania WORLDMARK ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CULTURES AND DAILY LIFE
if

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