FLA 505; 1+1: PROTECTED CULTIVATION IN FLORICULTURE; I Semester 2012-13 hemlanaikb@yahoo.

com

Exercise No.: 1 Date: ____________

Greenhouse- Construction & its Classification

Introduction
 In the present scenario of perpetual demand for various modern flowers viz., Rose, Carnation, Gerberam Mums,
Anthurious and Orchids.
 There is continuos shrinking of land holding every year drastically.
 To overcome this problem and meet the consumers demand the protected cultivation is the best alternative for
using land and other resources more efficiently.
 In protected structure, the natural environment is modified to suitable conditions for optimum plant growth to
provide quality products.
 Hence, in tropical climate, Green house is an important place where the green house or shade-loving foliage
plants are kept.
 Green house is an artificial constructed shade and covered structures of plastic film, which allow the solar
radiation to pass through but traps the thermal radiation emitted by plants inside and thereby provide favourable
climatic conditions for plant growth.
 It is the ultra-mode device used for controlling temperature, humidity, light intensity, CO2 level inside if properly
constructed.
 Keeping in view the availability of light and circulation of air, green house may also be used for growing orchids
both epiphytic and terrestrial types.

GREEN HOUSE
Greenhouse is a framed or inflated structure covered with transparent or translucent material large
enough to grow crops under partially or fully controlled environmental conditions to get optimum growth,
productivity and quality produce.

ADVANTAGES OF GREEN HOUSE

 To produce high quality, high value, low volume horticultural crops with higher productivity and for
production year round that cannot be achieved in the open field i.e., off-season crop produce may
be obtained.
 To get best quality planting material, seed production, to grow tissue culture plants for hardening.
 To export quality ornamental foliage plants, cut flowers, fruits and vegetables, hybrid seeds,
planting material etc., to earn foreign exchange.
 To overcome adverse climatic conditions, pest and disease problem and to take up research in
crop improvement, nutritional studies, plant protection, biotechnology, tissue culture, genetic
engineering etc.
 To maintain exotic and rare species of ornamental, aromatic and medicinal plants etc.
 To increase the efficient use of water, fertilizers, labour and to modify inside environmental
conditions optimum for crop growth to ensue profitability.

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 Increase yield by 4-5 times more than the traditional planting.

 Harvesting time can be adjusted.
 Barren and uncultivable land may be brought under use.
 Useful technology for hybrid seed production.
 Employment generating technology.

GREENHOUSE EFFECT

 The greenhouse effect refers to circumstances where the short wavelengths of visible light from the sun pass
through a transparent medium and are absorbed, but the longer wavelengths of the infrared re-radiation from
the heated objects are unable to pass through that medium.
 The trapping of the long wavelength radiation leads to more heating and a higher resultant temperature.
 Besides the heating of an automobile by sunlight through the windshield and the namesake example of heating
the greenhouse by sunlight passing through sealed, transparent windows, the greenhouse effect has been
widely used to describe the trapping of excess heat by the rising concentration of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere.
 The carbon dioxide strongly absorbs infrared and does not allow as much of it to escape into space.
 A major part of the efficiency of the heating
of an actual greenhouse is the trapping of the air so
that the energy is not lost by convection.
 Keeping the hot air from escaping out the
top is part of the practical "greenhouse effect", but it
is common usage to refer to the infrared trapping as
the "greenhouse effect" in atmospheric applications
where the air trapping is not applicable.
 When sunlight hits the Earth's surface, the
incoming short wave radiation gets turned
into long wave infrared radiation that is reflected back into space.

POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED FOR CONSTRUCTION OF GREENHOUSE

 One should plan before starting construction of greenhouse depending on the purpose, type of crop, crop
growth, quality requirements, market destination, demand, time of supply, quantity, type of business – retail or
wholesale, cut flower production, planting material, seed production etc.
 Topography, drainage, ground slope, soil condition, temperature, relative humidity, wind velocity and direction,
rainfall, snow fall, irrigation facility, year round weather conditions etc.
 Input availability, labour, equipments, transportation facilities, electricity/power supply etc.
 Production area, sales area, storage, post harvest handling area, area for expansion, expertise, marketing etc.
 Economic requirement, feasibility, profitability etc.

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 East and south sun is excellent for the green house, which can remain open on both these sides, but it should be
shaded on the north and the west to protect from winds.
 Construction: A plan should be prepared before constructing the green house together with plan of beds and
paths on the ground.
 Selection of plastic film structure and roof slope
 Use of proper controlled climatic condition
 Area and Green house structure
 Plant protection measures

TYPES OF GREENHOUSE STRUCTURE AND THEIR CLASSIFICATIONS

The greenhouse are classified or named depending upon the following criteria
1. The type of material used for construction,
2. Type of glazing used,
3. Shape and
4. Number of span,
5. Environmental control system,
6. Purpose

TYPES OF GREEN HOUSES:

I. Tunnel type (Cold climate green house)
II. Quonset (Semicircular/subtropical green house)
III. Gabble type (Slopping roof)
IV. Tropical region green house
V. Ridges and furrows green house
VI. Ground to ground green house

I. BASED ON NUMBER OF SPAN (Span – the distance between two gutters):

a. Single span – Also called detached type, where only a
single unit covering an area about 100 to 500 m2.
Gutter Connected
b. Multi-span – also called ridge and furrow or gutter
connected greenhouses where numbers of single span
greenhouses are joined together. The ridge side of single span
greenhouses is connected with gutters to able to drain the
rainwater falling on the roof. The greenhouse area may be up
Stand alone to one hectare or more.
Single span or multi-span green houses may be
constructed in Quonset or Gable type.

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II. BASED ON THE SHAPE OF THE STRUCTURE :

Styles
1. Quonset type – Also called arch roofed or hoop shaped
greenhouse. It is semicircular or arch shaped with medium to high
sidewall, most commonly constructed type for single span or multi
Lean to
Standard Peak
Arch Quonset span greenhouses.
2. Gable type – Also called angular or triangle type, wherein
the shape of the roof is in angular form with medium to high sidewalls.
Most suitable for temperate region for easy sliding or snowfall during
Multi Span / Ridge & Furrow
winter.
3. Trussed type – Similar to Quonset or Gable type but
provided with additional structural unit called trusses to the roof to strengthen the load of the frame.
4. Ground to ground or tunnel type – Semicircular shaped roof touching the ground on either side without any
sidewall or side screen for natural ventilation. Such structures are mostly used for propagation and raising plants
with small stature.
5. Lean to type – Greenhouse is said to be lean to type if it‟s one side especially, the northern side forms the
sidewall of the building and the roof is leaned to only one side.
6. Uneven span – If the span is uneven and not symmetric about its long axis then the structure is termed uneven
span.
III. BASED ON ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL SYSTEM

1. Low-cost greenhouse/polyhouse

 The low-cost polyhouse is a zero-energy

chamber, made of polythene sheet of 700 gauge, supported on
bamboos with `sutli‟ and `nails‟.
 It‟s size depends on the purpose of its utilization and availability
of space. Like the greenhouse, it has one opening kept open for 1-2 hr
during the day, especially in the morning to reduce the level of humidity
inside.
 The temperature within polyhouse increases by 6-100C more
than outside. In UV-stabilized plastic film covered, pipe framed polyhouse, the day temperature is higher and
night temperature lower than the outside.
 The solar radiations entering the polyhouse is 30-40% lower than that reaching the soil surface outside.

2. Medium-cost greenhouse/polyhouse:

 With a slightly higher cost, a Quonset-shaped

polyhouse (greenhouse) can be framed with GI pipe (class
B) of 15 mm bore.
 This polyhouse has a single layer covering UV-
stabilized polythene of 800 gauge.
 The exhaust fans are used for ventilation those
are thermostatically controlled.
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 Cooling pad is used for humidifying the air entering the polyhouse. The polyhouse frame and glazing material
have a life span of about 20 years and 2-3 years, respectively.
 Hi-tech greenhouse/polyhouse
 This type of greenhouse consists of
sensors, a computer and an operator.
 The temperature, humidity and light
are automatically controlled.
 These are indicated through sensors
or signal-receiver.
 Sensor measures the variables, compare the measurement to a standard value and finally recommend to run the
corresponding device.
 For example, temperature control system consists of temperature sensor, heating/cooling mechanism and
thermostat-operated fan.
 Similarly, relative humidity is sensed through optical tagging devices.
 Boiler operation, irrigation and misting systems are operated under pressure sensing system.
 This modern structure is highly expensive, requiring qualified operators, maintenance, care and precautions.

IV. BASED ON UTILITY

a. Cold frames – are also greenhouses used for hardening of seedlings in the spring season.

b. Hot beds – If the greenhouses are artificially heated, they are called hot beds. Heating
is necessary in temperate regions where the temperature goes much below
0oC.

c. Other types – Greenhouses are also classified based on the use and purposes. It may be
retail or a wholesale greenhouse, greenhouses for academic or research
units, Public Park, instructional greenhouses etc.

V. BASED ON THE TYPE OF MATERIAL USED

a. Based on material used for framework – Greenhouses are also classified based on the material used for the
construction of the frame i.e.,
i. Wood,
ii. Bamboo,
iii. Steel,
iv. Aluminum,
v. Reinforced concrete,
vi. GI pipes etc.

b. Based on material used for covering – Before Second World War, most of greenhouses were constructed
using glass as the glazing material hence the term glasshouse and greenhouse became synonymous. With the
development of plastic films and rigid sheets began the era of plastic greenhouses. Polyethylene, PVC, acrylic,
polycarbonate, fiber glass and polyester are some of the plastic sheet materials in usage now days.

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How to start construction of a greenhouse?

1. Selection of suitable location/site for construction of greenhouse complex:
 A good location can make all the difference in the functional and environmental operations of a
greenhouse.
 Leveled ground with gentle slope to divert surface water away from the greenhouse surrounding area is
very important.
 The site should be well connected with good quality water and energy (electricity).
 Structures should be sufficiently away from trees, mounds, hills, buildings or any other structures which
obstruct sunlight, natural wind break such as hill or tree line on the North and North-west side and trees
located on the East, South or West side far away from the structures is advantageous as natural wind
breaks.
 There should be sufficient space for future expansion.
 The greenhouse location should be well connected to roads, rail and nearer to market, airport and cities
both for its input supplies and the sale of produce.
 The climate is one of the main factors which decides heating or cooling of greenhouse and ultimately
the cost of production. Therefore, large number of greenhouse has come up around Bangalore and
Pune due to mild climatic conditions.

2. Designing:
 Designing of greenhouse depends upon the crop activity, weather conditions, environmental control
system used, type of construction material locally available etc. Thus, the greenhouse design becomes
more of a location and crop specific.
 The greenhouse designing should be strong enough to withstand its load of the covering material,
intensity of rain, wind velocity, extreme local climatic conditions like snow, hail, frost etc.
 Design should admit adequate solar radiation and the structure should require minimum energy for
maintaining the desired crop microclimate.
 Design should be easy to operate, functional, allows planting of variety of crops, support the load of
internal service system, maximum longevity, easy to service, to cover and recover the covering material
and provide provisions for necessary changes in future.
 The greenhouse structures are to be designed to take up various loads as per design loads prescribed
by the National Greenhouse Manufacturers Association (NGMA) of USA.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF DESIGN LOADS

i. Dead load – The weight of all the permanent construction materials such as walls, roof, frame, glazing
material, fixed service equipments and any structural units, which forms permanent fixture are
considered as dead load.
ii. Live load – The weight of temporary loads produced or superimposed in the greenhouse structure such
as hanging baskets, temporary equipments, plant supports etc. The frame structures should be
capable of supporting a minimum live load of 50kg/m2 applied at any panel point of the trusses.
iii. Wind load – The weight of the load caused by wind blowing from any direction. The greenhouse
structures should be designed to withstand minimum wind speed of 110km per hour.

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iv. Snow load – The weight of the snow that forms vertical load applied to the horizontal position of the
greenhouse roof.

ORIENTATION OF A GREENHOUSE STRUCTURE

 Orientation i.e., the position of greenhouse on its length wise should be oriented from North to South
direction only, since the angle of sun is much higher and it avoids continuous shading of certain portion of
the greenhouse especially in multi span or ridge and furrow greenhouses.
 However, orientation could be in any direction when the greenhouses are in single span.
 The orientation of greenhouse is a compromise for wind direction, latitude of location and type of
temperature control system etc.

IDEAL SIZE FOR A GREENHOUSE

 The size of a greenhouse varies from 100 to 1000 m2 or even more depending on the purpose for which it is
established.
 A greenhouse structure of 100m2 area would be an economical unit for propagation and producing plant
material
 A greenhouse of minimum of 300 - 560 m2 area would be desirable for growing ornamental flowers, plants
and vegetables for local or retail market.
 For export and large scale production of cut flowers, multi-span greenhouse units ranging from 0.5 to 1.0 ha
or even more area are constructed with automatic environmental control system.
 The size of the non-ventilated greenhouse should not be more than 50 m x 50 m, bigger the greenhouse,
more will be the temperature build up due to poor ventilation. Similarly, the length of the evaporative cooled
greenhouse should not be more than 60m.

MATERIALS REQUIRED FOR CONSTRUCTION OF A GREENHOUSE

 The materials required for construction depends on the type of structure, design, budget provision, cost of
material, durability etc.
 For covering it may be glass, UV stabilized LDPE film, PVC, FRP, Polycarbonate etc.,
 whereas for frame work it may be mild steel, galvanized iron (GI) pipes B class (0.5 to 1.5” diameter), or angles,
aluminum angles etc.,
 other materials like poly grippers, insect proof Rambo mesh, hardware like bolts, nuts, paints for foundation
cement, sand, concrete etc.

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A GREENHOUSE STRUCTURE

The major components of greenhouse are foundation, frame, cladding material, sidewalls, door,
environmental control system and crop production requirements. Some of the important structural elements of a
greenhouse are –
a. Glazing/Cladding material – UV stabilized LDPE film of 200 micron or 800 gauges are used for non-ventilated
or evaporative cooled greenhouses. Double inflated LDPE for heated greenhouses. The transparency should
be above 90%. The corrugated FRP, glass, poly carbonate and other covering materials are commonly used.

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b. Foundation – The foundation should be proper and able to take necessary load. The size of foundation may be
60cm x 60cm for the columns in cement concrete with sand, cement and jelly ratio of 1:2:4. The column should
also be covered with concrete of 15cm diameter upto a height of 60cm to avoid the rusting of the columns.
Foundations provide firm support to the hoops and to secure poly grip firmly. The foundation level should be at
same height at all places.
c. Hoops – Semicircular GI pipes or angles forms integral part of the greenhouse frame fixed to foundation poles
on both sides. The main roof structure placed at equidistance.
d. Ridge line – Ridge lines are necessary in order to keep the hoops at equidistance and to increase the structural
rigidity of the greenhouse structure, the hoops are inter connected with a ridge line. The number of ridgelines
depends on the width and length of the greenhouse structure.
e. Trusses – The trusses are the additional frame structure provided to roof structure to take the necessary loads.
The strength of the trusses depends on type of cover, width, dead and live load etc.
f. End frame – End frame are wooden or aluminum or steel structures to be fixed on both ends of the greenhouse
with a provision for a door and installation of environmental control equipments. End frames are provided with
lateral support to enhance the structural rigidity.
g. Doors – The size of the doors depends on the size of the greenhouse, for bigger greenhouses doors should be
sufficiently wide for taking tractor and other intercultural implements. The number and position of the doors
depends on orientation, operation, utility etc.
h. Poly grip assembly – To secure firmly polyethylene covering of the greenhouse to the foundation pipes/ridge
line. T-locks or the clips should be used to hold glazing to the structure or polythene films may be hold between
two GI angles fitted with bolt and nut.
i. Insect proof mesh – Fine plastic nets are used to cover all greenhouse openings/sidewall in order to prevent
insects from entering the greenhouse. 50 mesh nets are generally used refers to 50 plastic ropes per square
inch.
Table 1: Details of material requirement for construction of low cost (single span) greenhouse (size: 18.4m
x 5.5m = 100m2)

Sl.No. Item Quantity

1 STRUCTURAL MATERIAL
a Class „B‟ MS/GI pipe (6m each of ¾” dia) (8 lengths for foundation + 9 lengths for
21 length
arches + 4 lengths for centre purlin)
b MS „L‟ angle (6m each of ¾” x ¾” x 1/8”) (9 lengths for tie beam and supports to centre
27 length
purlin + 8 lengths for top frame + 8 lengths for bottom frame + 2 lengths for door)
c Poly grip assembly (gripper, beading etc.) 500 Nos. + 100m
d Base plate for foundation post (50mm x 50mm x 6mm) + welding rods 16 Nos. 2 boxes
e Cement + sand + stone - baby jelly according to requirement for RCC @ 1:2:4 -
2 CLADDING MATERIAL
a UV stabilized LDPE film (800 gauge/200 micron) 1 bundle (50kg)
b Rambo net 40 – 60 mesh (1.15m width) 100m
3 CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
Hollow cement bricks for parapet wall 300 Nos.
NOTE: Expenditure item „3‟ could be avoided if the film (1m width is stitched all along the Rambo net and inserted in the
ground in deep (0.5m) trench and covered with soil.

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Table 2: COST ESTIMATES OF MEDIUM COST GREENHOUSE (Size: 4 x 25m = 100m 2)

Sl.No. Specifications Cost

1 Cost of GHI (100 sqm) 17500-00
2 Additional items over GHI
3 Skirt wall 30cm height 22cm wide 6000-00
4 Louvers (for fans) – 2 1600-00
5 Electrical fittings (power point, distribution boxes, MCB etc) 3500-00
6 Poly grip assembly 2700-00
7 Environmental Control Equipment
a One inflation blower 1200-00
b Two fans (60cm diameter) 10000-00
c One monoblock AC pump 2200-00
d Water tank (concrete with top cover) 3200-00
e Thermostat/humidistat 2100-00
f Cooling pad and fittings 2500-00
g Additional film for double layer (40kg film) 6000-00
8 Labour 1500-00
Total expenses 60000-00

TABLE 3: COST ESTIMATES OF HIGH COST GREENHOUSE

High cost greenhouse may be a multi span structure. The cost estimates may vary, considerably due to crop,
cladding material and environment control system. The tentative cost for the additional items required per sq. m is stated
below. The items may be used as per the requirement.

Sl.No. Specifications Cost/sq.m

1 Cladding material
If used double layer polyethylene sheet 125-00
2 Environmental Control Equipment
a CO2 generator + distributor 175-00
b Evaporative cooling 200-00
c Heating system 225-00
d Humidification system 120-00
e Lighting 275-00
f Night curtain/shading system 175-00
g Drip irrigation system 30-00
h Nutrient application system 100-00
i Porous flooring 100-00
j Benches 175-00
k Structural cost 275-00
3 Miscellaneous 250-00
The total average cost is taken as Rs.2225-00 per sq.m

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Table 4: Details of material requirement for construction of low cost (multi span) Saw tooth type greenhouse
(size: 27m x 18.5m = 500m2)

Sl.No. Item Quantity

1 STRUCTURAL MATERIAL
a Class „B‟ MS/GI pipe 2 ¼” (for foundation pipe of 1m each) 7 lengths
b Class „B‟ MS/GI pipe 2” (for foundation posts) 20 lengths
c 1” MS “L‟ angle (7 lengths for support to arches (1.4m each) + 30 lengths for
truss + 32 lengths for bottom and top frame to fix mesh and poly film + 32 101 lengths
lengths for the beam)
d Poly grippers 1000 Nos.
e Plastic beading 100m
f Base plate for foundation post (50mm x 50mm x 6mm) 40 Nos.
g Welding rods 5 boxes
h Hardware like bolts and nuts, aluminum oxide painting according to requirement 5 boxes
2 CLADDING MATERIAL
a UV stabilized LDPE film (800 guage/200 micron) 5 bundles
(50kg each)
b Rambo net 40 – 60 mesh (1.15m width x 30m length) 12 bundles
3 CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
a Hollow cement bricks for parapet wall 3000 Nos.
b Cement (for foundation and construction of parapet wall) 10 bags
c Stand + Stone baby jelly according to requirement for RCC @ 1:2:4
Table 5: Details of material requirement for construction of medium cost (single span) greenhouse (size: 33m x
9.1 - 300m2)
Sl.No. Item Quantity
1 STRUCTURAL MATERIAL
a Class „B‟ MS/GI pipe 2 ¼” (for foundation pipe of 1.4m each) 5 length
b Class „B‟ MS/GI pipe 2” (for foundation posts) 15 length
c Class „B‟ MS/GI pipe 1 ½” (19 lengths for arches + 11 lengths for side purlins + 5
34 length
lengths for joining side purlins)
d MS „L‟ angle (1”x1” 1/8”) (for top and bottom frame and door 7‟ x 3‟) 25 length
e Poly grippers 750 Nos.
f Plastic beading 175m
g Base plate for foundation post (50mm x 50mm x 6mm) 22 Nos.
h Welding rods 3 boxes
i Hardware like bolts, nuts, aluminum oxide painting according to requirement 3 boxes
2 CLADDING MATERIAL
a UV stabilized LDPE film (800 guage/200 micron) 3 bundles
(50kg each)
3 CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
a Hollow cement bricks for parapet wall 1000 Nos.
b Cement 10 bags
c Stand + Stone baby jelly according to requirement for RCC @ 1:2:4
4 COOLING SYSTEM (FAN AND PAD)
a Fans (Axial air flow fans) 610mm (Axial air flow fans) 3 Nos.
b Pads – (9m x 1.5m) 1 No.

