The Harappan Civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, was a major Bronze Age

civilization that flourished in the northwestern regions of South Asia. Its discovery and
subsequent study by early archaeologists revolutionized our understanding of ancient Indian
history.

Discovery of the Harappan Civilization:

The discovery of the Harappan Civilization was a gradual process, with early hints emerging
before systematic excavations began.
1.​ Early Mentions and Unrecognized Findings (19th Century):
○​ Charles Masson (1829): A British explorer, Charles Masson, visited the ruins of
Harappa in 1829 and noted the presence of ancient bricks and a large mound,
though he didn't fully grasp their significance.
○​ **Alexander Cunningham (1853, 1872): As the first Director-General of the
Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), Alexander Cunningham visited Harappa. He
found some Harappan seals but mistakenly believed them to be foreign in origin
and did not recognize them as belonging to a lost civilization. His primary focus was
often on historical periods linked to written records.
○​ Railway Construction (1850s): During the construction of the Lahore-Multan
railway line in the 1850s, engineers used bricks from the ancient mounds of
Harappa as ballast, unwittingly destroying a significant portion of the site. They
reported finding "burnt bricks" but, again, without understanding their true historical
value.
2.​ Systematic Excavations and Official Announcement (Early 20th Century):
○​ Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni (1921): In 1921, Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni, an
Indian archaeologist working for the ASI, began systematic excavations at Harappa.
He unearthed numerous artifacts, including seals and pottery, which suggested the
presence of an advanced ancient civilization.
○​ Rakhal Das Banerji (R.D. Banerji) (1922): Almost simultaneously, in 1922, R.D.
Banerji, another Indian archaeologist from the ASI, discovered similar ruins at
Mohenjo-daro. He identified the presence of a "Great Bath" and other impressive
structures.
○​ Sir John Marshall's Announcement (1924): The parallel findings at Harappa and
Mohenjo-daro led Sir John Marshall, the Director-General of the ASI at the time, to
announce to the world in 1924 that a new, hitherto unknown civilization,
contemporary with the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt, had been
discovered in the Indus Valley. This was a monumental revelation, pushing back the
known history of India by several millennia.

Study by Early Archaeologists:

Early archaeologists employed various methods to study the Harappan Civilization, laying the
groundwork for future research.
1.​ Stratigraphy and Excavation Techniques:
○​ Early archaeologists, particularly under Sir John Marshall, used stratigraphy,
carefully noting the different layers of soil and artifacts to understand the
chronological sequence of occupation at the sites.
○​ They conducted large-scale horizontal excavations to uncover the layout of the
 cities, revealing planned streets, houses, and drainage systems.
2.​ Documentation and Analysis of Material Remains:
○​ Detailed maps, plans, photographs, and drawings were extensively used to
record the findings.
○​ Architecture: The systematic study of the city layouts revealed features like grid
plans, standardized brick sizes, elaborate drainage systems, and public structures
such as the Great Bath and granaries, indicating high civic organization.
○​ Artifacts: Thousands of unique seals (often made of steatite, depicting animals and
an undeciphered script), different types of pottery, terracotta figurines (humans and
animals), standardized weights, and copper/bronze tools were meticulously
collected and categorized. These provided insights into their symbolic world,
economy, art, technology, and daily life.
3.​ Inferences about Subsistence and Economy:
○​ The discovery of charred grains (wheat, barley) and bones of domesticated animals
provided evidence of their agricultural practices and animal husbandry.
○​ The presence of raw materials from distant regions (e.g., copper from Rajasthan,
lapis lazuli from Afghanistan) and Harappan seals in Mesopotamian sites indicated
extensive internal and external trade networks.

6-Marker from 12th History: Answering Strategy

For a 6-marker question in your 12th-grade History exam, you need to provide a concise yet
comprehensive answer.
Structure:
1.​ Introduction (1 point): Briefly introduce the Harappan Civilization.
2.​ Body Paragraphs (4-5 points, with elaboration):
○​ Divide into logical sections (Discovery, Methods of Study).
○​ Each point should be distinct and provide specific historical facts.
○​ Elaborate on each point sufficiently.
3.​ Conclusion (1 point): Summarize or provide a brief concluding remark.
Content for a 6-marker on "How Harappan Civilization was discovered and studied":
(Introduction)
●​ Briefly state that the Harappan Civilization (Indus Valley Civilization, c. 2600-1900 BCE)
was a major ancient urban culture whose existence was unknown until the early 20th
century.
(Discovery - 2-3 points)
●​ Mention early, unrecognized clues: Charles Masson's observations and railway
construction in the mid-19th century.
●​ Highlight Alexander Cunningham's initial findings of Harappan seals but his
misinterpretation of them as foreign artifacts.
●​ Emphasize the breakthrough with systematic excavations: Daya Ram Sahni at Harappa
(1921) and R.D. Banerji at Mohenjo-daro (1922) simultaneously unearthing significant
ruins.
●​ Conclude this section with Sir John Marshall's official announcement in 1924, which
confirmed the discovery of a new, ancient civilization.
(Study by Early Archaeologists - 2-3 points)
●​ Focus on methodology: Early archaeologists, under Marshall, used systematic horizontal
excavations and stratigraphic analysis to understand city layouts and the sequence of
 occupation.
●​ Mention documentation: They meticulously mapped, photographed, and drew findings to
preserve records.
●​ Discuss analysis of material remains:
○​ Study of urban planning: Reveals grid patterns, standardized bricks, and
impressive drainage systems (e.g., Great Bath, granaries), indicating sophisticated
civic organization.
○​ Interpretation of artifacts: Seals (undeciphered script, symbolic animals), pottery,
figurines, weights, and tools provided insights into their economy, art, technology,
and possibly religious beliefs.
●​ Briefly touch upon inferences: From these material remains, archaeologists inferred
aspects of their subsistence strategies (agriculture, animal rearing) and extensive trade
networks.
(Conclusion)
●​ Conclude by stating that the systematic efforts of early archaeologists brought to light this
advanced civilization, fundamentally altering the understanding of India's ancient past,
despite the challenge of the undeciphered script.