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TABLE 6: COST ESTIMATES OF LOW COST GREENHOUSE (Size: 4x25m – 100m2)

Sl. Total Amount

Specifications Qty. Required Rate/unit (Rs.)
No. (Rs.)
1 GI pipe 15mm 280m 30/m 8400-00
2 GI pipe 25mm 51m 44/m 2244-00
3 MS Flats 25mm x 3mm 4kg 15/kg 60-00
4 Nuts and 6mm 35mm long 4kg 22/kg 88-00
5 Cement 1:3:6 650-00
6 End frames 600-00
7 Labor 700-00
8 UV stabilized LDPE film 32kg 150/kg 4800-00
17,542-00
Total expenses

REQUIREMENT OF WATER AND ELECTRICITY

The requirements of water and electricity are being considered as utilities and depend upon the crop,
purpose, greenhouse area etc.
a. Water – Adequate supply of good quality water is necessary; the amount of water requirement depends upon
the area under production, crop and climate. A general rule is to make a provision for about 200 liters per
square meter per watering. Selection of the method of irrigation also depends on the quantity of water available.
b. Electricity – All the electrical appliances, such as motor fans, lights and other equipments need assured
electrical power for uninterrupted operation. An auxiliary generating system should be available to cope up with
the failure of regular electric supply. A general requirement of electric power for different sizes of greenhouse
are

Greenhouse size (m2) Electrical power required (Amp/volts)

500 60/240
500 – 2000 100/240
2000 – 3000 150/240
4000 – 8000 200/240
8000 – 12000 600/240

12. Practical experience – steps involved in the construction of a low cost greenhouse of
4m x 24m sizes in the field.
1. Mark 4m x 24m rectangle on the selected leveled site, preferably orienting the longer dimension in the East-West
direction. This rectangle will act as the floor plan of the greenhouse. Make sure that the two diagonal of the
rectangle are equal.
2. Mark four points on the four corners of the rectangle. Start from one corner point and move along the length of
the marked rectangle, marking a point at every one meter distance until reaching the other corner. The same
procedure is repeated on the other side of the rectangle.
3. Dig 30cm diameter pits of 60-75cm depths on all the marked points. There will be total of 50 pits on both the
parallel sides of the greenhouse floor, which will be a total of 24m long.

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4. Fix foundation pipes in the pit for 20-30cm and packed with concrete around the foundation and allow for curing
for 2-3 days. The height of the all foundation pipes above the ground level should be same at all the places.
Wherever poly grip assembling is used they are fixed to foundation pipe before concreting the pits.
5. After curing fill soil around the foundation pipes to the ground level and compact it well.
6. Install end frames vertically on both sides of the structure by fixing end frame legs firmly in the ground and
provide lateral support members connecting corner foundation pipe and end frame. In some structures there
may not be separate end frames, where the sides are covered with polythene films itself.
7. Place all the hoops in the foundation pipes such that the straight portion of hoop is inserted into the foundation
pipe and rests on the bolt used for fixing of the poly grip channel. In some cases the hoops are fixed directly on
the top of the foundation pipe with bolt and nut system.
8. Take 24m long ridge pipe by splicing 4 lengths of 6m each together and place at the ridge line i.e., generally in
the centre position of the hoops and fixed with bolt and nuts at each cross connections. While fixing cross
connectors the distance between the hoops should be maintained one meter. This grip mechanism will provide
a firm grip of the ridgeline pipe and hoops at right angles without allowing for slippage. Sometime two or three
ridgelines may be used for additional strength depending upon the width of the greenhouse structure.
9. Spread polyethylene film over the structure from one end to the other without wrinkles and keeping the edges
together. Fix the polyethylene film on one side with the help of poly grip assembly or by other means and then
the film is stretched gently and fixed on the other parallel side by poly grip assembly. This way the polyethylene
film is stretched and fixed from one end to other end.
10. Whenever medium to higher sidewalls are provided the sides should be fixed firmly with 50 mesh insect proof
net and over it a rollable polyethylene films to regulate temperature. If there is no need for sidewalls then the
polyethylene films can be directly secured inside the ground in trenches of 0.5m depths all along the periphery to
reduce the cost of fixing devices.
11. On the other two remaining ends, the film is fixed to end frames or to the structural member provided to fix the
film on both sides and wherever provision is made, the doors are fixed.
12. Depending on the crop requirement, heating and cooling equipments are installed on the end frame or on sides
(width side). The details of plan and structural design are provided in the figure showing pipe frame greenhouse.

PRECAUTIONS OR CARE TO BE TAKEN WHILE CONSTRUCTING A GREENHOUSE

 The structural frame should not have any sharp edges as otherwise it would damage the cladding
material.
 The film must be stretched and secured to the frame tightly by use of clamps/poly grip assembly/nuts
and bolts or any other similar devices.
 The structural parts, which come in contact with the film, should be insulated by wrapping them with
separate plastic film.
 MS pipes if used in the structures, need painting at least once a year to avoid rusting.
 In heavy rainfall and snow fall areas, it is desirable to reduce the angle of curvature of the arches or to
have a gable shaped roof to avoid sagging of poly film due to heavy down pours/snow fall.
 In a medium cost greenhouse where evaporative cooling gadgets are used, no ventilation should be
provided.
 Adopt suitable structural design to withstand various loads, reducing any structural member due to cost
factor may cause bending, stress and structural failure.

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 Fencing around greenhouses protects polyethylene film, cool-cell pad and other structure from
mechanical damage by animals etc.
 No fire should be lit in the vicinity of the greenhouse as the glazing material and pads are highly
inflammable.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL SYSTEMS REQUIRED IN GREENHOUSE
 Temperature control system
 Cooling and heating control equipments
 Relative humidity control system
 Light and shade management system
 Carbon dioxide enrichment system

PRODUCTION COMPONENTS REQUIRED FOR GREENHOUSE CULTIVATION

 Crop variety and planting material.

 Growing system – bed, contained, benches, planting methods etc.
 Selection of media – soil, Soilless, NFT etc., sterilization of medium
 Irrigation system
 Nutrient management
 Horticultural practices and crop regulation methods
 Disease and pest management
 Post-harvest care and handling

MANAGEMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF GREENHOUSES FOR SUCCESSFUL PRODUCTION

The success of greenhouse cultivation depends on the ability to utilize existing resources and
technologies at right time and purpose, selection of method of irrigation, nutrient management, environmental
control system, identification of greenhouse problems at different stages of production and understanding the
interaction between various components of greenhouse are important.
For successful functioning of a greenhouse, some of the following management practices are to be
followed.
 Regularly clean inside and outside the greenhouse area to maintain good hygienic condition.
 Minimize visitors inside the greenhouse and use disinfectant solution at the entrance.
 Judiciously operate the environmental control systems according to outside weather conditions to suit
crop requirements as well to save energy.
 Clean the LDPE film if necessary to remove dust and dullness and replace them once in 4 – 5 years
and take up painting to frame work.
 Take up soil/media sterilization from time to time.
 Monitor supply of sufficient quality water and check for algal growth in the water tank and cool-cell pad
and take necessary measures to control.
 Check and clean periodically the water filter, pump set, distribution pipes, nozzles, exhaust fan etc.
 Keep greenhouse doors closed properly to ensure effective environmental control system inside the
greenhouse.
 Keep generators to cope up with the electricity failure and to maintain environmental control systems
working.

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Exercise No.: 2 Date: ____________

Cladding Materials for Greenhouses

Covering Materials 1. What are cladding materials?

Greenhouse structures covered with transparent or translucent sheets of
• Plastics LDPE, PVC, Acrylic, Polycarbonate, FRP, Class etc., are called cladding materials,
* LDPE (UVS) 200 micron
A Clear corrugated FRP
which allows solar radiation to pass through but trap thermal radiation emitted from
B & D Structured acrylic, 8mm the object within. This creates a congenial atmosphere for plant growth.
C Structured polycarbonate, 16
mm thick
E Structured, 3 layered
polycarbonate
F 4 mm thick polycarbonate semi
flexible 2. Types of cladding material
G Plastic connector for joining

Glass greenhouses: Prior to 1950‟s only glass greenhouse were existed and the
two structured pieces

advantage of glass is higher light transmission and durability over other cladding materials. Due to heavy weight and
massive frame work the initial cost is more but due to its long lasting life it is cheaper compared to frequent replacing
plastic/polythene films.
3. What are film plastics?
Flexible plastic film includes poly ethylene, polyester and polyvinyl chloride. Low density polyethylene
(LDPE) is popular and commonly used due to easy covering, low cost, minimum frame work cost and also save 40
per cent heat compared to glass or FRP greenhouses.
1. What is UV stabilization?
The ultraviolet (UV) rays of sunlight have serious effect on the life of the polyethylene film. UV radiation
breaks in the chemical bonds, by photo degradation and causes cracking, chalking, colour changes and loss of
physical properties such as impact strength, tensile strength and elongation. An ordinary LDPE film without a
stabilization system is incorporated at the time of manufacturing.
2. What is polyethylene?
Low-density polyethylene films are UV stabilized and also infrared blocking films, which can prevent radiant
heat loss are available in various thickness and sizes.
Product information of UV stabilized LDPE film produced and marketed from Indian Petro-Chemicals Limited is
as follows.
Product name Agri-film
Standard size 7m x 40m (width x length)
Standard thickness 200 micron
Tolerance on thickness + or – 20%
Tensile strength at Break M/D 160 kg/cm2, T/D 140 kg/cm2
Expected service life 3 years and more
Cost of film Rs.120 per kg
Address of Regional Office of Bangalore IPCL, Mission Road, Rallaram Building
Bangalore – 560 627, Phone No: 080 – 2223801-3
3. What is meant by Double Layer Covering?
Film plastic greenhouses make use of the air-in-flatted system. Two layers of film plastic are
placed on top of each other with cushion of air maintained at low positive pressure in between, double layer
films are stretched tightly to avoid excess durability of film life and reduced temperature inside the
greenhouse. However, the light transmission is reduced compared to single film.

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4. Rigid panel
a. Acrylic: Double layer rigid panels used for glazing side and end walls and top cover. Highly flammable
but passes higher light transmission and longer life. Available in 8 to 16mm thickness and 4 x 40 ft
(width and length) size. The heat less value is loss and PAR light transmission is 83 per cent.
b. Poly carbonate: Double layer rigid panels, popular due to lower price, flame and hail damage
resistant, used for covering, side walls and end walls, available in thickness of 4, 6, 8, 10 and 16mm
and varied sizes ranging 4-8 ft width and up to 32ft length. The PAR light transmission is 79 per cent.
c. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC): Rigid panels available in different sizes, cheap but did not become popular
due to short life (2 – 3 years) and reduced light transmission.
d. Fibre glass – Reinforced plastic (FRP): Corrugated and flat panels are popular greenhouse covering
also used on the side and end walls. Rigid panels are available at breakage, uniform scattered light
intensity due to fibres in the panels. Higher transmission (81 to 90%) but becomes dull after few
years reducing light transmission. Easier to cool the greenhouses, constructions is easy require fewer
structural members.
5. Light transmission percentage in different cladding materials
Percentage
Cladding material No. of layers
transmission
One 88
Float glass
Two 77
One 90 – 92
Low-Iron glass
Two 81 – 85
One 87
Polyethylene-UV stabilized
Two 76
One 82
Polyethylene IR-absorbing
Two 67
Vinyl clear One 91
Vinyl hazy One 89
One 92
Polyvinyl fluoride film
Two 85
One 95
ETFE (Tefzel T2)
Two 90
Acrylic panels One 83
Polycarbonate panels One 79

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Exercise No.: 3 Date: ____________

Environmental control systems in Greenhouses – Thermo control systems

1. Why thermo control system is necessary in greenhouses?

Temperature is the most important environmental factor has got great influence on other environmental
factors and direct effect on plant growth and quality. Depending on the crop requirement, season, elevation and
agro climatic region, the greenhouses require thermo control systems i.e. cooling and heating components. For
example, the greenhouses for Northern hilly areas have to be artificially heated whereas; greenhouses in plains,
coastal and places where outside temperature goes beyond 30oC require cooling. Whereas in some regions
both cooling and heating is required. The objective of temperature control inside the greenhouses is to keep the
air temperature within a required range. Therefore, the study of both cooling and heating systems in a
greenhouse is important.

2. COOLING SYSTEMS

a. Why cooling the greenhouses is important?

The greenhouses in tropics and sub-tropical regions especially in plains and coastal regions in our
country needs cooling during hot summer. The temperature inside the greenhouses will always be higher (4 –
10oC) than outside atmosphere; therefore reducing temperature in hot and warmer days inside the greenhouse is
prime important in tropical conditions. When greenhouse air temperature crosses the upper limit of the crop
tolerance, result in either partial or total crops failure within a short period of time.

b. What factors influence the type of cooling to be adopted?

Depending on the local climatic conditions and requirements by the crop, appropriate cooling system
need to be designed in a greenhouse. The designing cooling system in a greenhouse depends on type of
structure, cooling load, selection of equipment, cooling method, etc.

c. What is cooling and cooling load?

Cooling of greenhouse is referred to reducing the heat or hot air or protecting crops from heat inside the
structure whereas, the quantum of heat to be removed from a greenhouse is referred to cooling load.

The solar intensity under tropical and sub-tropical conditions on bright sunny day is around 1 K.W. per
square meter. The transmittance of most of the glazing is around 70% during continuous use i.e., around 700 W
energy enters the greenhouse per sqm. About 25% heat is used as latent heat for evaporation of water and
transpiration by the plants inside the greenhouse, about 75% heat or 500 W per sqm is sensible heat to be
removed from greenhouse by natural ventilation or by forced ventilation cooling systems.

d. What is ventilation of a greenhouse?

Ventilation is the exchange of air between the greenhouse and its surrounding. In other words it is a
process of replacing the air in the enclosure with the outside air. Under cold climate generally cooling with
natural ventilation is adequate, whereas under warm climate of the year cooling large polyhouses need forced or
active ventilation system.

e. What are the different types of ventilations used for cooling greenhouses?
There are two types of ventilations.
i) Natural ventilation or passive ventilation
ii) Forced ventilation or Active ventilation
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f. What is natural ventilation?

Natural or passive ventilations are also called open circuit ventilation wherein the ambient air replaces
the enclosed air mass through vents in the side walls and along the roof tops serve as opening for natural
ventilation. The natural ventilation may be due solely to thermal buoyancy, solely to wind or a combination.
Generally 20 – 50% of the floor area is provided for natural vent so that the ambient air by itself enters into the
greenhouse after displacing an equal amount of greenhouse hot air. There is a direct correlation between the
structure size (gable size and vent size) and internal air circulation. The smaller the ratio between the cropped
area and the area of ventilation, the greater is the circulation.

During the growing period, excess heat and humidity accumulate inside the greenhouse and air
becomes light and raise up. Due to differential thermal buoyancy of air and natural wind the inside air is pushed
outside through side and top vents there by hot air are removed naturally. The inlet for naturally ventilated
greenhouses is generally provided at the lower level near ground i.e. 1 – 2 meter height opening on all sides, but
covered with 40 – 60 mesh insect proof net and provision for covering and rolling up the LDPE film to regulate
temperature. The out let area is provided at the base as well as near the roof level depending on the size of the
structure. For larger polyethylene structures, natural ventilation at roof level is most effective.

g. What are the precautions to be taken while constructing naturally ventilated greenhouse structures?
 Provide sufficient natural ventilation for control of temperature especially for large polyethylene
greenhouses where temperature build up is fast.
 Inlet ventilation should be as close to the ground as possible so that the plants can get fresh air.
 Temperature build up inside the greenhouse should not exceed 2oC throughout the year.
 Inlet ventilation should not have any obstruction or other structures nearby.
 The size of the natural ventilated greenhouses should not be too big.
 The orientation of the structure should be right angle to the wind direction.
 Provide rollable UV resistant LDPE film along all the sidewalls over insect proof net to regulate
temperature.

h. What are the advantages of naturally ventilated greenhouses?

 For mild climatic conditions and in areas where electrical and other conventional fuel availability is uncertain
naturally ventilated greenhouses hold good promise.
 Relatively inexpensive assembly and construction costs.
 Simple daily operation methods.
 No need for electricity.
 Better utilization of growing area.
 Possibility of constructing greenhouse with an extra long gutter length.

i. What are the disadvantages of naturally ventilated greenhouse?

 Internal temperature and humidity levels cannot be controlled to the desired level without additional
equipments.
 In extreme cases, there is total depending on prevailing weather conditions.
 Not suitable for hot weather having high temperature.
 The quality of product may not be as good as produced under controlled ventilation.

j. What is forced ventilation?

Forced ventilation is also called active ventilation or closed circuit ventilation or mechanical ventilation.
In this system auxiliary power is used to move air through the greenhouse i.e. the air from the enclosure is drawn
out with auxiliary power using equipments like exhaust fans, vents, louvers and provision for inlet of ambient air.

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The selection of size and number of inlet and exhaust fans depends on size of the greenhouse. The
general ventilation requirement is arrived by the following thumb rule.

 Provide on airflow rate of 6 – 8 cubic feet per minute per square feet of floor space (cfm/sqf)
 Provide one internal air change per minute of ventilation for summer cooling.
 Airflow rate in the greenhouse should be such as to keep the air velocities around 1 meter per second.

k. What is exhaust or forced air ventilation system?

In this system, exhaust fans with automatic louvers are fixed all along one end of the greenhouse on the
leeward side of prevailing winds. The inlet vents placed opposite to exhaust fans and are opened wide when the
fans operate. In this system the exhaust fans suck the hot air from greenhouse and due to low pressure created
inside, the air from outside moves through inlet opening. Except inlet openings and exhaust fan area, the rest of
the structure should be airtight and there should not be any leakage. The location of the inlets and its size are
important, generally the inlet area (sqm) is calculated by dividing the design flow requirement by 3.5. For
example if a greenhouse with a design ventilation rate of 7 cu.m./sec. Would require 2 sqm of inlet opening.
The desirable distance to keep the length of an air travel from inlet to exhaust fan should not be too long.

The louvers can be either gravity louvers or motorized louvers. Motorized louvers have the advantage
of protecting the greenhouse structures against unpredicted windstorm. Also in case of greenhouse being
artificially heated, the motorized louvers do not let the outside air in.

l. What are evaporative cooling or fan and cool cell pad cooling system?

It is one of the most popular and widely adopted cooling systems used all over the world. In this system
of cooling the external air is sucked into the greenhouse through the wet pad by the exhaust fans located on the
wall opposite to the wet pads. The entering air is cooled by the evaporation of water from the pad, during the
process, the heated air inside the greenhouse is removed through exhaust fans and a slight vacuum or negative
pressure is developed throughout the entire greenhouse because it is substantially airtight. The slight vacuum
draws air in through the cooling pad system and causes cooled air to move smoothly through the growing region
of the crops absorbing hear. As the cooled air proceeds through the house, it picks up the solar heat getting
warmer by about 4oC by the time it reaches the exhaust fans. This temperature rise of air moving through the
house is a result of the heat removal process but can be reduced by increasing the airflow or reducing the light
intensity. The capacity of the fan and the size of the pad depend on the length and width of the greenhouse and
also the elevation and other parameter. In tropical conditions this system of cooling is very effective especially
where the ambient humidity is low.

m. Is pad maintenance is required?

Yes, pad maintenance is very important as they are costly material and cannot be replaced frequently.
Provide shade to pas to protect from direct radiation. Allow to dry pads daily and avoid nutrient contamination,
which develops holes/blocks with salt deposition. Disinfect the sump and pad with one percent solution of
sodium hypochlorite by mixing the solution with water one or two times in a year to control algal growth. The
pads may be replaced if found damaged and block with salt accumulation.

n. How to select a good exhaust fan and work out the number of fans required in a greenhouse?
Generally, axial flow fans are used, before selecting a fan certain basic information‟s must be known
 The quantity of air to be moved in a given time i.e. air delivery
 The pressure against which the fan is required to operate
 The density of the air or gas to be moved
 Noise level permissible
 Type of power and voltage supply

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 Possible hazards involved i.e. high or low temperatures, high humidity, abrasive, corrosive or inflammable
fumes
 Made up of steel frame, with aluminum louvers
 Select proper size and number required to remove required volume of air

Different fan sizes for different rate of airflow are available (refer table). Generally, the number of fans
fixed at 25 ft apart and total number required is calculated by dividing the total length of the wall by 25 ft. The
size of the fan is determined by dividing the adjusted cfm or cmm to be removed by the numbers of fans
required.

Adjusted cfm/cmm air to be removed

Size of the fan = ---------------------------------------------------
Number of fans needed

Maintenance of exhaust fans: Place exhaust fans on the leeward side of the greenhouse to increase efficiency of
fans. Lubricate the bearing regularly, louvers should be properly lubricated. The frame of the fan and louvers should be
painted.

o. What are the precautions to be taken for installation of cool pad and fan system?

 The greenhouse should be air tight as far as possible for effective operation of the system.
 All access, openings and doors should be remaining closed to avoid infiltration of warm air from outside.
 Always select proper fan size, number of fans and required pad area for effective cooling.

Pad area (ft2) Rate of air flow

Fan size (inches) Horse power (HP)
(4 inches pad) (cfm)
24 0.25 18 4500
0.33 23 5700
0.50 26 6500
0.75 30 7600
30 0.33 30 7400
0.50 35 8800
0.75 41 10200
36 0.33 35 8800
0.50 43 10600
0.75 51 12700
1.00 57 14200
42 0.50 50 12500
0.75 60 15000
1.00 68 16800
48 0.50 98 14700
0.75 119 17800
1.00 131 19600
54 1.00 92 22900
1.50 104 25800
 Always fix fans on leeward (down wind) side and pad on wind prevailing direction. If fan face prevailing
wind, increase the fan capacity by 10 per cent with larger motors and horse power.
 The exhaust fans should not discharge towards the pad system of an adjacent greenhouse.
 Pads should be located at and slightly above plant height in order to bring the cool air on the plants.
 Provide transparent plastic vertical baffle in the gable perpendicular to air steam to divert the flow of air
down to the plants.

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p. What are the advantages of evaporative cooling system?

 Optimum control of internal climatic conditions.
 Excellent year round yield and quality regardless external conditions.
 Ideal system for warm, hot climate with low RH.

q. Is there are any disadvantages in cool and pad system of cooling?

 Relatively expensive initial investment and operation costs.
 There should be continuous supply of electricity especially during hot and warmer days.
 Limited gutter length (Not greater than 36m long).

r. Other cooling method

i) Fog cooling: Fog cooling system is increasing in popularity as they can provide excellent cooling and
reduction of plant stress. Fog cooling is particularly useful in the production of seedlings, rooted
cuttings and plant lets from tissue culture. A great advantage of fog over misting is that the water
droplets are so small (10 micron and less in diameter) that they do not settle out on the surface or
structure but are able to float in the air until they evaporate.

Fog systems are most commonly operated under high pressure, water is being forced through
small nozzles to produce very small drop let size. Nozzles of various types are available to produce fine
droplets. High pressure water with stream of high pressure air is mixed to produce greater volume of
fog from a single nozzle. The quality of water is most important for the performance of fog system.
Hence, filtering of water is essential. The rate at which fog is added to the air depends on the cooling
load, solar intensity and cooling requirement. This can be adjusted by installing the required number of
nozzles in a greenhouse. The great advantage of fog system over mist is reducing the potential for
disease.

ii) Mist cooling: This method of cooling is also fairly common in greenhouses but proper management of
misting is important to prevent diseases increasing. In this system, the water droplets are bigger in size
and deposit on the surface of the foliage and plant parts thus encouraging spread of diseases.

iii) Roof shading: Reducing the amount of solar radiation energy entering the greenhouse by applying
opaque materials directly to the glazing is practiced. Use of commercially available shading compounds
is common and sometime they cannot be removed easily. However, various locally produced mixtures
based lime can also be used to create white wash like material which is ease to remove.

Shading materials can also be attached to the greenhouse and removed when no longer
needed. Shade screens such as saran cloth, polypropylene, polyester, cloth shades and shade nets
are used to reduce solar radiant energy entering the greenhouse. Movable shade systems are also
used when need and retracted the rest of the time, but more expensive. Lath shades constructed from
wood, bamboo strips, aluminum etc., also provide more cooling.

Greenhouses covered with double layer of glazing material particularly polyethylene films and
inflated i.e., passive the air between the two layers known to reduces light intensity in the greenhouses.

3. HEATING SYSTEMS

1. Why heating is necessary in greenhouses?

Heating is necessary in some places like temperate region, hilly zones where the temperature is very
low. Artificial heating is required to insure optimal growing conditions. In some places where the climate is
extreme both heating and cooling may be necessary.

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2. What are the factors to be considered for a heating system in a greenhouse?

 The heating systems must be suited to the energy sources available in the area.
 The heat must be dispersed uniformly throughout the entire greenhouse according to specific crop
requirements.
 The minimum average temperature prevalent in the region.
 Expected heat loss from the greenhouse and covering temperature differences between the interior and
exterior of the greenhouse.

3. What are the different methods adopted in greenhouse?

a. Hot water or steam heating?
This method of greenhouse heating is very common in Holland and it is very effective heating
system. Heat is radiated directly onto the plants from the heating pipes, which are laid at regular intervals
inside the greenhouse. The hot water is pumped through the greenhouse via insulated pipes, with the heat
exchanges maintaining a controlled, uniform temperature throughout the greenhouse. The heaters are
powered by diesel fuel; diesel oil or gas or electrical coils and all the units may be controlled manually or by
a control computer system.

b. Hot air system of heating

Cold air passes over a burning coil as it sucked into the greenhouse cavity. The heated air is then
released into the greenhouse through sleeves. The air circulation process is executed by means of a
centrifugal blower, operated by an electric motor.

c. Unit heaters
These are localized system of heating and a number of unit heaters are to be provided in the
greenhouse at a height of about 3 meter to distribute heat evenly in the greenhouse. The heat generated is
passed through perforated polythene tubing, which runs in the center of the greenhouse with the help of fan
jet system.

d. Infra-Red heaters
The fuel gas (LPG) is burnt and the fumes at a temperature of about 480 oC are passed in 10cm
diameter pipes kept overhead at a height of 1.5m above plants. Reflectors are provided over the full length
of pipe to radiate the infrared rays over the plants. The plants and soil only get heated without much heating
of air. The infra red heating pipes can be provided at 6 to 10 meters interval all along the length of
greenhouse. The temperature of fume gases at exit is about 65oC and exhaust fan is provided for
maintaining the flow of fumes.

e. Solar heating
Flat plate solar heaters are used to heat the water during daytime. The hot water is stored in the
insulated tanks. The hot water is circulated in pipe provided along the length of the greenhouse during
night. Supplementary of emergency heating systems is provided for heating the greenhouse during cloudy
or rainy days.

f. Burners
The oil burners are placed at a different places depending upon the size of the greenhouse. The
method of heating is not uniform and this is not an effective heating system.

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Exercise No.: 4 Date: ____________

Environmental control systems – Light and shade management

1. Why study the environmental control system is necessary?

Protected cultivation is a practice in which crops are protected against the unfavorable environmental
conditions. The productivity of crops is influenced by its genetic makeup and also by the environmental conditions.
The important components of a protective structure are temperature, radiation, humidity and CO 2 concentration. In
order to optimize the environmental factors inside the protective structure, it is necessary to determine for any crop or
plant the ways in which that plant responds to given atmospheric conditions and its effect on the growth and
development which ultimately influence the plants yield inside the structure. The Thermo Control systems and its
influence on plants are discussed in previous chapter, the light and shade i.e., radiation factors are discussed in the
present activity.

2. What is solar radiation?

Solar radiation popularly known as light, which includes both visible light and non-visible light. The quality of
light is classified according to its wavelength in nanometers.

UV V B G Y O R FR IR
300 400 460 510 570 610 650 700 750 800
/……………......Visible Light …………………/

light spectrum at different wavelength

UV - Ultra Violet Y – Yellow

V - Violet O – Orange
B - Blue R – Red
G - Green FR – Far Red IR – Infra Red

All the visible light (400-700nm) is primarily used for photosynthesis, whereas the rate of photosynthesis is
found at higher levels in Blue and Red spectrum of light. However, when blue spectrum along was supplied to plants,
the growth were shortened plant parts become hard and dark in colour. Similarly, when red spectrum alone was
supplied, the plants became soft, increased internodal length resulting in taller plants.

The wavelength less than 400 is short waves called ultra violet rays (UV) and cannot be seen by the human
eye. In large quantities UV rays are harmful to plants. Glass screens cut most UV light and all light below a
wavelength of 325 nm. Far red light (700-750nm) are involved in plant activity and has very good interaction with red
light combination that has a low far red and red ratio (FR:R) causes plants to develop shorter stem and larger roots.
Whereas, light supplied with higher far red and red (FR:R) ratio favours growth of shoots, longer internodes resulting
in taller plants with more number of leaves. Thus, the quality of light can be commercially exploited for manipulation
of growth and flowering.

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3. How light/radiation influence the growth of crop?

Light is the energy that directs plants growth through photosynthesis and intensity of light influence on
morphological characters of plant like plant height, diameter of stem, length of pedicel and petiole, leaf size, leaf
thickness, number and size of flowers etc. At increased light intensity there is decreased length of pedicel and
petiole. Increased light intensity also decreases the leaf size, number and size of flowers, besides affecting leaf and
flower colour (Darker and intense colour at higher light intensity). The excessive or insufficient light can limit plant
growth.

The plant growth is influenced by radiation quality, radiation quantity, direction of light, duration of light,
polarization etc. However, under protective structure the energy interception by crop, the relationship between
radiation and photosynthesis and morphogenesis where low quantum plays a prominent role in flowering as well as
other aspects of greenhouse practices. Radiation interception varies with internal crop management, planting
arrangement and stage of crop growth.

4. How light influence on photosynthesis under protective cultivation?

Photosynthesis is an energy gathering process for the purpose of converting CO2 and water into useful
product. Nearly all the species grown commercially in greenhouse are C3 plants and have high compensation point
because of photorespiration during daytime light. This photorespiration accelerates by normal O2 concentration
(21%), low CO2 level and high temperatures. Whereas, during winter season due to low light intensity the
supplementary light with artificial source required.

5. How radiation/light play role in photoperiodic control?

Several plant species flowers only when they are exposed to a specific light duration, on the contrary, these
plants remain vegetative when additional light is given. This phenomenon, which is known as phtoperiodism, has
been commercially exploited in greenhouse cultivation of horticultural crops.

The most common use of the photoperiodic signals in greenhouse practice is through the control and
manipulation of day length. Based on the requirement of critical day length required for the phase transition
(flowering) plants are divided into long day, short day and neutral plants. It has been established that the dark period
controls flower induction in both long day and short day plants. This phenomenon is widely used, example in the
year round production of chrysanthemum which requires at least a 5 to 6 hours dark period to induce flowering.

6. How manipulation of light under greenhouses is done?

Under greenhouses the day length can be increased by providing artificial light at night or by decreasing the
light intensity by covering the plants with black polyethylene sheets during some part of the day. Night interruption or
cyclic lighting with the high intensity discharge lights can achieve best results with supplementary lighting. In contrast
short day conditions in greenhouses can be created with fully automatic, semi automatic or manual blackout systems
using good quality black polyethylene sheets.

The spectral distribution may influence plant morphogenesis like more stem elongation due to lack of blue
light or more lateral branching at a high red to far red ratio. Though the practical application of this knowledge is still
limited, it is obvious that the use of covering materials, which alter the spectral distribution, can have a significant
impact on the crop productivity and quality.

7. Why shading is required in greenhouse cultivation?

Plants response to light and shade are well known and all plants have a light saturation point and beyond
which the photosynthesis and other plant metabolic activities does not increase. On the contrary, certain plants are
damaged by high light intensities in the greenhouses, for example anthuriums and most of the orchids are shade
loving plants. Shade requirement depends on the crops and the season.

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8. How to manage light and shade under protected cultivation?

Greenhouse structures allow light energy to enter inside but restrict the amount of energy that is able to
leave the structure and this is the basis of greenhouse environment. Most of the greenhouse crops require around
3000 to 5000 foot candles of light for their growth and requirement may be up to 12000 fc in some plants. Whereas
shade loving plants require low radiation. Hence, the light and shade management depends on maximization of light
intensity or reducing the light intensity depending on the crop requirement.

9. What is maximization of light intensity?

It is nothing but the ways and means to increase the light intensity in a greenhouse structures. Higher light
intensity required during winter up to early spring for most of crops under temperate and mild climatic conditions.
Whereas, maximization of light intensity may not be necessary under tropical warm conditions due to availability of
abundant solar radiation.

10. How to maximize light intensity in a greenhouse?

There are several ways to increase or maximize light intensity in greenhouse.

a. Structure designing
Maximization of light begins in the planning stage of the greenhouse construction. Minimum frame work
and sash bars increase light intensity as compared to massive framework seen under glasshouses. Use of
plastic film/rigid panels has become popular due to their easy installation and minimum framework requirement.
An average light intensity reduction is estimated as 10 per cent due to greenhouse frame, 5 per cent from
beam/sash bars and 7 per cent from cladding material in total accounting for nearly 22 per cent reduction in
transmission.

b. Geographical orientation of the greenhouses

To get uniform and sufficient solar radiation, orienting greenhouses in North to South direction is
beneficial.

c. Covering material
Different covering materials have different light transmission capacity (60 – 95%) and also the
percentage transmission depends on the single or double covering. The quality and type of cladding material
selection depends on the cost, durability, crop requirement, framework etc.

d. Cleaning cladding material

Nearly 20 per cent of the light intensity is known to reduce due to accumulation of dust and other
material. It is necessary to keep the covering film or glass cleaned by use of chemicals available for the purpose
with the help of soft brushes.

e. Reduction in overhead equipments

Over head requirements such as automatic or manual shading screens and equipments, heating and
cooling systems, plant support, over head hangings, irrigation system, etc., add to reduce light intensity.
Therefore, these overhead equipments are needed to be reduced and suitability placed or designed so that solar
radiation falling inside the structure is not obstructed.

f. Plant spacing
For availability of sufficient light to plants inside the greenhouse during winter season, wider spacing is
provided between the plants and also space in the centre of the bed/benches to get light for plants on all sides.
Whereas close spacing is adopted during summer planting.

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g. Providing artificial light through supplemental lighting

Maximization of light intensity from the above mentioned factors might not solve fully the light
requirement of the plants during winter and cloudy season inside the greenhouse especially for crop like rose.
The low intensity of light is known to induce blindness of shoots (failure of shoots to flower), production of poor
quality, bleached flowers, thinner stem and taller plants. Even supplemental lighting with 2000 lux was found to
increase 18 – 19% yield of roses in one productive flush. Even light spectrum also plays an important role in
rose production. For example a high red and far-red ratio promotes bud sprouting while the low ratio inhibits it.
Therefore supplemental lighting is necessary.

h. What are incandescent lamps?

Incandescent lamps are also commonly called tungsten filament lamps. These are generally not used
for supplemental lighting because of excessive heat produced. The quality of light produced is poor, it has
proportion of red and far red wavelength causing tall and soft growth in plants. The lamps can only covert 7% of
the electrical energy into light energy. These lamps if used should be at low light intensity only.

i. What are fluorescent lamps?

Fluorescent lamps are more commonly used in growing rooms rather than full size greenhouses. Ideal
supplemental lighting system for growth chambers, bud sprouting and for germination. There are various lamp
sizes with different output capacity capable of converting 20 to 25 per cent electrical energy into light energy.

j. How high intensity discharge (HID) lamps are useful in supplemental lighting?
How intensity discharge lamps (HID) are the most used lamps in commercial greenhouses. These
lamps convert 25 to 35 per cent of electrical energy into photo synthetically active radiation and are most efficient
than other types. HID lamps are compact with high output and need less maintenance.

k. What are the commercially available HID lamps?

Important high intensity discharge (HID) lamps commonly used are
i) High pressure mercury lamps
ii) Low pressure sodium lamps
iii) High pressure sodium lamp

High pressure mercury lamps produce light by the passage of an electric current through a gas or
vapour under pressure. The lamps available in sizes of 400w and 100w.

Low pressure sodium lamps (LPS) produce yellow light. These are more efficient than the high
pressure sodium lamps for plant lighting to produce quality products. These lamps produce less heat, most
efficient of all lamps used for supplemental lighting converting 27 per cent of the electrical input into visible
radiation. LPS lamps can be located close to the plant canopies giving electrical utilization efficiencies.

High pressure sodium lamps (HPS) produce light by the passage of an electric current through
vaporized sodium under pressure at high temperature, popular, cheap, long lasting (20000 hr and more), convert
25 per cent of electrical input into visible light. These lamps are available in either 400 w or 1000 w capacity.

The other HID lamps include Metal halide type lamps available up to 2000 w and convert 20% of the
total electrical input into visible light. These lamps are a recent development, costlier, with a shorter life and lose
their output faster.

11. When to use artificial lighting? And how much lighting is needed?
Artificial lighting is required for photoperiod extension and it is achieved by providing continuous lighting
for a period of 4 to 8 hours before sunrise or after sunset or for a few hours during the middle of the night.
Generally, the light levels needed are 5 to 50 lamp watt/m2 of growing area. During cloudy periods or other low

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natural light periods artificial light are used to provide optimum light levels for the greenhouse crop. The light
levels for most crops are maintained in the range of 3000 to 10000 lux. It has been observed that providing light
at lower levels for more hours is more effective than providing light at higher levels for shorter period. Proper
lighting system can be designed by considering lamp characteristics, crop requirements and geometry of light
fixtures.

12. Is supplemental lighting has any effect?

One of the indirect effects of supplemental lighting is the heat produced by it. For effective
environmental control the heat produced by artificial lighting should be taken into consideration. The amount of
heat from the lamps could be estimated as follows.

Heat = Watts of lighting including balas x efficiency factor (Joules/sec)

Where, efficiency factor is 0.75 – 0.80

13. What is minimization of light intensity? Why it is necessary?

Minimization or reducing light intensity is nothing but providing shade or blocking the radiation partially
or completely wherever required. Reducing light, intensity or shading is a means of controlling photoperiod and
reduction in cooling loads. Certain plants are damaged by high light intensities in the greenhouse for example
anthurium and orchids are shade loving plants and required less, in filtered radiation, which is sufficient for active
photosynthesis and metabolic activities.

14. How to minimize light intensity?

Applying opaque materials directly to the glazing or by placing wood or aluminum laths over the glazing
can reduce the amount of solar radiant energy entering the greenhouse. Saran cloche and shade nets with
different mesh size can be used for providing 25 – 80% shade depending upon the type of crops grown and
period of shade required. The shading system in the greenhouse is operated either manually or made
automatic.

15. What are shading compounds?

These are the commercially available latex paints used to apply on the cladding material to check
radiation. Spraying of white latex paint with different amount of water on the greenhouse transparent surface
gives different shades. Mixing latex paint with water at 1:10 ratio gives thick shade while to get standard shade
mixing is done at 1:15 or 1:20 ratio. Spraying is a less expensive method and any sprayer can be used to spray
the paint solution. Useful method for greenhouse range, sprayed paint washes off by itself by the end of rainy
season or if required it can be easily removed by washing.

The recommended formulations, which could be used, are

i) 1.0kg white lead or lead zinc, titanium paint paste

1.0kg whitening compound
5 tea spoons linseed oil
8 litres gasoline or painted naptha to reduce fire hazard

ii) 2.25kg white lead paste

4 teaspoons of linseed oil
7.5 litres gasoline or painters naptha

These formulations are long lasting and are used for orchids, anthuriums and foliage plants where
permanent shades are necessary. White compounds are preferred for as they reflect a maximum amount of
sunlight i.e. 83% against 43% for green and 25% for blue or purple.

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16. How lath shade and shading screens are helpful in reducing light intensity?
Lath shades constructed from wood or aluminium are more flexible than shading compounds but their
cost is considerably higher. Lath shades are more effective than shading compounds in reducing the radiant
energy and lath shades provide more cooling than shading compound because air circulates between the laths
and the cladding material.

Wherever shade is needed for a part of the growing season or a specific level of shade is required then
shade screens are installed. During early days of greenhouse technology, cheese cloth was used as shade
screens, but in recent years several synthetic materials such as polypropylene, polyester, saran, aluminium
coated screens etc., are available in different grades of shades ranging from 20 to 80 per cent. The shade
screens system may be operated manually or can be made automatic or computerized using appropriate
screens and control mechanism to give the most effective operation.

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Exercise No.: 5 Date: ____________

Environmental control system- Relative humidity and carbon dioxide management

A. RELATIVE HUMIDITY

1. Why management of relative humidity is important?

Like light and temperature, relative humidity is also one of the important environmental factors
especially under arid and tropical conditions, which influences on the growth and development of plants. Plants
grown under humid atmosphere are characterized by large, fleshy leaves, stem and flowers. Maintenance of
plants under low humidity is associated with injury to margins and tips of leaves and petals, wilting and
symptoms of senescence. The leaves and flowers appear weak and distorted. At the same time plants, which
are maintained continuously under higher humidity conditions, may exhibit soft, mushy, rotting of leaf and stem
tissue.

2. What is humidity? Mention the factors influence humidity inside the greenhouses.
Humidity is the moisture content that present in the atmosphere, generally it is expressed as the ratio of
moisture present in one kg of air. There are several outside climatic factors which influences on the greenhouse
humidity like outside moisture content, air temperature, solar intensity, etc. Similarly, inside factors like
ventilation, rate of air movement, transpiration rate, moisture content, inside temperature, air vapour pressure
deficit etc., influences on the buildup of humidity inside the greenhouse.

3. What is relative humidity?

It is defined as the ratio of mass of water vapour present in a given volume of air to the mass of water
vapour necessary to saturate the same volume of air at same temperature. Thus dry air (with no moisture
content) has RH = 0% and saturated air has RH = 100%.

4. How to manage relative humidity inside the greenhouse?

In arid, hot and dry zones the humidity is very low and there is need to increase and maintain the
humidity required by the crop. Evaporative fan and pad cooling system is widely used to control humidity inside
the greenhouses. The maximum achievable relative humidity is 90%. The other methods include high pressure
(10 to 35 kg/cm2) mist system of cooling commonly known as fog cooling system. This system is largely
employed to control humidity where a minimum of free water is desired on the foliage. Rotary high pressure
pumps connected with a time clock and humidistat to control humidity are available. However, high quality water
is desired to avoid salt deposition on leaves and to avoid clogging of nozzles under high pressure misting. Low
pressure mist system (2 to 4.65 kg/cm2) is also common in greenhouses, but their usage is more beneficial in
mist propagation units. Different irrigation methods adopted in greenhouses also helps in buildup of humidity.

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B. CARBON DIOXIDE
1. How important is carbon dioxide for greenhouse plants?
Carbon dioxide is a major substrate for synthesis of food by plants through process called
photosynthesis and responsible for biomass accumulation and crop yield. At present the CO 2 concentration in
the atmosphere (344ppm) limits the rate of photosynthesis in C3 plants. Therefore, increasing the present level of
CO2 to two to three folds (700 – 1000ppm) under greenhouse conditions found to enhance photosynthetic
activity, in-turn resulted in increased growth and yield. In commercial floriculture under controlled environmental
conditions CO2 enrichment or CO2 fertilization found to have several advantages.

2. What is CO2 enrichment? Why its study is important?

CO2 enrichment or CO2 fertilization is a process of supplying additional or adequate quantity of CO2
required by the crop over and above the present normal level available in the atmosphere. The advantages of
CO2 enrichment under non-ventilated greenhouse are a well established fact. However, still there is great scope
for studying its effect on growth, yield, quality and other aspects in different crop species and varieties. To know
its concentration inside greenhouse during different time of the day, season and its interaction with other climatic
factors like light, temperature, solar intensity, moisture content, soil/media, nutrient content for optimizing the
CO2 requirement for optimum crop growth and yield.

3. List out the advantages of CO2 enrichment.

Carbon dioxide enrichment/fertilization has been commercially exploited under protected cultivation of
several horticulture crops. Nearly 50-60 per cent of the non-ventilated greenhouses practice CO2 enrichment.
The advantages of CO2 enrichment on crops are
 The rate of photosynthesis is increased by 40-50% by doubling the current level of CO2 in the
atmosphere.
 Increased photosynthetic activity due to CO2 enrichment would result in increase in 20-45% yield.
 Marked increase in water use efficiency (30%) due to reduced transpiration rate (35-40%) under CO2
enrichment. This is advantageous where sufficient water availability is a problem.
 CO2 enrichment inhibits ethylene production and its action thus reducing the senescence/aging process
in plants and plant parts. Therefore CO2 fertilized plants produce quality flowers, foliage plants and
increased postharvest life of cut flowers.
 CO2 enrichment found to compensate for a 30% reduction in light intensity.
 Increased growth rate, seedling emergence, increased flower size, leaf area, early flowering, increased
number of flowers/fruits etc.
 The effect of CO2 enrichment depends on suitable media used and proper nutrient content in the soil.

Plant response to enriched CO2 concentration

Sl.No. Crop CO2 level (ppm) Response
1 Chrysanthemum 300 and 600 Positive response
2 China asters 600 to 900 Flower development dry matter increase
3 Marigold 650 to 1100 Hastened flowering (21 to 42 days)
4 Carnation 900 and 1800 Flower yield increase (72 to 90%)

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Effect of CO2 enrichment (800 to 1000ppm) on flower crops

Sl.No. Crop Effect
- Shorter culture time
1 Chrysanthemum - 15 to 20% higher growth rate
- Better stem & flower quality
- Better later branching
2 Carnation
- Higher yield and flower quality
- 20to30% higher yield
3 Rose - Longer and stronger flower stems
- Less blind shoots

4. What are the factors influence CO2 requirement and CO2 enrichment under greenhouse conditions?
 Should know the desired level of carbon dioxide concentration inside the greenhouse.
 Average greenhouse air exchange rate during the period of enrichment.
 Average rate of net photosynthesis during the period of CO2 enrichment.
 Period or amount of time the greenhouse can be enriched with CO2.
 Diurnal fluctuation of CO2 concentration in greenhouse – in a fully developed canopy, greenhouse
reaches CO2 level of 400 – 700ppm during the night hours and until around 9 – 10am. During daytime it
may decrease to 100ppm and towards 5-6pm the CO2 concentration may again rise to the level of the
atmosphere.
 The number and phase growth and development of plants requires different levels of CO2 enrichment –
when the plants are small, the internal CO2 concentration of greenhouse reaches up to 500ppm during
the daytime, which is more than the external concentration. When the plants reach maximum size of
canopy growth, the CO2 consumption during the daytime increases and CO2 level decreases to 50-
100ppm.
 CO2 level inside the greenhouse become deficient especially during winter months in temperate
countries where the greenhouses are closed and air circulation is reduced.
 The CO2 enrichment of greenhouse is limited at higher temperature. Above 26-30oC, the greenhouse
must be ventilated and CO2 enrichment must be discontinued.
 In un-enriched greenhouses, CO2 level dropped below the level of air concentration when the plants are
grown on peat which is a poor source of CO2 during the day time. If the plants are grown in media rich
in farmyard manure, the daytime CO2 content is maintained at above normal level when the greenhouse
is not ventilated.

5. What should be the requirements of CO2 enrichment sources?

Though the CO2 is released in a number of processes in nature, but there are some requirements,
which must be met before this gas can be used for enrichment of the air in protective structure.
 Production method should be simple
 Inexpensive
 Gas should be pure and not contain pollutants

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6. What are the methods of CO2 enrichment and sources of CO2?

There are several methods of CO2 enrichment and sources of CO2. The important sources are
a. Pure CO2: Commercially available CO2 is a purified form of the gas, which is obtained from various bi-products.
The pure CO2 gas cylinders are supplied for greenhouses in countries like U.K. and Germany.
b. Natural gas: It is widely used in Netherlands for both heating and CO2 enrichment.
c. LPG propane: It is used for generating the CO2 and one kg of propane yields 3kg of CO2 so that for a one
hectare glasshouse a minimum of 12 burners will be required to achieve a recommended hourly CO 2
requirement of 56kg/ha.
d. Kerosene: Low sulphur containing kerosene is also used for generating CO2.

7. What is the correct time for CO2 enrichment?

Generally, a CO2 concentration of 700-900ppm is recommended from sunrise until sunset as long as
greenhouse is not ventilated. CO2 is supplied mostly during the winter because of the limited need for
ventilation. During rest of the year CO2 application might be given in periods of cloudy weather with no
ventilation. On sunny day, CO2 might be supplied in the early morning and in the evening. In a greenhouse
without ventilation and without CO2 application, the CO2 concentration might fall to below 200ppm and even with
ventilation the concentration might decrease significantly below the outside concentration.

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Exercise No.: 6 Date: ____________

Media for Greenhouse cultivation

1. What are media and what functions it should perform?

Root media is a substrate used to grow plants. Since greenhouse technology is expensive, it is very
essential to carefully consider the medium to be used for greenhouse crops. Good medium should fulfill the
following functions.
a. Serve as a reservoir of plant nutrients.
b. Hold water that makes available to the plants
c. Provide aeration for exchange of gases
d. Sufficiently firm enough to support for the plant

2. What are the desirable properties of a good substrate?

 Should possess stable and high organic matter content that will not diminish quickly and the organic carbon
content should be more than 0.5 per cent.
 Sufficient porous to permit good aeration, mobility of water and root penetration and at the same time it
should retain enough water. The texture and structure of the soil determine these aspects.
 Medium with lower bulk density (1.1 to 1.4g/cc) is ideal for handling and transportation of potted plants and
also improves aeration. But it should be firm and dense enough to hold the plants.
 Should possess high cation exchange capacity (CEC) for nutrient reserve (25-40 me/100cc).
 The carbon and nitrogen (C:N) ratio should be narrow (10:1 to 20:1) to facilitate high rate of decomposition.
 The optimum pH for soil based and soil less substrates is 6.2 to 6.8 and 5.4 to 6.0 respectively.
 The soluble salt (EC) level of 0.4 ds/m is optimum for most of the greenhouse crops.
 Sufficient amendments and nutrients should be added to root substrate for better results.
 Media should be free from weed seeds, nematodes and disease causing pathogens.
 It should withstand pasteurization by steam or chemicals.
 It should be readily available or easily formulates within the acceptable cost.

3. What is soil substrate? Mention its advantages.

Soil and soil based substrates are traditionally been used in greenhouses. A mineral soil is composed
of both inorganic and organic components found in solid, liquid and gaseous states. Knowing the composition of
soil, it is possible to mix with other ingredients to change the texture and structure of the soil to improve aeration,
water-holding capacity etc. The soil media used in the greenhouse generally have physical and chemical
properties, which are distinctly different from field soils. Further, soil based media have good nutrient holding
capacity, buffering action and encourage microbial activity.

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General formulations to prepare soil based media

Ingredients (Ratio)
Sl.No. Type of soil
Perlite/sand Soil Peat moss
1 Heavy soils (clay or clay loam) 2 1 1
2 Medium soils (silt loam) 1 1 1
3 Light soils (Sandy loam) - 1 1

4. What is soil less substrates?

When growers do not have their own sources of field soil or non-availability of good quality field soil
then it is better to use soil less substrates. Further, when the labour is limiting factor for mixing, making
formulations and handling, use of soil less substrates is appropriate. Due to lighter weight, availability in ready to
use formulation, required form, it is very easy for handling and suits well for automation, for growing on benches,
pots and in greenhouse.

5. What are the different types of soil less substrate used in greenhouse cultivation?
There are several soilless substrates available which fulfill all the main functions of a good substrate.
Selection of single substrate or mixing of right types of substrates is essential. There are several formulations
available in the market and depending on the availability, cost, requirement of crop, purpose, season, water
availability etc., it is possible to mix two or three substrates to achieve proper aeration, water holding capacity, CEC
etc.

I. Peat: Peat substrate is obtained from the remains of aquatic, marsh, bog, swamp vegetation found under
water. Different types of peat deposits are found depending upon the vegetation, from which it originated,
state of decomposition, mineral content and degree of acidity.
i) Peat moss: Most commonly used coarse grade peat in horticulture derived from sphagnum or other
mosses. Light tan to dark brown in colour, highest moisture holding capacity among various peat‟s (about
60% of its volume in water), acidic in nature (3.2 to 4.5 pH) need lime application (8-20 kg/m3), contain
around 0.6 to 1.4 per cent nitrogen, decomposes slowly, good CEC (7 – 13 me/100cc).
ii) Reed-sedge peat: Derived from remains of grasses, reeds, sedges and other swamp plants, reddish
brown to almost black, more decomposed than peat moss, pH level vary from 4 to 7.5 high in salt content,
fine coarse, less water holding capacity, good for pot and bench crops.
iii) Peat Humus: It is an advanced state of decomposition of either reed-sedge peat or hypnum moss. Dark
brown to black in colour, low moisture holding capacity but contains 2 to 3.5 per cent nitrogen, pH level
range from 5 to 7.5.
iv) Hypnum moss: Derived from hypnum moss, pH level, 5.3 to 5.5 good when mixed with perlite and
vermiculate.
v) Sphagnum moss peat: Commercially used horticulture peat it is dehydrated residue or living potion of
acid-bog plants in the genus sphagnum, light in weight, relatively pathogen-free, high water holding
capacity, contain little minerals, pH 3.5 to 4, possess fungicidal substances.
II. Vermiculite: It is a micaceous mineral found in layer by layer, expands markedly when heated, chemically it
is hydrated magnesium. Aluminium Iron silicate, when heated it is very light in weight, neutral in reaction,
good buffering properties, high water holding capacity, high CEC, contain potassium, calcium and

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magnesium. Different horticultural grades are available (1mm to 8mm), highly suitable for pot culture,
greenhouse cultivation, seed germination. Due to soft and easily compressed, it is not suitable to mix with
soil.
III. Perlite: A grayish white silicaceous volcanic rock in origin mined from lava flows. When heated to 1000 oC it
expands to form white particles with numerous closed, air filled cells, light in weight, sterile, chemically inert,
neutral pH of 7 to 7.5 but no buffering capacity, high water holding capacity, low CEC, contains no minerals,
popular substrate for greenhouse cultivation and propagation when mixed with peat moss.
IV. Rock wool (Mineral wool): It is produced by burning a mixture of coke, basalt, limestone and slag from iron
production at a 1600oC temperature. The fibres rock wool is available in cubes, slabs, non-biodegradable,
pH is 7 to 8.5, no buffering capacity, contain calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, copper and zinc, CEC‟s
negligible, does not require pasteurization, light in weight, high water holding capacity and provide good
aeration.
V. Pumice: Volcanic origin, mostly silicon dioxide and aluminium oxide with small amount of Ca, Mg and Fe. It
is used to increase aeration and drainage with other substrates.
VI. Calcined clay: Stable aggregates produced by heating clay, shale‟s pulverized fuel ash at high
temperatures. It is porous, absorb water but no nutrient value, mostly used to improve physical
characteristics of rooting substrates.
VII. Synthetic plastic aggregates: These are called polystyrene flakes used to improve drainage, aeration and
decrease bulk density, chemically neutral, do not absorb water and do not decay.
VIII. Urea formaldehyde foam: Obtained by mixing air with liquid resins under cool temperature.
IX. Shredded bark and wood shavings: Smaller pieces of shredded barks and wood shavings from several
woody species are used as component in growing and propagating media. The shredded barks and wood
shavings are decomposed by heap method before use as the fresh material may contain phenols, resins,
trepans and tannins.
X. Other substrates: Sand, coir pith, husk, saw dust, straw peanut hulls, begasse, rice hulls, coffee husk, leaf
mould etc.
6. Why preparation of formulations is done?
For achieving the basic functions of a root substrate it is essential to select and mix two or three substrates
together depending on the need. For example organic matter or clay is mixed to provide CEC for nutrient retention.
Sand or perlite or polystyrene for aeration, peat moss or clay or vermiculate for water holding capacity. To reduce
bulk density mix perlite or vermiculite or polystyrene beads. Depending on the crop requirement, purpose like for
germination, propagation, cultivation etc., type of container used, availability, climatic conditions, cultural practices
adopted etc., several commercial formulations are available in the market and also the grower can himself develop
substrate mix based on availability and experience.
7. Is substrate or media amendments are necessary?
It is desirable to amend both soil based and soil less substances with limes and gypsum depending on the
acidic or alkaline conditions of the substrate to bring the pH level in the range of 5 to 7. Addition of phosphorus and
micro nutrient mix sufficient to last for one crop (3-4 months) is done as post plant fertilization. Whereas nitrogen and
potassium provided during pre plant fertilization is sufficient for about two weeks only.
8. What is substrate pasteurization?
To eliminate disease organism, nematodes, insects and weeds the substrates are subjected for
pasteurization, which is a common practice in all greenhouse cultivation. Generally, done on an annual basis or
before every crop, it is must in soil based substrates where in soilless substrate generally does not pasteurize.
Pasteurization is carried by injecting steam or use of chemicals such as methyl bromide, chloropicrin (tear gas).
Basamid, formalin etc.
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Pasteurization
Sl.No. Method Recommendations
Agent
1 Heat Steam 70 – 100oC for 30 min
2 Chemical 10ml/cuft of medium. Cover with gas proof cover for
Methyl bromide
24-48 hr. Aerate 24-48 hrs before use
3-5ml/cuft of medium cover for 1-3 days with gas proof
Chloropicrin cover after sprinkling with water. Aerate for 14 days or
until no odour is detected before using
Dissolve commercial formulation (37%) of 20ml/l of
Formalin water. Apply 2 l/cuft cover for 14 to 36 hr and aerate for
at least 14 days.
8.0/cuft of medium cover for 7 days with gas proof
Basamid
cover and aerate for at least a week time.



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Exercise No.: 7 Date: ____________

Fertilization for Greenhouse crops

1. Why fertilization is important for greenhouse crops?

Nutrients requirement for greenhouse crops is entirely different from that of field conditions and need special
attention. The planting density maintained under greenhouse is higher, besides heavy plant growth forced year
round and root substrate volume available is minimal. Excessive or imbalanced or inadequate levels create serious
problems. The micronutrients deficiencies are constant threat because substrates are held in continuous production.

2. What is the essential plant nutrients required for greenhouse crops?

Plant in general constitutes about 90 per cent water, the remaining 10 per cent is solid material referred as
dry weight composing 16 essential nutrients and other elements. The 90 per cent of dry matter is accounted for
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, which are not provided through fertilization programme but are obtained from air and
water. The remaining 10 per cent of dry matter is composed of 13 essential elements thus, these elements must be
supplied are grouped based on requirements as primary/macro nutrients (N, P and K) secondary/micro nutrients (Ca,
Mg and S) and trace elements/ micro nutrients (Fe, Mn, B, Zn, Cu, Mo, Cl).

3. What are the different methods of fertilization practiced under greenhouse?

a. Pre-plant fertilization: All the essential nutrients are mixed into the root substrate prior to planting without
further application sufficient for crop period. Generally, sufficient quantity of calcium, magnesium, phosphorus,
sulphur and micronutrients are mixed before planting. Whereas, nitrogen and potassium application is sufficient
for two weeks only and need to supply during post plant fertilization. It is possible to adjust pH level and
neutralize acidic and alkaline conditions by addition of lime and gypsum respectively. Slow release fertilizers are
ideal for pre-plant fertilization.

b. Post-plant fertilization: The application of fertilizers starts from the date of planting and during post-planting
period. The type of fertilizers to be used depend on frequency of application, method of application, rate of N, P
and K required, secondary and micro-nutrients requirement etc. The most common post-plant fertilization for
macro nutrients is 20:10:20.

There are different post-plant fertilization methods depending on the type of media used, plants
requirement, irrigation method adopted, type of container used etc. Soil application in the form of bands and
rows, foliar sprays, fertigation and nutrient film technique are important methods. However, in most of the
greenhouses fertilizers are applied through irrigation system using fertilizer injectors also called as proportioner.

4. What is fertigation?
Concept of fertigation is well tested and adopted for a number of crops under greenhouse conditions
worldwide. The development of water soluble fertilizers, liquid fertilizers and micro irrigation systems made possible
to develop this system of fertilization.

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Fertigation is a method of combined application of watering and fertilizer such that fertilizers solution is
applied every time the plants require water. This method effectively saves both water and fertilizers and
simultaneously enhancing the yields and quality of crops.
a. Mention the advantages of fertigation
 Higher water use efficiency can economize the irrigation needs of the crops by 30 to 40 per cent.
 Improve fertilizer use efficiency. Generally 60 to 80 per cent or the recommended dose of fertilizers is
sufficient to secure equivalent yields of crops as obtained with application of 10 per cent dose.
 Least loss of nutrients through leaching to around 100 per cent compared to 40 to 55 per cent in the
traditional system.
 Optimization of nutrient balance by supplying the desired and required quantities of nutrients directly to
the root zone in available forms.
 It helps to match the physiological needs of the crop at different stages of crop growth. For ex
i. For better root development with high P fertilizers initially,
ii. For active vegetative growth after establishment with N fertilizers and
iii. For crop maturity, flower and fruit development and quantity with high K fertilizers at
reproductive stages.
 It helps in maintaining and improving the physical, chemical and biological conditions of the soil.
 Reduces ground water pollution.
 Save in the application cost of fertilizers and quantity of fertilizers required is less.
 Highly economical and provides additional returns due to increased yields.

b. Is there are any disadvantages?

 Initial investment is high due to adoption of micro irrigation system and equipments.
 Non-availability of facilities and techniques in different locations.
 Non-availability of water soluble fertilizers and their higher recurring cost.
 There is need to standardize fertigation system for different crops, medium, purpose and situation etc.
 Quantity of water used should be good, if the pH level is higher P fertilizers insoluble.
c. What are water soluble fertilizers?
For effective fertigation, the fertilizers used should be 100 per cent water soluble so as to leave no residues
in the micro irrigation system or to clog any component. They should not be corrosive and should not react with
irrigation water, salts or chemicals. The selection of water soluble fertilizers and their grades for various growth
stages has to be based on the needs of the crop and quality desired in the produce. Chloride containing fertilizers
are avoided and if irrigation water is with high pH, phosphatic fertilizers can become insoluble.
A number of fertilizers are available in the market for example
 Ferticare, Magnum p-44, KNO3, Crop care, Superstar, Rainbow, Kemistar etc.

d. Type of micro irrigation system used for fertigation

Depending on the crop, spacing and water requirement, the micro irrigation system need to be designed and
layout. Drop or trickle irrigation system is commonly adopted system of irrigation in most of the greenhouses. The
final application point such as emitters or micro tubes are uniformly placed to ascertain uniform distribution of water
and fertilizers. The system consists of a pump, pressure tank, filters, main pipeline, secondary and tertiary pipelines,
control valves, pressure gauze, emitters, micro tubes etc.

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e. How introduction of fertilizers into irrigation system is done?

Fertilizers can be injected into the micro irrigation system from a fertilizer tank containing liquid fertilizer to
the irrigation supply line through ventury/vacuum pump or by-pass tank system or displacement pump.
i) By pass tank system: In this system both solid and liquid fertilizers can be used. The discharge rate is
high, the nutrient concentration and quantity are limited, the head loss and automatic control is of low order,
the cost involved is relatively less (fig 1).
ii) Ventury/Vacuum pump: This system is suited to liquid fertilizers only. The discharge rate is low. The
nutrient concentration and quantity controls are medium. Head loss is high while automatic control is
medium (fig 2).
iii) Displacement pump: This device is also for liquid fertilizers. The discharge rate is high. The nutrient
concentration and quantity controls are good. The automatic control is of higher order
5. What is the general nutrient requirement for greenhouse plants?
The nutrient requirement depends on crop, media used, irrigation system adopted etc., generally readymade
formulations are available for major and micronutrients. The concentration of nutrients depends on the interval of
application and the concentration would be higher when applied at longer intervals. The general requirement of
nitrogen and potassium for most crops is 200ppm and phosphorus is around 100ppm i.e., in the ratio of 1:1:0.5. It
can be different depends on the growth stage, purpose and crop requirement for example for quality flowering N and
K level may be 1:2, for foliage plants the ratio may be 2:1 or 3:1 and similarly higher levels of phosphorus during root
growth.
To determine the amount of fertilizer carrier needed to prepare a solution of known concentration, the
following formula may be used.
Concentration in ppm
Grams of fertilizer carrier per = --------------------------------------------------------------
1000 litres water Decimal fraction of desired nutrient in fertilizer

For example: to prepare a nitrogen solution of 200ppm concentration from urea (44% N)
200
= -------------- = 455g/1000 litres of water
0.44
6. What is nutrient film technique (NFT)?
The growing of plants in a system where a thin film of nutrient solution is circulated through a channel or
trough lay out on a one per cent slope containing plant roots. It is a specialized from of hydroponics wherein the
nutrient solution is pumped from the sump tank to an inlet at the upper end of the NFT channel. The solution flows by
gravity towards outlet at the lower end of the troughs passing through roots is finally collected back to sump and it is
recirculated again. The flow rate of nutrient film thickness is around 3mm over the entire bottom surface of the
channel. Intermediate circulation is followed for better oxygen supply to roots.

7. How nutritional monitoring is done?

Nutritional problems will develop even in the best of fertilizer programme. A grower must always be on the
look out to observe any growth disorders related to nutrition by visual diagnosis, soil testing and or by leaf analysis,
taking EC values, pH level etc.

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Exercise No.: 8 Date: ____________

Irrigation & Fertigation Management under Greenhouse Conditions

Cultivation of crops under greenhouses is highly intensive and all the growth factors required for plants have
to be maintained at optimum levels. Water is one of the major inputs, which influence pronounced effect on the crop
growth and productivity.

1. Why irrigation management is very important under greenhouse?

Due to high density of plant population inside the greenhouses, the evapo-transpiration is more and due to
limited air circulation inside the greenhouses results in humid conditions as compared to open field conditions. This
also results in low transpiration rate of crops and may result in reduced translocation of nutrients from substrate to
photosynthetic site. Therefore, irrigation management is very important for photosynthesis, translocation and also in
regulating temperature. It is estimated that on an average a plant utilizes as much as 250 litres of water for
production of each kilogram of dry matter.

2. Discuss various factors influencing water requirement of greenhouse crops.

The water requirement for irrigation is generally depends on the losses due to evapo-transpiration and
infiltration. However, it is difficult to work out the exact requirement unless use of computer controlled irrigation
systems. The irrigation requirement, frequency and quantity are dependent on type of medium used, season, growth
stage of the crop, environmental control system etc., porous medium is watered frequently than heavy type, during
winter, rainy and under high humid conditions the water quantity and frequency is less as compare to summer
months. Similarly during active growth period plants needs more water. However, the water requirement needs to
be worked out for each crop variety taking into soil, plant and environmental factors. Plants should be watered before
they show symptoms of water stress and one should have experience in identifying the early water stress symptoms
like darker leaf colour in Chrysanthemum, gray to grey to green leaf colour in Begonia and also by feeling the state of
root medium. However, a more reliable and precise method of determining the time of irrigation is to use sensing
devices like tensiometer and evaporation simulator or a soil conductivity meter for indicating of soil moisture levels.
In computer controlled automatic watering system a sensor is used to indicate the time of irrigation system. In recent
years, attempts are being made to integrate the irrigation amount and frequency with the nutrient uptake to optimize
the optimum input use efficiency. However, it is important to provide optimum water requirement for better growth and
production. Reduced watering will result in inducing stress in the crop and would result in shorter internodes; smaller
leaves and leaf dropping consequently growth will be retarded. Some plants show typical water stress symptoms of
burning leaf margin and spreading inwards. On the other hand over watering makes the new growth soft and
succulent, it may also reduce oxygen level in the root zone causing reduced root growth, stunting of plants and
wilting.

3. Why source and quality of water are important under greenhouse cultivation?
Water quality and sources play a crucial role in limiting the growth of the crop. Sufficient quantity of good
quality water should be available for good crop development and yields. Source of water for irrigation may be tube
wells, open wells, ponds etc. However, storing in elevated tanks before supplying to plants is essential to ensure
continuous supply and to avoid frequent pumping and irregular power cuts.

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The good water should be free of dissolved impurities such as calcium, sodium and other salts, which are
not only increase the electrical conductivity level of water but also increases the root concentration in the soil which
block the nutritional absorption by the plants. Sodium affecting potassium uptake and chloride interfering with nitrate
intake by the plants. The maximum acceptable sodium and chloride concentrations in irrigation water for different
crops are as follows.

Maximum in root zone Maximum for uptake

Sl.No. Crop (m mol/litre) (m mol/litre)
Na Cl Na Cl
1 Rose 6 6 0.1 0.1
2 Gerbera 8 8 0.8 1.8
3 Carnations 8 8 0.2 0.3
4 Chrysanthemum 8 8 0.8 2.0

Solid impurities such as sand, soil, algae and decomposing vegetative materials should be separated by using
appropriate screens, disc and sand filters.

4. What are the different methods of irrigation adopted under protected cultivation?

There are several methods of irrigation followed under greenhouse cultivation.

a. Drip/tickle irrigation system – Most popular and common method of irrigation through use of drippers or micro
tubes provided at each plant base.
b. Overhead watering – Irrigation pipes and nozzles are arranged sufficiently above the plant level at required
distances and intervals. System may be operated manually or with timer adjustment. A very good system for
establishment of plants and do build up higher humid condition.
c. Hand watering – Watering using a hosepipe, particularly suits for potted plants but labour requirement is more.
d. Perimeter watering – Using PVC or polyethylene pipes with nozzles spray water over the root medium below
the foliage.
e. Mat watering system – Five to ten mm thick mats made of synthetic fibre is constantly movement through
drainage holes.
f. Ebb and flow method – Modified over mat system, instead of mat, water is filled in specially made bench tops,
which accommodate the pots and after sometime the water is drain back to the tank and reused again.
g. Irrigation by flooding – It is the least desirable method adopted under greenhouse conditions.

5. Discuss the components of irrigation system

Irrigation system consists of a pump, pressure tank, filters, pipelines, fertilizer injector, drippers, nozzles etc.
Selection of a system is based on the required discharge rate, suction head and delivery head which includes the
friction loss in the piping. The pressure tank may be located between the source of water and the points of
application. Water is forced into the tank till the air in the tank is compressed to create a pressure. The pressure
switch for greenhouse is usually set a 2 to 3kg per cm 2. The selection of piping is made on the basis of cost, location,
ease of installation and expected life. The pipe materials of common use are PE, PVC, HDPE, galvanized steel and
copper. If fertilizers are to be used along with irrigation then a fertilizer injector is included in the system. A fertilizer

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tank containing liquid fertilizer is connected to the irrigation supply line through either ventury or a positive
displacement pump. An irrigation system of this type is either a low pressure (20.6 kg/cm 2) or high pressure system
(50.61 kg/cm2).

Drip and Sprinkler Irrigation Systems

Drip irrigation is today's need because Water - nature's gift to mankind is not unlimited and free forever.
World water resources are fast diminishing. The one and only answer to this problem is Drip Irrigation
Systems.

Benefits of Drip Irrigation Systems

 Has recorded increase in yield upto 230%.

 Saves water up to 70% compare to flood irrigation. More land can be irrigated with the water thus
saved.
 Crop grows consistently, healthier and matures fast.
 Early maturity results in higher and faster returns on investment.
 Fertilizer use efficiency increases by 30%.
 Cost of fertilizers, inter-culturing and labour use gets reduced.
 Fertilizer and Chemical Treatment can be given through Micro Irrigation System itself.
 Undulating terrains, Saline, Water logged, Sandy & Hilly lands can also be brought under productive
cultivation.

Model Design

Drip irrigation system delivers water to the crop using a network of mainlines, sub-mains and lateral
lines with emission points spaced along their lengths. Each dripper/emitter, orifice supplies a measured,

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precisely controlled uniform application of water, nutrients and other required growth substances directly into
the root zone of the plant.

Water and nutrients enter the soil from the emitters, moving into the root zone of the plants through the
combined forces of gravity and capillary. In this way, the plant‟s withdrawal of moisture and nutrients are
replenished almost immediately, ensuring that the plant never suffers from water stress, thus enhancing quality,
its ability to achieve optimum growth and high yield.

Fertigation Systems and Chemigation Equipment

Fertigation System & Chemigation equipment is a need for today's

irrigation system. Optimum and efficient use of fertilizers is one of the
major advantages of drip irrigation systems. We are well aware that
success of micro irrigation system lies in precise application of fertilizers.

Fertigation system & Chemigation equipments are highly durable and

composed of material inert to chemical and fertilizer reactions.

Fertigation Systems and Chemigation Equipment Range includes:

 Fertilizer Tank
 Fertilizer Injector
 Ventury Injector
 Injector Pump
 Manifold Fertigation

Fertilizer Tank

Features and Specifications:

 Mild steel construction.

 Powder coated with 70 to 80 micron thick deep blue colored pure polyester from both inside and
outside surface for protection against corrosion and weather effects.
 Turbulent inlet ensures thorough mixing of chemicals and / or fertilizers.
 Separate valves are provided on the inlet & outlet to control the injection rate.
 Special provision of strainer on the outlet.
 Drain port to flush the tank.
 Maximum working pressure 10 kg/cm² (142 psi).

Available in 30, 60, 90, 120 & 160 litre (8, 16, 24, 32 & 42 US gallon) capacity

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Fertilizer and chemical injection through drip and sprinkler irrigation systems

Fertilizer Injector

Features and Specifications:

Mild steel construction.


Powder coated with 70 to 80 micron thick deep blue colored pure polyester from

both inside and outside surface for protection against corrosion and weather effects.
 Specially designed high quality polyethylene accumulator maintains uniform
injection rate.
 Fertilizer / chemical injection rate or proportion can be adjusted using flow control
knob.
 Maintains the proportion constant even if the flow rate in the main line varies.
 In-built ventury creates pressure difference between inlet and outlet thereby increasing the water pressure on the
accumulator to inject the fertilizer.
 Flow meter indicates actual stock solution‟s injection rate.
 Available in 30, 60, 90, 120 & 160 litre (8, 16, 24, 32 & 42 US gallon) capacity.

 Maximum working pressure 10 kg/cm² (142 psi).

 Minimum flow to operate ventury 5 m³/hr (22 gpm).
 Maximum capacity of the tank 30 litres.

Applications:

 Fertilizer and chemical injection through drip and sprinkler irrigation systems

Ventury Injectors

Features and Specifications:

 Made of engineering plastic.
 Excellent chemical resistance to most of the chemicals.
 Highly efficient and compact differential pressure injection device.
 Economical and low cost option.
 Available in ¾” BSP inlet/outlet connection.
Applications

Fertilizer and chemical injection through drip and sprinkler irrigation systems.

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Different Installation options for Ventury Injector

J-Injector Pump

Features and Specifications:

 Compact design.
 Accurate and proportional injection rate.
 Non electric, operates on hydraulic pressure.
 Dosing rate can be set externally to desired percentage.
 Low pressure loss.
 ¾” BSP inlet/outlet connection.
 Dosing flow range 1- 30 lph (0.26 - 7.94 gph).
 Side suction keeps the internal parts away from acids, chemicals, fertilizers.
 Self priming.
 Easy to connect and disconnect.
 Operating pressure range: 0.3 - 5 kg/cm² (4.27-71.11 psi).

Applications:

 Recommended to use where precise application of fertilizer and other agricultural

chemicals are required.



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FLA 505; 1+1: PROTECTED CULTIVATION IN FLORICULTURE; I Semester 2012-13 [email protected]

Exercise No.: 9 Date: ____________

PROTECTED CULTIVATION OF ROSES

Roses are the most popular cut-flower worldwide. From the early days, many new varieties
have been selected aiming at an improved product in both cultivation and cut-flower aspects, like
the high yielding capacity, improved distribution of harvestable product throughout the year and
the improved quality aspects, like flower and stem quality to guarantee an optimal vase life and
satisfied customers. Roses are the most beautiful flowers tops among the cutflowers grown under protected cover and
marketed in the world. Excellent shape and size, bewitching colours and good keeping quality attracts people worldwide.

TYPES OF GREENHOUSE REQUIRED:

 Under mild climatic conditions (Bangalore and Pune) roses can be
successfully cultivated under naturally ventilated polyhouses.
 However, under warm and high temperatures (Hyderabad and Delhi) it
needs forced ventilation system (cool-cell pad) to get quality flowers.

ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS:
 Rose is a sun loving plant requires high light intensity,
 Optimum day and night temperature requirement is 24 – 26o C and 15
– 17oc, respectively,
 75 per cent relative humidity and
 CO2 level up to 1000 ppm.

VARIETIES: First Red Lambada Ambassidor

Noblesse Sasha Papillon
Grand Gala Skyline Polo
Confetti Ravel Lovely Red
Osiana Golden gate Tunike

CULTIVATION PRACTICES
Bed size:
 1-1.6 m wide,
 30-40m long and
 15-20cm/ 30-40cm height
 0.5-0.75m between two beds.

Spacing:
 30-40cm between rows,
 14-18cm or 15-20cm between Plants,
 6-9 plants/M2,
 7 plants/M2 is optimum, (Accommodate 70,000 plants/ha).

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Media:
 Both soil and soil-less substrates (rockwool, peat, sphagnum moss, vermiculites, perlite, leaf mould,
coco peat, rice husk etc.,)
 pH 5.5-6.8
 30-40cm deep well drained, porous, rich in organic content.
 Pasteurize with steam at 70-100oC for 30 minutes or use methyl Bromide @ 25-30g/ M2/ 10ml/cuft for
24-48 hr or Formalin @ 7.5-10.0 l /100 M2 or Basamid (Dazomet) @ 30-40g/ M2
Planting:
 6-18 month old budded plants may be planted during May-June.
 The soil should be loose and humid but not too wet nor muddy.

Growth regulation:
 Primary bending : will to be taken up 5-6 weeks after planting to build a strong
frame work.
 Secondary bending : 4-5 weeks after first bending to get more number of strong shoots.
 Gradual pruning : Harvesting of flower shoot will take care of this operation.
 Direct pruning
 De-shooting,
 Disbudding etc.
Manuring: Depends on variety, type of medium used, growth stage, irrigation system etc.
a. Well decomposed FYM have to be incorporated into the bed @ 100 t/ha.
b. Nutrient composition of rose plant based on leaf analysis is 3 per cent N, 0.2 per cent P, 1.8 per cent K,
1.0 per cent Ca and 0.25 per cent Mg.
c. Nutrient requirement @ 1:0.2:1.2:0.3 NPK Mg
d. Fertigation requirement 170ppm N, 34ppm P, 160ppm K, 120ppm Mg per every watering.
Irrigation:
 The first week watering has to be done with sprinklers or hose pipe 5-8 times a day.
 3-4 weeks after planting drip irrigation may be employed for uniform watering
 Each plant has to be watered @ 1 liter /plant/day.

Harvesting and Yield:
 Yield starts 4-5 months after planting,
 Harvest at tight bud stage for long distance,
 Stem length vary from 40-90cm.
 Flower yield range from 100-150 stems, 200-225 and 250-350 stems per m2 in large hybrid tea, medium
types and small and sprays respectively.

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ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ON GROWTH:

1. LIGHT:
 Light is one of the important growth factors which influence both temperature and water.
 Primarily light is necessary for assimilation (photosynthesis). Through chlorophyll in the leaves, light is
transformed into sugars, a process also requiring CO 2 and water.

 This energy source is essential for growth and development of flowers, stems, leaves and roots.
 The degree to which a plant can use the amount of light available depends on several factors, for example
chlorophyll contents of the leaves, CO 2 supply, temperature and humidity.

 The other indirect effect of light is the stimulation of vascular transport through the plant.
 As light raises the leave temperature, the leaves respond by opening the stomata to allow a higher
evaporation in order to cool down. This process also increases the water transport, enabling nutrients,
necessary for plant growth, to be distributed through the plant.

2. Temperature.

 Temperature influences almost all processes of life.

 Too much light at a low temperature causes an unnecessary surplus of sugars.
 Due to the high temperature the respiration process works at maximum capacity, while production of
energy (photosynthesis) is maintained at a low level.
 The differences in temperature during the day/night (light/dark) period have a major effect on plant
growth.
 It is assumed that through a raise in temperature early in the night period, more energy is put in
generative growth (flower development).
 Higher temperatures during the night period, compared to the day period, will stretch internodes and vice
versa.
 Under poor light conditions this is a possibility to obtain the required 24-hour temperature without creating
a weak and elongated crop.

3. Water.

 Water plays a very important part in the assimilation process, in transport of sugars and nutrients and in
the cooling system of the plant.
 A plant consists for over 90% of water.
 The plant is kept upright by regulating water pressure (osmotic systems).
 Evaporation is influenced by factors like light and temperature, and to a lesser extent by humidity.
 Stomata control evaporation; poor water supply will result in a closing of stomata with subsequently no
gas exchange and no production of sugars (energy).
 Water uptake can also be improved by applying directly to the plant by drip irrigation and by reducing the
salt concentration in the water (E.C. or total nutrient value).

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4. Media:

Requirements for a good substrates.

 Good air/ water balance.
 Good draining and leaching capacity.
 pH should be neutral and containing none or very few nutrients.
 Stable structure, even in the long run (no or little decomposition).
 Offering sufficient support to the crop.

i. Cocopeat.

Cocopeat is a waste product from the coconut palm. In fresh material a relatively high E.C.-value is measured
(caused by e.g. sodium, potassium, or chloride). This material is very easily to rinse causing these nutrients to leach.
Rinsing often is done at the place of origin, using local rainwater during the monsoon period. Cocopeat can hold both
water and air. Remarkable is the ability to take up water even after severe drought. Stability of cocopeat is presently
experienced to be good, even after several years little physiological changes have been recorded.

Cocopeat is pH neutral, at a value around 5.5 – 6.0. At fertilisation one should be aware of potassium present in
the cocopeat. Therefore often a dose (1-2 kg/m2) of calcium nitrate (CaNO3) is applied at the start of cultivation. Initially a
fertilisation schedule could be used replacing potassium nitrate (KNO3) by calcium nitrate. Please, check the iron (Fe)
content regularly; it has been observed that cocopeat may retain iron temporarily. During cultivation the pH can be
adjusted by applying acid and or ammonium nitrate in the nutrient mixture. Water supply does not much differ from
rockwool; perhaps cocopeat requires a little less water.

Rockwool.

The rock wool slap of 7.5 cm by 15 cm by 100 cm (height x width x length) may be used. The quality (durance) of
the slap is an important characteristic to take into account while purchasing (see and feel!) Since roses are grown for
several years on the same piece of rockwool, the quality should be maintained for a longer period. Often special types
are available, even though these might be a bit more expensive, the effects of an optimally operating rooting system will
become noticeable after some time. A hard rockwool slap has got sufficient air/ water capacity. The alkaline nature of
rockwool can be corrected by saturating the bread with a nutrient solution at a pH of 5.3-5.5. During cultivation the pH can
be adjusted by applying acid and or ammonium nitrate in the nutrient mixture.

Cultivation :

The rose plants have to be grown in 30-40 cm above the ground. This height is necessary to provide space for the
bend-out stems and provide enough air circulation through the crop. This improves the evaporation and increases the
amount of active foliage. If heating is required, it also allows the tubes to be places underneath the plants. To obtain the
elevated flower bed numerous systems can be developed and several are readily available on the market. When
applying drains it also offers sufficient space for installation of gutters. If cultivation in pots is desired, various systems
have been developed to allow optimal use of space (frameworks of iron).

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Planting:.

 Planting may be in 2-row system.

 Per compartment of 6.40 metre 6 rows of plants can be planned.
 The distance between the plants in one row varies around 15-20 cm.
 This results at 7 to 8 plants per metre square (depending on cultivar and cultivation system).

High lines of the grow system.

- Plants are placed approximately 35 cm above the ground.

- Bend-out branches have more space, which improves leaf functions and so create more energy.
- By bending out branches the top of the plant stays at the original place and only basal shoots are formed.
- At harvest, cutting is done just above the original top, giving maximal stem length.
- More uniformity in production between plants gives a higher production per m2 of a higher quality.

Drip irrigation.

 A drip irrigation system is recommended; as each plant receives the same amount of water.
 By supplying the water directly on the potting mix, the plant itself does not become wet (so preventing diseases).
 The dripper line of the irrigation system are placed on the ground between the two rows, this prevent the dripper
line becoming empty and keep the water temperature low and the dripper line out the reach of direct sunlight.
 A capacity of 2 liters per hour is preferred as the chance of congestion is smaller.
 By using a drip system, a wet (water) column is created through which the roots grow.
 Place the drippers by planting in the jiffy pot, after 2-3 weeks when the roots are growing out of the jiffy pot into
the potting soil replace them approximately 1 - 5 cm from the jiffy pot.

Start of cultivation.

 In the beginning of the crop growth a glasshouse temperature of 20 – 24 degrees is recommended.

 The relative humidity should be high.

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 Fertilisation is in these initial stages done with an extra 20% calcium nitrate. As soon as the first basal shoots have
developed well, it should be returned to normal levels.
 The water supply, i.e. the frequency and amount of drip irrigation, is depending on the season and the
development rate of the crop.
 Check the amount drain regularly (minimal 35 - 45% over drain). The water gift per dripper is atleast 70 – 80 ml
per irrigation turn. When smaller gifts are used the irregularity between drips becomes too obvious.
 At saturation and the initial weeks of cultivation, the E.C.-value of the nutrient solution should be lower than the
E.C.-value of the plants in the jiffy pots you receive from the propagator. This stimulates root growth and results in
a rapidly established crop.
 After this initial period the E.C.-value of the water gift varies around 1.5 – 2.0 depending on the season.
 The pH of the nutrient solution is maintained preferably between 5.3 – 5.5.
 If the pH value in the drain water rises above pH 6.0, some ammonium nitrate could be applied. If the substrate
used is cocopeat, often less ammonium nitrate is required. Besides chemical analysis of the drain water, the
cocopeat media itself could be analysed.

Crop maintenance after planting.

 After planting, shoots will quickly develop.

 Only after the flower bud becomes clearly visible the shoots are bend-out towards the path and the flowers are
removed, this process is known as „bending‟.
 Since the plants grow about 40 cm above the ground, it is possible to bend down the stems deeply.
 Be careful not to break the shoots, the plant should remain capable of transporting sugars from these areas to the
new developing shoots.
 The shoots should be bending down so the grafting place or, if a cutting is used, the old top of the cutting will
become the top of the plant.
 The flower buds on these bend-out shoots have to be removed. This system allows the leaves to continue their
production of energy.
 When the dominating primary shoots (apical dominance) is removed, causing the plant to respond by developing
more basal buds.
 In the plant hormonal changes take place, which promote shoot development (balance cytokinins/ auxins).
 After cutting or bending out results in an increased cytokine level, causing buds to break. The shoots formed are
producing auxins, so restoring the hormonal balance in the plant.

Basal shoots.

 Depending on the growth potential of a cultivar a number of basal shoots are formed.
 Per plant 2 to 3 well-formed shoots are allowed to continue growing, if more shoots were formed it is recommended
for bending out of these shoots.
 This way a plant has got the use of more active leaf canopy to supply enough energy for development of a heavy
crop with first quality flowers.

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Harvest.

 At harvest it often was practice to cut back to the first 5-leaf stage.
 Hence it is recommended for cutting back to just above the original cutting.
 The length of the remaining stem decides the number of shoots (flower stems) which will grow back.
 If too much (4-6 cm) stem is left, many shoots are formed of a poor quality. Therefore it is advised to cut back to 1
cm.
 After 1 to 1.5 year the rose bush is cut back to approximately 10 cm above the original cutting, so creating a new
top. Now again only 1-cm stem is left after harvest.

Management of climatic factors.

 Regulating the greenhouse climate should be done in order to keep the leaf canopy active. Especially when much
light is available (sunny conditions),
 Heating under the crop is recommended to prevent large temperature differences in the crop. When less light is
available, heating both under as above the crop will be necessary.
 To remove excessive humidity from the greenhouse, the heating should be combined with ventilation. This
depends on the difference between outside and glasshouse temperature and varies with the ventilation possibilities
of the glasshouse.
 In general with modern glasshouses we recommend ventilation at outside temperatures of 10 degrees or higher.
This also is depending on the wind speed; under windy conditions the ventilation rate will be higher.

Stem length and bud size.

To increase the stem length and the bud size, it is need to prevent stress situations.

 It is very important to keep the heat out of the greenhouse. This can be done by;
Use shade screen with aluminum reflection parts.
 White washes the greenhouse.
 In summer start early with ventilation.
 Also in-house misting system (above or under the crop) can help you to increase humidity and reduce
the temperature in the greenhouse.
 Installing roof sprinklers; Roof sprinklers can reduce greenhouse temperature with 2 till 3 °C.

2. Drip EC level during the period of (extreme) high temperatures and low humidity's, can be reduced till 1.2-1.4. By
reducing the E.C. we can make the water easy available for the plant.

3. Need to check regularly (manual) the pH and EC in the drip and the drain water by the plants in the greenhouse,
Avoid extreme fluctuations. Use alarm system to avoid extreme values, but don‟t rely only on the irrigation
computer.

4. Increase the amount of cycles in summer. Water cycles of more than 100 ml per plant per cycle could be used.
This way we can also make the water more easily available for the plant.

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5. Especially in extreme circumstances you need a lot of leaves on the crop. It would be good if you stop harvesting
for some weeks in summer (when it is very hot). You only take away the buds/flowers. The plants can build up
energy for the new production season. Quality and stem length will increase this way. The amount of ground
shoots will increase also. Do not take too much leaves form the plant. It makes it harder to cool and recover.

6. The crop has to be healthy: white roots, no pests and diseases (like Pythium, Phytophthora, downy and powdery
mildew, spider mites).

7. Do not allow explosion of spider mites (two spotted mites or red spider)

Important tips for managing spider mites are:

 Scouting and instructing workers to mark infected spots.

 Spray as soon as you see an infection (on the spot or whole greenhouse)
 Spider has to be in contact with chemical. Spray especially at bottom of the leaves
 Use a lot of water (3000 - 4000 liter per ha.)
 Spray with a high pressure, with a very fine mist.
 Spray again adult + nymph + larva + eggs at the same time!
 Spray same combination 2 to 3 times. Than it has to be replaced by other chemicals
 By warm / hot weather the mites multiply very quick, so spray at least every 4-6 days in summer.

8. Stem length and bud size is mainly influenced by temperature.

High temperatures will reduce stem length because the bud development starts earlier.

Ideal temperature range;

 Day temperature : 20-21o C.

 Night temperature: : 16-17o C.

The night temperature has to be atleast 15-16 degrees. Lower night temperatures will give blackening/browning
of the petals of the red varieties.

Rose root problems.

As you know it is very important to have white root development. If the roots are not healthy, one of the following
symptoms could be shown;

 The stem length will decrease.

 The bud size will be smaller.
 The leaves will be smaller.
 The colour of the flower could change.

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 The crop will show deficiencies and leaves will become yellow and will drop.
 The crop will also be more sensitive for pest and diseases.

The following items can cause a bad root system:

1. Bad water management (too much and/or too frequent).

 The total drain amount during the day has to be ± 35 / 45 %.

 During the first cycle in the morning (1 / 1.5 hour after sunrise) there should be no drain. If you have
drain during the first cycle you stopped too late the day before or you give too much water per cycle.
 The total amount of water take-up by the plants per m2 per day could be around 5 / 6 litres (if there are
a lot of leaves). If the flush is gone or the crop is not very healthy or the evaporation is low (high
humidity), it might be enough to give 3 / 4 litre of water per m2 per day.
 The minimum amount per cycle has to be about 60-80 ml per plant.
 Between the cycles the cocopeat or rockwool can dry up a bit. This is important for the amount of air
(oxygen) in the substrate. If you are giving a small amount per cycle, you have to give a lot of cycles to
realise 40% drain. After each cycle the substrate is maximum wet so each time the amount of air in the
substrate is low.
 It‟s better to give less cycles and more water per cycle.
 If the flush is gone or the crop is not healthy (less evaporation), and you keep on giving the same
amount of water, you will see that the drain % will increase. If the drain is above 50 %, you have to
reduce the amount of cycles (stop earlier) or reduce the amount of water per cycle.
 During the night the plant does not assimilate and does not evaporate a lot. For this reason you should
not give any water during the night. The roots have to be drier during the night.
 Stop giving water about 2 / 3 hours before sunset.
 It is very important to measure the amount of drain.

Bad drain system (wet spots) (water logging).

 Root problems also can be caused by a bad drain system, especially when the cocopeat or rockwool is
too wet most of the time. Because of this there is not enough air in the root environment. This causes
fungi like Phytium and Phytophthora.
 It is very important that the cocopeat or rock wool can drain easy, blocked drain or level difference in
the bench systems could course too much water around the roots.
 In general you can say that water is no problem as long as it can drain out very easy.
 Without a good root system you will never get long stems, big buds and big leaves.

2. Wrong pH and/ or EC.

 It is also important to drip with water of a pH between 5.3 and 5.5 for keeping a healthy root system!
 If the pH is too high a lot of elements cannot be taken by the plant. Some of these elements are for root
development.

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 A high pH (above 6) or a low pH (below 5) can cause root problems and it‟s also a cause of deficiencies
in the crop. This will cause again a bad root development.
 If the EC is (very) high (above 2.5) the roots cannot take the water (and nutrition‟s) easy. A (very) high
EC is causing short stems, small buds, small, thick and dark green leaves.
 If the EC is very low, deficiencies can occur.
 When the temperatures are high and the humidity is low, it is good to give an EC between 1.2 and 1.4.
This way the plants can take the water very easy (osmotic system in the roots).
 If the humidity is high, it is good the give water with a higher EC level (1.6 till 1.8).
 In the small amount of water the plant is taking in high humidity circumstances there are a lot of
nutrition‟s.

 The EC of the drain water can get too high (above 2 / 2.5) when the EC of the dripping water is too high
or by a too low drain percentage.

3. Wrong fertilizers, too much or too less of some elements.

 Problems with the roots and the crop also can be caused by the use of the wrong fertilizers or a wrong
balance between the fertilizers.
 To know the amount of elements it is a must to analyse the water at least every month.

4. Diseases (Pythium, Phytophthora, Cylindrocarpon, Cylindrocladium, Fusarium).

 Spores of most of the fungi are always present. If the circumstances are good for the fungi they will
develop and the roots will start getting brown.
 If there are a lot of brown roots in coco peat or rockwool, you have to find out why this has happened. A
treatment with fungicide could help, but only solve problems on the short term.
 It‟s important, when we have growing problems or diseases, to find the solution. Keep on doing trials
and tests on a small scale to find out how to solve the problems.
 If you drench the plants (+/- 100-150 ml water + chemical per plant) you have to make sure that the
plants are thirsty. Before the drench/treatment stop the watering. After the drench/treatment you should
not give water for half a day. You can give the drench/treatment early morning or instead of the last drip
cycle.

5. High root temperature, which causes Phythium and Phytophthora.

Root temperature should not be above 25o C. For this reason it is very important to cover the stock tank
with a roof (it has to be able to ventilate).

6. Not enough green leaves!

A bad root development can also be caused by an unhealthy crop. Infection of insects, fungi or other
diseases will decrease the amount of green leaves. A low green leave amount will cause bad growth of leaves
and roots. A low leave amount can also be caused by harvesting too much stems.

Fertilization.

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An irrigation unit with an A + B tank is preferred to give the exact quantity of nutrients to the plants. The EC and
the pH are measured by the irrigation unit and directly corrected.

7.1 Fertilizer program:

(Note: this fertilizer program gives an indication of what you could use, this fertilizer solution could change because of the
type of water and how the plants are growing.)

Tank: A = 1000 Litre

Calcium Nitrate CaNO3 26%CaO + 15.5 N 75 Kg

Ammonium Nitrate NH4NO3 9%NO3 + 9% NH4 0-3 * Kg
Iron Chelate Fe EDTA 13% 2.0 Kg
or EDDHA ** 6 % 4 Kg

Tank: B = 1000 litre

Mono Potassium Phosphate H2PO4 52% P2O5 + 34% K2O 17 Kg

Potassium Nitrate KNO3 13% N + 46% K2O 25 Kg
Potassium Sulphate K2SO4 52% K2O + 16% MgO 2.5 Kg
Epson Salt MgSO4 49%MgSO4 = 16% Mg0 34 Kg
(Magnan Sulphate)
Nitric Acid HNO3 38% 0-10 *** Litre

Trace elements:
Manganese Sulphate Mn 32% Mn **** 85 Gram
Borax B 11% B **** 190 Gram
Zinc Sulphate Zn 23% Zn **** 100 Gram
Copper Sulphate Cu 25% Cu **** 25 Gram
Sodium Molybdate Mo 40% Mo **** 25 Gram

* This depends of the PH of your drain water, if drain water PH below 6.0 you don‟t need Ammonium Nitrate
in the fertilizer tank.
** When the PH from the drain water is above the 6.5 / 7.0, you have to use EDDHA iron.
*** This depends on the PH of the type of water you use e.g., rain, dam, bore water.
****Always check if you use sulphate or chelate, and what strength the trace elements are!!!
***** You could add Agri Potash (Potassium Carbonate) to increase the PH of the drip irrigation water.

Optimum EC & PH;

Water gift to the plants E.C. 1.3 / 1.8 pH 5.3 – 5.4

Drain water if collect E.C 1.8 – 2.2 pH 5.3 – 5.5

NUTRIENT DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS.

If the mineral elements are not present in the medium in quantities sufficient for plant growth, plants exhibit
nutrient deficiency symptoms. Anything that interferes with the active absorption of nutrient ions by the root system-eg.
Unfavorable pH levels or media temperatures significantly above or below optimum (17-22 degrees) may also result in
similar symptoms. Root injury caused by root rots, water logging and inadequate aeration. Some of the visible deficiency
symptoms of the different essential mineral elements are described below.

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a. Nitrogen; Nitrogen deficiencies are rarely seen in commercial rose production. However, they can occur when growing
media with low cat ion exchange capacities are used and over watering occurs. Nitrogen deficiency
shows as a general overall yellowing or chlorosis, starting on the oldest leaves and then moving
gradually upward. The progression of the chlorosis is from yellow-green to yellow to a creamy white.
Because nitrogen is translocated out of the older leaves to the new growth under deficiency conditions,
the youngest leaves rarely show any significant yellowing.

b. Potassium; Potassium deficiency first begins as a rusty brown, marginal necrosis of the older leaves. The centers of
the leaf blades usually remain green, although some necrotic spots might occur. Severely affected leaf
margins usually curl upward.

c. Phosphorus; Symptoms begin as a gradual brownish discoloration on the underside of older leaves, especially along
the veins. Phosphorus deficiency symptoms usually occur during winter when soil temperatures are
cold, and disappear when warmer weather returns.

d. Calcium; Calcium deficiency appears initially as death of the apical meristems (growing points), and sometimes as an
extreme yellowing of the young developing leaves. The young leaves remain small and yellow, with
colour turning gradually to a whitish yellow or creamy white. Edges of leaves eventually die and turn
brown.

e. Magnesium; Magnesium deficiency is common on gerberas, due to insufficient amounts of magnesium in the growing
medium and the lack of magnesium in most fertilization programs. The symptoms appear on the older
leaves as an interveinal chlorosis, with a persistent, inverted, V -shaped green area remaining at the
leaf bases. V-shaped green areas also persist at the leaf terminal. Once symptoms develop, they
cannot be reversed.

f. Iron; Iron deficiency symptoms occur as an interveinal chlorosis, primarily on the younger leaves. The veins and
veinlets remain as thin green lines. Leaves become progressively smaller, and the chlorotic areas
ultimately progress from yellow to creamy white. In the last stage, even the veins and veinlets become
chlorotic.

g. Zinc; Zinc deficient younger leaves are splotchy and chlorotic in colour, but the definitive symptom is that one half of
the leaf blade ceases to expand and develop, while the other half is normal in size and shape. This
uneven development causes the leaf to bend into a "C" shape.

h. Molybdenum; This deficiency is most prevalent in strongly acid («pH 5) growing media, and is displayed as "strapped"
leaves, i.e. the leaves become exceedingly narrow, and the veins run parallel and overgrow at the
margins to give ser- rated leaf edges.

I. Manganese; Manganese deficiency symptoms appear first on young leaves and are similar to those caused by iron
deficiency, except that the persistent bands of green along veins and veinlets are broader, extending
slightly out into the tissue to the leaf blade. The interveinal chlorosis is not as severe as with iron
deficiency

Please note; When you use the above fertilizer mix, and the drip and drain EC & pH are between the indicate optimum,
the chance to get some nutrient deficiency is minimal. So it‟s very important to check the EC & p H a few times a week, and
make adjustments when this is different than the indicate optimum.

Diseases and pests treatment. (Chemical)

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This is an international pest control list for roses. Because of government regulation some of these chemicals may not be
available or are not allowed in Australia and New Zealand. And we strongly recommend doing at least trials with the
chemicals you have not used before, this to find out if you get any damage on the plants or flowers.

White fly:
Trade name Active ingredient How to use
Chess Pymethrozine Spray
Ambush, Perthrine Permethrin Spray
Calypso Thiacloprid Spray * / **
Applaud Buprofezin Spray * / **
Admiral Pyriproxifen Spray * / **
Confidor, Admire Imidacloprid Drench / trough drippers
Lannate Methomyl Spray / LVM
Dichloorfos, DDVP Dichloorfos LVM
Decis Deltamethrin LVM
Folimat Omethoate LVM
Sanmite Pirydaben LVM

* When you spray Admiral, Applaud use double amount of water, and try to spray on the bottom side of the leaves.
** Save for most of the natural predators.

Thrips:
Trade name Active ingredient How to use
Orthene Acephate Spray
Success, Conserve Spinosad Spray
Vertimec, Avid Abamectin Spray
Regent, Violin Fipronil Spray
Lannate Methomyl Spray / LVM
Dichloorfos, DDVP Dichloorfos LVM
Folimat Omethoate LVM

White rust:
Trade name Active ingredient How to use
Baycor Bitertanol spray
Dithane Mancozeb Spray

Broad Mite:
Trade name Active ingredient How to use
Agramite, Floramite Bifenazate Spray
Vertimec, Avid Abamectin Spray
Kelthane Dicofol Spray

Two Spotted Mite / Red Spider:

Trade name Active ingredient How to use
Agramite, Floramite Bifenazate Spray
Nissorun, Calibre Hexythiazox Spray *
Apollo Clofentezin Spray *
Vertimec, Avid Abamectin Spray
Secure Chlorfenapyr Spray
Talstar, Kiros Biphentrin Spray
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Pyranica Tebufenpyrad Spray

Folimat Omethoate LVM
* Save for most of the natural predators.
Aphids:
Trade name Active ingredient How to use
Confidor, Admire Imadacloprid Spray
Orthene Acephate Spray
Pirimor Pirimicarb Spray

Powdery Mildew:

Sulphur pots / burners are often used in the roses to reduce the change on powdery Mildew, some natural
predators are sensitive to sulphur.
Trade name Active ingredient How to use
Nimrod Bupirimate Spray *
Fungazil, Fungaflor Imazalil Spray *
Baycor Bitertanol Spray
Prosper Spiroxamine Spray
Rubigan Fenarimol Spray
* You get the best result when you spray on a dark day with double amount of water.

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Exercise No.: 10 Date: ____________

PROTECTED CULTIVATION OF CARNATION

Carnations (Dianthus caryophyllus) are the most popular cutflowers in the global trade next to roses.
They are popular due to their attractive colour shades and keeping quality. Native of Mediterrarian region is
a recent introduction to India.

CLIMATE REQUIREMENT

Carnations likes‟ mild climate, cultivation at 30oN and S latitude of equator is ideal climate. For successful
cultivation on commercial scale growing under cover is must plants needs ample of diffused sunlight, temperature of 13 –
14oC is ideal, 50-60 per cent relative humidity, good ventilation and circulation of air is very important.

CULTIVARS

a. Standards – Kristena, Regina, Trendy, Gold Rush, Internet, Master, Iberia, Ariane,
Monterosa, Monaco, Cobra, Papaya, Monopole
b. Sprays – Elsy, Castells, Medly, Optima, Red Barbara, White Barbara, Stardust,
Furore, Kristel, Celins.

PROPAGATION

Terminal stem tip cuttings of 4-5 nodes (10-15cm long) from vigorously growing, perpetually flowering plant
roots, within 21 days. Stores cuttings at 0oC for 40-60 days known to root better.

MEDIA

Plants highly susceptible for water logged conditions and compactness. Therefore, need well drained, porous,
light sandy loamy soils rich in organic matter are ideal. Require pH of 6.50 – 7.00.

BED PREPARATIONS
20-25cm height, one meter width and convenient length beds are prepared and sterilized with methyl bromide or
formaldehyde.

NETTING

Nylon / GI nets of 10 x 10cm (1 No.), 12.5x12.5cm or 15x15cm (4-5 Nos.) square are placed on bed before
taking up planting. These nets are raised after planting at 15cm level intervals as and when the plants grows to provide
support for weak stems with the help of fixed frames on either ends of
the beds.

SPACING

Depends on type of pinching and cultivar different spacing is

adopted. For standards 20x15cm (33 plants/m2) and sprays
20x20cm (25 plants/m2) will be practiced.

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PLANTING

August-September planting is found ideal and reduce calyx splitting incidence.

Roots are fibrous and only shallow planting should be taken up and watered immediately
after planting.

IRRIGATION

Overhead irrigation, mist and fogging system is ideal for first 30-35 days of planting
for better establishment of plants. When flower buds are appearing surface irrigation through
drip is best. Excess watering is harmful.

NUTRITION

Small doses in frequent application are better than heavy dose in a single application. The nutrient requirement
depends on the media, type of cultivar, stage of growth etc.
a. General applications is in the ratio of 1.0:0.5:1.5 NPK
b. Quantity of nutrients required per m2 per year is 250g N, 80g P2O2, 200g K2O, 125g Ca and 400g Mg. Applied in
4 splits at fortnightly intervals.
c. Nutrient based on growth stages;
i) From planting until the end of pinching 15.5g N, 6.5g P, 14.5g K, 10.25g Ca and 2.25g Mg per m2 per
month applied at weekly intervals.
ii) From end of pinching until stalks of harvesting 18.75g N, 6g P, 22.5g K, 11g Ca and 2g Mg per m 2 per
month applied at weekly intervals.
iii) During flower harvesting 19.5g N, 6g P, 28.25K, 12.5g Ca and 2g Mg per m2 per month applied at weekly
intervals.
GROWTH REGULATIONS BY PINCHING:
Dispending on the cultivar and purpose different pinching methods are followed.
a. FIRST PINCH – When plants are 21-25 days old, terminal portion of the main shoot leaving basal 4-6
pairs of leaves. This method of pinching is called single pinch which intern
produces 4-6 laterals.
b. SECOND PINCH – It is done when plants are 45-50 days old or 21-25 days after first pinch. Here 2-3
laterals developed from single pinch (out of 4-6 Nos.) are again pinched leaving 2-4
pair of leaves is removed or pinched off. This type of pinch is called one and a half
pinch. These pinched laterals again produce 2-4 shoots each.
c. DOUBLE PINCH – Here all the laterals produced after single pinch are pinched off to produce large
number of shoots.

DISBUDDING

All the auxiliary and lateral buds are removed within 7 days of their appearance to ensure the terminal bud to
produce a better quality flowers in standard cultivars. Whereas in sprays the terminal bud of the main axis is removed to
encourage lateral shoots.

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HARVESTING AND YIELD

Plant start yielding 110-120 days after planting and continues for 1½ to 2
years. The stage of harvest of flowers depends on type of market. Flower yield of
150-300 cutflowers per m2 can be obtained.

PLANT PROTECTION

Pests –Red spider mite, aphids, thrips, moths, nematodes.

Diseases – Fusarium wilt and stem rot, Rhizactonia stem rot, Alternaria leaf spot, rust, bacterial wilt `
and blight phytopthora, virus diseases.
Disorder – Calyx splitting.

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Protected Cultivation of Carnation under Low Cost Poly House (560 m2 in Rs.)
Sl. Particulars Years
No. I II III IV V VI
I Non Recurring Contingency (NRC)
1 Construction of poly house 2,52,000 - - 50,000 - -
@ Rs. 450/m2 (for 560m2)
Top: UV stabilized plastic &
Side: 70% Agro shade net

2 Irrigation systems & others

a. Irrigation system including 80,000 - - 10,000 - -
foggers and
2 HP motor
b. Grading and packing shed 50,000 - - - - -
c. Irrigation equipments and 15,000 - - - - -
fertilizer storage
d. pH and EC meter 20,000 - - - - -
3. Supporting material for 50,000 - - - - -
carnation plants
Total of NRC 4,67,000 60,000
II Recurring Contingency
a. Planting materials 90,160 - - - - -
(12880pl/unit)@Rs.7/pl
b. Bed preparation 50,000 - - - - -
(FYM, VC, neemcake, sand,
red soil, excavation, labour
cost, fertilizer, etc.,)
c. Soil sterilization 1500 - - - - -
d. Management cost
d.1 Supervision, maintenance and 50,000 50,000 55,000 55,000 60,000 60,000
harvesting (2 labour/ unit for
365 days)

d.2 Fertilizer and Plant protection 50,000 50,000 50,000 50,000 50,000 50,000

d.3 Packaging and transportation 25,000 25,000 30,000 30,000 35,000 35,000

d.4 Polyhouse maintenance 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000

including electricity charges
Total of ORC 2,76,660 1,35,000 1,45,000 1,45,000 1,55,000 1,55,000
Grand Total (NRC+ORC) 7,43,660 1,35,000 1,45,000 2,05,000 1,55,000 1,55,000

Cost and Returns of Carnation Production under Protected Cultivation

Sl. Particulars Year
No. I II III IV V VI
1 Total cost 7,43,660 1,35,000 1,45,000 2,05,000 1,55,000 1,55,000
2 Flower yield/ poly 1,68,000 1,70,000 1,75,000 1,75,000 1,70,000 1,70,000
house/year
3 Gross return @Rs. 2.5 4,20,000 4,25,000 4,37,500 4,37,500 4,25,000 4,25,000
/flower
4 Net Returns -3,23,660 2,90,000 2,92,500 2,32,500 2,70,000 2,70,000

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Exercise No.: 11 Date: ____________

PROTECTED CULTIVATION OF ANTHURIUM

Anthurium is an evergreen, tropical herbaceous plant cultivated for its colourful spathe and
unusual attractive foliage. Originating in American tropics, the genus Anthurium has 600 species,
which are distributed worldwide. Among the number of species available, the most popular and
economically important species are Anthurium andreanum and A. scherzerianum, which posse‟s
attractive long-lasting inflorescence. Several other species like A. magnificium, A. digitatum, A.
crystallinum, A. watermaliense, A. clarinervium and A. hookeri are grown for their excellent foliage.
The Anthurium belongs to family Araceae and derives its name from Greek language
„Anthos‟ means „flower‟ and „Oura‟ means „tail‟ indicating the flower with a tail.

ANTHURIUM PRODUCTION – WORLD SCENARIO

Anthurium ranked eleventh in the global flower trade is next only to orchids among the tropical flowers. Until
1970, Hawaii was the world‟s leading producer and exporter of Anthurium flowers. In the last ten years, the Hawaiian
Anthurium industry has declined because of bacterial blight. This is one of the major problems the Anthurium growers
face worldwide.
Presently, the Netherlands is the world’s leading producer (69 ha under glass) and exporter (36.4 million
stems in 1995 earning as much as US $ 30 million (1995). The Dutch production is concentrated during May to October
because of bright light intensity during these months. The preferred colours in Dutch markets are orange and red
followed by white and pink. Germany is the single largest importer of Dutch Anthuriums followed by Italy and France.
The Anthuriums are propagated on a large scale by tissue culture and supplied to the growers worldwide.
Mauritius is the second largest producer (50 ha) and exporter (12 million Stems/annum) of Anthuriums.
During the last ten years, the Anthurium flowers from Hawaii are exported to the main land United States of America or to
Japan. Anthurium is also produced commercially in Indonesia, Japan, South Korea, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Singapore and
Taiwan.
In India, Anthurium cultivation, which was mainly a hobby, is transformed into a commercial business by
enterprising coffee and tea planters, who were initially responsible for bringing many exotic varieties into India. The
coastal belts of south India, Eastern and Western Ghats and North-East hilly regions are potential area for Anthurium
cultivation may be taken up on a large scale.

Bestowed with natural wealth, the coffee belt along the Coorg district in Karnataka as many as 100 Anthurium
growers, who have formed an Anthurium club to promote and safeguard the interest of Anthurium cultivation. The Coorg
Anthuriums are presently marketed in nearby cities like Bengaluru, Mangalore, Mysore, Goa, etc., from where they reach
other flower markets in Delhi, Mumbai and Kolkata. Anthurium cultivation on commercial scale is also concentrated
around Thirthahalli (Shimoga), Mudigere (Chikmagalur) apart from Coorge in Karnataka, Pune, Nashik, Mumbai in
Maharashtra, Trivendrum, Cochin in Kerala, etc. Sensing the potential of this crop, corporate houses are also enthused to
cultivate exotic varieties imported mostly from Hawaii or the Netherlands. De Orchids and Anthuriums (Bombay), Noel
Agri-tech (Mangalore), Eden Flora (Bangalore) are few such enterprises.

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PLANT MORPHOLOGY
 Anthurium andreanum a perennial with creeping, climbing or arborescent stems with lots of aerial roots.
 The stem is highly condensed and is not visible during early growing period. As plants grow the stems become
noticeable with distinct node and internodal regions.
 The roots are fleshy, thick and the root biomass is more when compared to the shoot biomass.
 The lamina portion of the leaf is attached to a long petiole from where, the mid rib and lateral veins originate in a
radiant fashion. The leaves are coppery green in early stages, which turn to dark green as they mature.
 The attractive colourful plant that is traded is actually a modification of the leaf, which is botanically called
‘spathe’.
 The heart shaped spathe appears on a long flower stalk and a number of veins that originate from the junction of
the spathe and the flower stalk. The veins are interconnected with secondary and tertiary veins.
 A cylindrical fleshy ‘spadix’ originates from the same junction and produces a number of bisexual flowers (150-
250 flowers) which are arranged in concentric whorls.
 The female part of the flower matures first (protogynous), which can be noticed by nectar like secretions in the
form of shining droplets on the flowers.
 The anthers dehisce at a later stage forcing the flowers to cross pollinate.
 When the stigmatic surfaces are wet and receptive, pollen from another flower/variety/species can be applied to
pollinate the flowers.
 After successful pollination, the spadix enlarges and turns dark green in colour; the spathe also loses its original
pigmentation and turns green by producing enough chlorophyll pigments.
 The product of fertilization i.e. the fruit – is a berry which pops out of the spadix on maturity. The seed is covered
by juicy, mucilaginous pulp, which needs to be removed, when the seeds are sown.

AVAILABLE GERMPLASM

The genus Anthurium can be categorized into two distinct groups – flowering and foliage types. Although some
Anthurium species flowers are inconspicuous and unattractive, they have unique velvety attractive foliage. Such
Anthurium is grown as foliage potted plants. The flowering group products remarkably attractive spathe and colourful
spadices, but the foliage may not be so attractive. The species that are classified as foliage types and flowering types
are;

FLOWRING TYPE
Anthurium andreanum, A. seherzerianum, A. omaturm, etc.

FOLIAGE TYPE
A. Clarinervium, A. corrugatum, A.crystallinum, A. digitatum
A. holtanianum, A. leuconerum A. magnificum, A. pentaphyllum
A. pedetoradiatum, A. olfersianum, A. hookeri, A. veitchii
A. warocqueanum, A. watermaliense etc.

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VARIETIES

The present day flowering Anthuriums are mostly hybrids of A. andreanum and A. scherzerianum. Some
of the hybrids/varieties evolved during early stages of varietals improvement are listed below.
Variety/Hybrids Spathe Colour Variety/ Hybrids Spathe Colour
Abe Bright pink Jamaica White
Aneunue Green and coral pink Marian Seefurth Rose pink
Avo-Anneke Pink Manova mist White
Avo-Jose White Ozaki Red
Avo-Claudia Red Sunburst Bright Orange
Avo-Chemelion White Sariana White and rose
Favoriet Orange Trinidad Off white
Hage-White White Horning orange Orange
Besides these coloured varieties there are many varieties that are bi-coloured. Such bicoloured varieties are
known as Obakes in trade.
Examples of obakes include;
 Madona (Cream obake)
 Farao (bright orange with green borders)
 Lambada (white-green obake) and Fla rose (Peach)

TYPES OF ANTHURIUM

There are three basic types of Anthurium flowers

1. Standard: They have the most common heart shape, the spathe lobes often overlap. Sizes range from
12x11cm to 20x18cm. Colour range includes red, orange, pink, Coral, white and green.

2. Obake: Popular for their two-tone coloration usually a bi-colour pattern of green and a major spathe colour.
Some varieties will lose their green color in summer resulting in solid coloured spathe. Sizes vary from 8x7cm in
miniatures and 28x23cm large varieties and

3. Tulip: They have up right cupped spathes, with a straight and erect spadix. The spathe size ranges from
10x6cm. Tulip types are mostly hybrids with more than one species as their parents.

Classification of Anthurium cut flower varieties

Based on the above categorization, the Anthurium cut flower varieties are classified as follows. Anthurium
varieties that are released by the breeders in the recent years are summarized in Table.
Spathe type Popular varieties Spathe colour Spadix colour
Standard Ozaki Light Red Light red-Purple
Kozohara Dark Red White Yellow tip
Nitta Orange White, Yellow tip
Midori Bright Green Yellow, Green tip
Marian Seefurth Pink White, Yellow tip
Obake Madam pele Dark red, green White Red
Anuenue Coral, Green White, Yellow tip
Kalapana Red, Green White, Yellow tip
Rainbow Green, White Red
Mickey Mouse Dark red, Green Red-Orange
Tulip Lavender lady Mauve Mauve
Calypso Magenta-Fuchsia Darkmagenta,
Lady Jane Light red Fuchsia
Light red

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VARIETAL DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA

Improvement in Anthurium was initiated at IIHR in 1989 and four hybrids with desirable characters were evolved.
The progeny developed at IIHR in a cross, involving A. andreanum (Pink) and A. ornatum (White) produced highly
fragrant flowers, which is rare is Anthurium. The fragrance is emitted during flower opening and resembles that of clove +
mint fragrance, which lasts nearly 10-25 days.
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Anthurium passes through two distinctive growth phases, a juvenile phase and a generative phase. The juvenile
phases where only vegetative growth is observed and characterized by the presence of vegetative buds in the axils of the
leaf. The juvenile phase is relatively long and the plants remain vegetative for 12-18 months. The plants enter the
generative phase characterized by the transformation of vegetative buds to floral buds in the leaf axils. The sequence of
a new leaf and emergence of flower is more or less maintained from then onwards.
GROWING ENVIRONMENT
Diurnal temperature, light and humidity play a major role in the growth and flowering of Anthuriums.
DIURNAL TEMPERATURE
For a luxuriant growth the cultivated Anthurium (A. andreanum and A. scherzerianum) required 18.3 degree
centigrade during night whereas a higher night temperature of 21.2 to 23.9 degree centigrade is essential for initiation of
flowering. Anthurium cannot tolerate freezing temperature. At the same time Anthuriums do not prefer temperatures
above 35 degree centigrade. If the temperature exceeds 35 degree centigrade coupled with low relative humidity leaf
scorching is common.
LIGHT
Anthurium is basically a shade loving plant. During summer where the light intensity is more, Anthurium plants
are provided with 75 - 80% shade allowing only 20-25% of light to reach the plants. The range of light intensity that suits
Anthurium cultivation is 20000 to 25000 lux. Higher light intensity coupled with low relative humidity and poor shading
often results in scorching of young leaves and immature flower buds. In places with moderate climate where the light
intensity is not so high, the plants can be provided with 65 to 75% shade.
SHADING
Anthuriums are tropical plants, requiring high temperature and relative humidity. Anthuriums have a moderate to
low light requirement and require 60 to 80% shade. To ensure the highest possible production during winter the shading
should be removed at the onset of winter. In commercial practice it is advisable to have 50% shade, net on the top and a
25% shade net below it, so that the light levels at the plant growth can be modified depending upon the ambient light
conditions. Anthurium can be shaded with saran or with UV stabilized agro shade nets for providing uniform shading.
The shade nets can be operated manually by closely watching the external light intensity.
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Anthurium thrives well in areas having high relative humidity levels, which are common in coastal areas of
Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, high rainfall areas of Western, Eastern Ghats and North Eastern hilly
regions. The optimum relative humidity levels range from 50 to 85% and at humidity levels less than 50%, the vegetative
growth is slower and the flower development is poor.

GROWING STRUCTURES
Depending upon the area of cultivation, the growing structures can be modified to suit the local climatic
conditions. Commercial scale Anthurium cultivation can be taken up in low cost polyhouses, shade houses or climate
controlled green houses.

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LOW COST POLY HOUSES

In areas where the relative humidity levels are low and the temperature levels are high, low cost poly houses are
more suitable for commercial cultivation of Anthuriums. By creating a protected climate by cladding UV stabilized
polythene, the relative humidity levels can be easily maintained and by providing top or side ventilation, the hot air can be
easily expelled. Inside the poly house, the top portion can be provided with layers of two shade nets (50% and 25%). If
the light intensity is very high a thin film of calcium chloride or lime can be sprayed on the external surface of the poly
house to reduce the incoming radiation.

SHADE HOUSES
In many of the commercial Anthurium growing areas, shade houses are the most popular structures because of
the simplicity of construction and low cost. The shade houses can be constructed by taking the support of existing tree
trunks if the Anthuriums are grown in multistoried plantation cropping. In open areas wooden, granite or pillars can be
erected at regular intervals connected by GI wires as a mesh on top. Shade net can be covered on the top to provide the
required shade 75%, (ie., 50 +25%, shade nets). Provision can be made for installing overhead sprinkler/misters/fogging
systems by running GI wires from one end to another end.

CLIMATE CONTROLLED GREEN HOUSES

The capital investment and the level of sophistication is more in climate controlled green houses than the
previous two structures. Climate controlled green houses can be adopted for growing Anthuriums in areas where
conditions of growing are not so congenial or to produce top quality blooms exclusively for export markets. Unless it is
warranted it is not advisable to go for such capital intensive structures.

PHYSIOLOGICAL PROBLEMS
1) Excess light
Symptoms –Leaves appear bleached in the centers and may have brown tips.
Control – Increase shade so as to reduce light level to 1800-2500 foot-candles.
2) Over fertilization
Symptoms – Lower leaves become yellow and develop brown tips that gradually enlarge.
Control – Reduce fertilization and leach soils thoroughly. Check roots for damage and possibility of secondary
infection by fungus or bacteria.

3) Lack of flowering
Symptoms –Mature plants produce many leaves but few flowers. No flowers on the lateral shoots.
Control – Increase light level to 1800-2500 foot-candles. Maintain higher light intensity as long as leaves do not
develop symptoms mentioned in 1) above.

GROWING MEDIA

Anthurium requires a highly organic, well aerated medium with good water retention. However, the secret of success
for commercial cultivation is to have good drainage in the medium used. An ideal medium for pots or ground potting
should have the following properties;

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 Good water holding capacity  Must provide good anchorage

 High porosity  Should have optimum pH (5.0)
and EC (0.6m mhos/cm2)
 Good aeration  good structure and texture
Low salt concentration (especially Na 2, Cl and Ca2+ ions)

Various natural derivatives, which satisfy the above conditions, were tried to grow Anthuriums commercially.
The range of media that were used so far includes;
 Sugarcane bagasse  Saw dust
 Coffee leaf mould  Tree bark
 Spent ground coffee  Chicken manure
 Coffee husk  Ground nut shells
 Cured coffee pulp  Peat
 Coffee parchment  Wood shavings
 Rock wool  Brick, gravel, rubble etc

In many Anthurium growing countries, coconut husk and coco-peat have become the most popular media for
Anthurium cultivation. India has a rich wealth of coconut plantations throughout southern India, the byproducts of which
can be exploited for Anthurium. The coconut waste generated from the industry and in the trade can be collected and
washed repeatedly to wash of the excess salts especially sodium chloride. The coconut waste is allowed to decompose
by using microbial (Pleurotus sp.) inoculation to the stock of coconut husk/coco-coir/coir dust.

A. CULTIVATION IN POTS

Anthurium especially the miniature type, A. scherzerianum and its hybrids have to be grown in pots to use them
as potted plants. When young the plants can be planted in smaller pots (4”) and as they grow they can be shifted to
bigger pots (6” -10” diameter pots). Depending on the plant size, the pots have to be arranged in such a way that the
foliage does not overlap with the leaves of adjacent pots.

B. CULTIVATION IN BEDS

When planting is done in soil, the plants have to be grown in 1.00 meter wide raised beds with gentle slope,
which facilitates good drainage. The beds have to be raised approximately 30cm in height which gets compressed due to
frequent irrigation and other cultural practices. The beds are prepared by digging about 2 feet deep and filling the pits
with the chosen growing medium. The dug out soil is thoroughly mixed with chosen growing medium and is used as top
layer to create the raised beds. The mixing of soil with the medium, which is otherwise loose and friable, prevents runoff
of the medium.

PLANTING

 Avoid planting during seasons with high temperature and high rainfall
 Make sure the bed/medium is evenly moist but not wet
 Provide an initial fertilizer dose having increased potassium and lower calcium levels.
 Dip the roots in a fungicide solution before planting (0.1% Bavistin).
 Plant them in rows in cross wise pattern.
 Plant at an optimum depth (15cm deep so that new aerial roots appear above the planting surface.

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Do not prune the leaves immediately after planting, allow the plants to establish and cut down to three to four
leaves.

PLANTING DENSITY

The optimum spacing for commercial cultivation of Anthurium is 45 x 45cm, which accommodates 5 plants/m2. A
closer planting of 30cm apart is also remanded to accommodate 7 to 10 plants/m2 and 61,750 plants/ha. At higher
plant densities though Anthuriums produce more, dense planting restricts air circulation and interferes with spray
penetration. Hence, disease and pest management becomes difficult.

IRRIGATION

Anthurium requires generous watering and should be irrigated at least twice a day in summer months. In field
grown plantations besides ground level irrigation, the plants can also be watered using overhead sprinklers. Irrigation can
be accomplished by flooding beds or by installing micro-sprinklers at the plant level.

NUTRITION

Anthuriums prefer smaller doses of fertilizers at frequent intervals rather than larger doses in longer intervals.
For pot cultivation it is advisable to apply 5g of any complex fertilizer in 500ml of water (1%) once in a month. Anthuriums
can also efficiently take up nutrients thorough foliage. Foliar application of 0.1% urea at monthly intervals is found to be
beneficial. Adequate levels of calcium and magnesium are also necessary for optimum yield. Deficiency of calcium often
results in color break in the spathes. Application of 5g of CaNo 3 at monthly intervals stabilizes the spathe color.

On an average Anthuriums require two liters of water/m. sq. per day when supplied through online drippers. One
gram of fertilizer per ovary one liter of water is found to be suitable for good growth of Anthurium after fertilizer application
thorough irrigation water, it is essential to irrigate with two liters of plain water/m 2 to prevent accumulation of excess salts
in the root zone, which can lead to scorching of roots and leaves. In high rainfall areas the nutrients get washed away in
the rain water, slow releasing fertilizers like osmocote, neem coated urea etc. are preferred in such areas.

In commercial plantations, fertilizers are applied to the plants through ground level sprinklers or through the Drip
irrigation system.

Depending on the nutrient status of the medium, the following combinations of nutrients are supplied through
irrigation water by many commercial growers.
Major Nutrients Nutrient Concentration (ppm)
Potash 14
Calcium 176
Magnesium 60
Nitrate 91
Sulphate 48
Phosphate 31
Minor Nutrients Iron 0.80
Manganese 0.16
Boron 0.22
Zinc 0.20
Copper 0.03
Molybdenum 0.05

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PROPAGATION

Anthurium can be very easily grown by seeds, but it is an extremely slow process. The berries (fruit of
Anthurium) pop out extremely slow process. The seed (some times two) is enveloped by juicy, mucilaginous pulp which
depending needs to be removed completely before sowing. Depending upon the type of medium used the seeds will
germinate in 10 to 40 days. The seedlings can be transferred to individual pots when they attain 3-4 leaf stage.

PROPAGATION THROUGH CUTTINGS

Anthurium can be vegetatively propagated through cuttings obtained from fully grown plants. Since, the
vegetative growth is slow; the plants require at least 3-4 years to elongate and to produce 5-6 nodes and internodes.
Cuttings can be made by cutting just below the node, so that each cutting has single eye or bud in it the buds sprout in
20-30 days time and readily root treating the cuttings with growth hormones especially, the auxins (IBA, NAA) hastens the
sprouting and rooting.

PROPAGATION BY SUCKERS

The highly condensed underground stem often produces shoots at the plant base. Such multiple shoots may be
with or without roots and they can be separated from mother plant and planted in individual pots, the ability to produce
suckers is variety dependent and suckering capacity can be improved by exogenous application of growth regulators like
BAP (75 ppm) at monthly interval Anthurium start producing suckers once they attain an age of 12-16 months.

Propagation by tissue culture

Anthuriums are highly amenable for in-vitro propagation using different parts as explants. Conventionally,
Anthuriums are propagated by seeds. The time required from pollination to the maturity of the seeds is about 6-7 months.
Seeds cannot be stored and this should be sown immediately. The flowering starts after two years. Seed propagated
cultivars are poor in uniformity. In fact, there may be a great variation in flower production, colour and shape. Vegetative
propagation by terminal cuttings and stem sections are very slow.

HARVESTING

Anthurium flowers are harvested when the spathe completely unfurls and the spadix is well developed.
Development of true flowers on the spadix is also used as a criterion for harvesting the blooms. When one third of the
flowers on the spadix mature, change of colour can be observed that moves from base to tip of spadix at that stage the
flowers are harvested. Harvesting has to be done during cooler parts of the day i.e. early morning or late evening.

PACKING

Dutch packing puts few Anthuriums in a box to make sure that the Anthurium spathes do not bruise. Within each
box flowers are of a uniform grade and generally of the same colour. Individual flowers are packed with water vials filled
with water with preservative solution. Flowers are packed so as not to touch each other or the ends of the box. White
foam rubber cushions are used to support the spadix. If flowers are layered, 4cm thick plastic sheeting is inserted
between the layers. White cellulose shredding is used around the ends, particularly in the winter, when foam peanuts or
other white foam pieces may be included in the box for insulation.

Anthurium packaging is into boxes of white surfaced corrugated cardboard, the lids which have been printed with
3-colour logos and lettering.

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European Carton Sizes

100x20x10cm, 100x40x12cm and 100x40x14.5cm

In Hawaii standard master cartons are 43x23x11 inches and contain smaller boxes inside, called trays.

STORAGE AND VASE LIFE

Anthurium can be easily stored at 13oC for 2-3 weeks. The flowers, which are harvested when ¾th of the length
of the spadix colour changes, last longer than the other flowers which are harvested either early or late. The average vase
life depends upon life of flowers ranges between 12-24 days depending upon the cultivars.

Yield and Returns (100 m2/year)

Flowers/ Flower Flower Selling Price Returns per

Year
plant/Yr yield/m2 yield/100m2 Rs. year
II 5 35 3500 10 35000
III 6 42 4200 10 42000
IV 8 56 5600 10 56000

Important Tips
 Anthurium is a shade loving plant. It requires 70-75% shade.
 Requires well drained, porous, organic matter rich soil/media
 Coconut husk/coco peat/coir pith is good medium as it is abundantly available in coastal India.
 Optimum pH (7.0), electrical conductivity (0.5 ms/cm) is crucial for production.

DISEASE:
Bacterial Diseases
1. Soft rot (Erwinia carotovora subsp. Carotovora), Xanthomonas blight (Xanthomonas campestris pv.
Dieffenbachiae),
2. Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides),
3. Leaf spot (Gloesporium, Cercospors,Colletotrichum and Phyllosticta)
4. Flower blight (Botrytis cinerea), and
5. Root rots (Phytophthora parasitica)
Nematode Management

Burrowing nematode decline (Radopholus similis)

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UNIT COST FOR CONSTRUCTION OF POLYHOUSE (100' X 15' X 10'):

Wild growth of bamboo plantation in the hills facilitate the construction of a relatively low cost bamboo
poly house. The design and cost estimation details of construction of a poly house covering an area of 1500
Sq.ft (140 Sq.m) is given below

Sl.No. Material Physical requirement Rate Cost (Rs.)

Area(sq.m)/length(m)/ per sq. m
number/ volume(m3) or
cubic m
1 Sirpaulin-roof, front and back 312 Sq.m 35 10,920
2 Agro-shade net for sides 130 Sq.m 25 3,250
3 Bamboo 120 posts 50 6,000
4 Rope 25 m 65 1,625
5 Land leveling 240 m3 21 5,040
6 Labour 40 man days 62 2,480
7 Cost of making beds (bricks, sand and cement) lump sum 1,000
8 Door with fittings 506
9 Foundation
A. Earth work for 40 posts 3.8 m3 62.00 236
B. Cement Concrete, 1:3:6 3.8 m3 1550.00 5890
10 Storage tank (1000 Lt Capacity) 2.2 Per ltr. 2,200
11 Siphon tube 70' 1 70
Total 39,217

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Exercise No.: 12 Date: ____________

PROTECTED CULTIVATION OF GERBERA

Gerbera (Gerbera jamesonii) is an important commercial flower

crop grown throughout the world in a wide range of climatic conditions. It is
ideal for beds, borders, pots ad rock gardens. The flowers come in a wide
range of colors and lend themselves beautifully to different floral
arrangements. The cut blooms when placed in water remain fresh for a
reasonable amount of time.

Gerbera belongs to the family “Compositae”. Plants are stem less

and tender perennial herbs, leave radical, petiole, lanceolate, deeply lobed,
sometimes leathery, narrower at the base and wider at toe and are arranged
in a rosette at the base. The foliage in some species has a light under
surface.

The daisy-like flowers grow in a wide range of colors including yellow, orange, cream-white,
pink, brick red, scarlet, maroon, terracotta and various other intermediate shades. The double cultivars
sometimes have bicolor flowers, which are very attractive. The flower stalks are long, thin and leafless.

Plant system:

Gerbera's are mainly planted on a bench system. The space required between the walking paths is 75-80 cm.
And the recommended distance between rows is 75-80 cm. The distance between the plants within the row should be 20
cm. The size of the distance between the plants is measured from heart to heart of the pot centre. A pot size of 3.5 / 4.5
litre and 18-20 cm deep is recommended.

Disinfection:

Take the following steps before planting;

 Clean the ground and bench system so there is no old plant materials left in the greenhouse.
 Disinfect the bench system, drippers and the pots with a disinfection material.

SOIL STRUCTURE

To be successful in Gerbera growing, soil selection is very important. The main factors to
consider are as under:

1. Soil pH should be between 5.5 – 6.5 or it should be maintained at this level to get maximum efficiency
in absorption of nutrients.

2. The salinity level of soil should not be more than 1 ms/cm. Therefore, as soon as you select the sire,
get the soil analyzed to decide its further reclamation.

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3. The soil should be highly porous and well drained to have better root growth and better penetration of
roots.

The roots of Gerbera go as deep as 50 – 70 cm.

DISINFECTION OF SOIL

Before plantation of Gerbera, disinfections of soil are absolutely necessary. In particular, the
fungus Phytophthora is a menace to Gerbera. The various methods of sterilization are:

1. Steam: No feasible for Indian conditions

2. Sun: Cover the soil with plastic for 6-8 weeks. Sunrays will heat up the soil, which will kill most fungi.
3. Chemical: Use formalin @ 7.5-10 lit/100sqm. This pure chemical should be diluted 10 times in water
and then sprayed/drenched on beds and then cover with plastic for 7 days. Then flush the soil
approximately with 100 lit of water per sqm to drain the traces. After sterilizing and subsequent
washing out of the soil it is advised to wait for 2 weeks before plantation for vapsa condition. Other
chemicals that can be used –
1. Methyl Bromide : (25 – 30g/sqm)
2. Basamid (Dazomet) : (30 – 40g/sqm)

BED PREPARATION

In general, Gerberas are grown on raised beds to assist in easier movement and better
drainage. The dimensions of the bed should be as follows:

Bed height : 1.5 ft (45cm)

Width of bed : 2 ft (60 cm)
Pathways between beds : 1 ft (30 cm)

The beds for planting should be –Highly porous, well drained and airy

Gravel/sand can be added at the bottom for better drainage. Organic manure is recommended to
improve soil texture and to provide nutrition gradually.

The soil should be loose all time. Organic manure and soil should be mixed thoroughly for optimum
results.

Area Chemical Quantity

100 sqft Single Super Phosphate 2.50 kg
100 sqft Magnesium Sulphate 0.50 kg

The composition of bed material should be such that it should be highly porous, well drained and
provide proper aeration to the root system. Gravel/sand can be added at the bottom for better drainage.
Organic manure should be added to improve the soil texture and also to provide nutritious elements gradually.
The soil should not be very compact after watering. The upper layer of soil and FYM should be properly mixed.
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While bed preparation, add Single Super Phosphate (0:16:0) @ 2.5 kg per 100 sqft for better root establishment
and Magnesium Sulphate @ 0.5 kg per 100 sqft to take care of deficiency of Mg.

PLANTING

While planting Gerbera plants, the crown of plants should be 1-2 cm above soil level. As the
root system establishes the plants are pulled down. Therefore, the crown must be above the ground
level at planting and also throughout the life cycle.

Plant the seedlings without disturbing the root-ball. Generally, two rows should be planted on
one bed at 37.5cm distance between the rows and 30cm distance between the plants in one row i.e.
Row – Row = 37.5cm = 1.25‟
Plant – Plant = 30.0cm = 1.00‟

Rake the soil surrounding the plant every fortnight for aeration.

After plantation, maintain the humidity at 80 – 90% for 4 -6 weeks to avoid desiccation of
plants. “AVOID EXCESSIVE WATERING TO GERBERA”

POT CULTURE:.

Planting should be done in uniformly moistened potting mix. Place the plant into the potting mix so the top of the
fertile pot is 2 cm higher than the potting mix. If planted too high, the plants might break at harvest. While planting too
deep increases the risk of disease (rotting of the heart). Prevent root damage by carefully pressing the potting mix against
the pot. Under conditions with high day time temperatures in the greenhouse (> 30°C), it is recommended to plant early in
the morning or in the evening when the temperature are less extreme. To allow a good contact between pot and soil, it is
recommended hand water very soon after planting.

IRRIGATION

1. Water quality should be as follows

a. pH – 6.5 – 7.0
b. EC – 0.5 – 1 ms/cm
To lower the pH of water, add acids in the water tank and then irrigate the plants.
2. Immediately after plantation, irrigate the plant with overhead irrigation for four weeks to enable uniform
root development. Thereafter gradually change to drip irrigation. Drip irrigation is mainly for correct
doses and fertilizer application.
3. Generally, one drip per plant is required. The aim is to provide sufficient irrigation in the 2 nd year for
extra foliage. The water requirement of Gerbera plant can be approximately 700 ml per plant per day.
In hot summer foggers can be utilized to maintain the humidity of the air.
4. Before irrigation observe the soil column and visually check the soil moisture content. Then decide on
the quantity of irrigation required. It varies with seasons; however the frequency is the same.
5. Always water the plants before 12 noon.

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6. Until the first flowers are produced, watering can be done as overhead irrigation. Thereafter irrigation is
through drippers.
7. The R.H. of air should not exceed 90 – 92%, as it will lead to deformity of flowers.
8. As a thumb rule, the soil should be moderately moist-however never having excessive water.

A drip irrigation system is recommended; as each plant receives the same amount of water, and by supplying the
water directly on the potting mix, the plant itself does not become wet (so preventing diseases). The pipes of the system
are placed on the ground between the two rows, to prevent the dripper line becoming empty, and the water temperature in
the dripper line is out the reach of direct sunlight.

WATERING, HOW AND WHEN?

Start with irrigation about one or two days before planting, to make the potting mix already wet. This will help the
gerbera plant to make a better start. Start one hour after sunrise when the plants are just planted in the pots/ beds. In the
first 1-2 months you must be careful that the potting mix/ media does not get too wet, in this period you could stop 5-6
hours before sunset. When the plants are full grown you could stop 3-4 hours before sunset,

Use the drip irrigation 2-10 times a day. This depends on the size of the plant and the time of the year. There
could be a difference, between a cloudy and sunny day of 40-50% in the usage of water with the gerbera plants.
The drain must be between the 30-40% of the total water gift, please note that there could be a difference
between the structures of the soil, these means that every type of soil requires a different amount of water.
Per dripper a minimum of 60cc and maximum of 100cc should be give per irrigation. When the plants are older a
minimum of 80cc per irrigation should be given depending on the season.
Check regularly if the moisture of the column just below the drip is the same as at the base of the column. If the top soil is
wetter than the soil at the base, increase the water quantity per supply. On the other hand, if the situation is reverse (top
soil drier than base), reduce the water gift.

Drippers

A capacity of 2 litres per hour is preferred as the chance of congestion is smaller.

By using a drip system, a wet (water) column is created through which the roots grow.
Place the drippers by planting in the Fertile pot, after 2-3 weeks when the roots are growing out of the Fertil pot in to the
potting soil replace them approximately 5 cm from the Fertil pot.

FERTILIZATION

1. After plantation apply N:P:K 1:1:1 (e.g. 20:@):@)) EC – 1.5 ms/cm or apply N:P:K 20:20:20 @ 0.4
g/plant every alternate day for first three months during the vegetative phase to have better foliage.
2. Once flowering commences, apply N:P:K 2:1:4 (e.g. N:P:K 15:8:35) EC – 1.5 ms/cm or apply N:P:K
15:8:35 @ 0.4 g/plant every alternate day for more flowers and better flower quality.
3. Irrigate and fertilize frequently in small quantities for optimum results. However, always take care to
fulfill the crop requirement.
4. Micronutrients should be given weekly or fortnightly as per the deficiency symptoms (preferably
chelated source).
5. Always do the soil analysis every 2-3 months to decide specific nutrient schedule.
6. As a layman, whenever you enter the greenhouse the plants should look very healthy and glossy.
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“NEVER LEAVE THE PLANTS IN STRESS CONDITION”

Fertilization through fertigation.

A feeding unit with an A + B tank is preferred to give the exact quantity of nutrients to the plants. The EC and the
pH are measured and directly corrected. The set points of the pH and EC put in the computer are given to the plants.

Fertilizer program:

Tank: A = 1000 Litre

Calcium Nitrate CaNo3 26%CaO + 15.5 N 75 Kg

Ammonium Nitrate NH4NO3 9%NO3 + 9% NH4 0-3 * Kg
Iron Chelate Fe Edta 13% 2 Kg
or Eddha ** 6 % 4 Kg
Tank: B = 1000 litre
Mono Potassium Phosphate H2PO4 52% p2O5 + 34% K2O 17 Kg
Potassium Nitrate KNO3 13% N + 46% K2O 35 Kg
Potassium Sulphate K2SO4 52% K2O + 16% MgO 2.5 Kg
Epson Salt MgSO4 49%MgSO4 = 16% Mg0 25 Kg
(Magnan Sulphate)
Nitric Acid HNO3 38% 0-10 *** Litre

Trace elements:
Manganese Sulphate Mn 32% Mn 70 Gram
Borax B 11% B 250 Gram
Zinc Sulphate Zn 23% Zn 125 Gram
Copper Sulphate Cu 25% Cu 25 Gram
Sodium Molybdate Mo 40% Mo 25 Gram

* This depends of the PH of your drain water, if drain water PH below 5.5 no
Ammonium Nitrate in the solution.

** When the PH from the drain water is above the 6.5, you have to use EDDHA
iron.
*** This depends on the PH of the type of water you use e.g., rain, dam, bore water.
Optimum EC & PH;

Water gift to the plants E.C. 1.6 - 1.8 PH 5.5 – 5.7

Drain water if collect E.C 1.8 – 2.0 PH 5.2 – 5.8

NUTRIENT DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS.

If mineral elements are not present in the medium in quantities sufficient for plant growth, plants exhibit nutrient
deficiency symptoms. Anything that interferes with the active absorption of nutrient ions by the root system, likes
unfavorable pH levels, or media temperatures significantly above or below optimum (15-25 degrees) may also result in
similar symptoms. Root injury caused by root rots, water logging and inadequate aeration. Some of the visible deficiency
symptoms of the different essential mineral elements are described below.

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1. Nitrogen; Nitrogen deficiencies are rarely seen in commercial gerbera production. However, they can occur
when growing media with low cat ion exchange capacities are used and over watering occurs. Nitrogen
deficiency shows as a general overall yellowing or chlorosis, starting on the oldest leaves and then moving
gradually upward. The progression of the chlorosis is from yellow-green to yellow to a creamy white. Because
nitrogen is translocated out of the older leaves to the new growth under deficiency conditions, the youngest
leaves rarely show any significant yellowing.

2. Potassium; Potassium deficiency first begins as a rusty brown, marginal necrosis of the older leaves. The
centres of the leaf blades usually remain green, although some necrotic spots might occur. Severely affected leaf
margins usually curl upward.

3. Phosphorus; Symptoms begin as a gradual brownish discoloration on the underside of older leaves, especially
along the veins. Phosphorus deficiency symptoms usually occur during winter when soil temperatures are cold,
and disappear when warmer weather returns.

4. Calcium; Calcium deficiency appears initially as death of the apical meristems (growing points), and sometimes
as an extreme yellowing of the young developing leaves. The young leaves remain small and yellow, with colour
turning gradually to a whitish yellow or creamy white. Edges of leaves eventually die and turn brown.

5. Magnesium; Magnesium deficiency is common on gerberas, due to insufficient amounts of magnesium in the
growing medium and the lack of magnesium in most fertilization programs. The symptoms appear on the older
leaves as an interveinal chlorosis, with a persistent, inverted, V -shaped green area remaining at the leaf bases.
A V-shaped green area also persists at the leaf terminal. Once symptoms develop, they cannot be reversed.

6. Iron; Iron deficiency symptoms occur as an interveinal chlorosis, primarily on the younger leaves. The veins and
veinlets remain as thin green lines. Leaves become progressively smaller, and the chlorotic areas ultimately
progress from yellow to creamy white. In the last stage, even the veins and veinlets become chlorotic.

7. Zinc; Zinc deficient younger leaves are splotchy and chlorotic in colour, but the definitive symptom is that one
half of the leaf blade ceases to expand and develop, while the other half is normal in size and shape. This
uneven development causes the leaf to bend into a "C" shape.

8. Molybdenum; This deficiency is most prevalent in strongly acid («pH 5) growing media, and is displayed as
"strapped" leaves, i.e. the leaves become exceedingly narrow, and the veins run parallel and overgrow at the
margins to give ser- rated leaf edges.

9. Manganese; Manganese deficiency symptoms appear first on young leaves and are similar to those caused by
iron deficiency, except that the persistent bands of green along veins and veinlets are broader, extending slightly
out into the tissue to the leaf blade. The interveinal chlorosis is not as severe as with iron deficiency

Please note; When you use the above fertilizer mix, and the drip and drain EC & p H are between the indicate optimum
(see 7.2), the chance to get some nutrient deficiency is minimal. So it‟s very important to check the EC & p H a few times a
week, and make adjustments when this is different than the indicate optimum.

Greenhouse climate.

As the conditions outside have a major influence on the climate inside the glasshouse, we can only give some general
advice and remarks:

 In the initial period after planting, when light is a minor growing factor, shading of the glasshouse is
recommended;
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 Prevent direct wind. Gerbera's are not partial to windy circumstances. In the initial period after planting, keep
the humidity as high as possible;
 As the plants are developing, the light intensity and ventilation of the glasshouse may increase. The plants
themselves will have a major influence on the glasshouse climate by now (microclimate);
 Moistening of the plants is not advisable, so leaf wetness should be avoided;
 Prevent condensation on the flowers; it increases the problems with Botrytis on the petals (flowers). When this
occurs, fungicides are of less use. Avoid a rapid temperature rise, this causes condensation. If a heating
system is available, raise the glasshouse temperature several degrees about four hours before sunrise. Start
ventilation as soon as the sun starts influencing the glasshouse temperature;
 To prevent Botrytis, a heating system could be used. The crop is kept dry by heating water at ± 45 °C through
a heating pipe between the rows.

Crop maintenance.

Growing Gerbera's is rather straight forward, however picking leaves is often debated. Leaves, besides allowing
photosynthesis, also reduce temperature and increase humidity, and therefore are an essential part of the plant.
However, if the plants do become too bushy, it is recommended to remove only a few leaves at regular intervals do not
take away too many leaves at once!
You can pull the leaves from the plant (natural breaking point), or cut them off leaving half of the leaf still standing.
After de-leaving it is advised to spray for Botrytis, this will kill the spores of the botrytis.
N.B. While pulling the leaves, be careful not to break the plant or damage young buds.

CROPPING PATTERN AND HARVESTING OF FLOWERS

 Gerbera is a 24-30 months crop. Depending on the conditions, the first flowers are produced 7-8 weeks
after plantation. The average yield is 240 flowers per sqm (6 plants/sqm).
 The flowers are harvested when 2 – 3 whorls of stamens have entirely been developed; this will decide
the vase life of flowers.
a. Pluck the flowers in the morning or late in the evening or during the day when temperature is
low.
b. Pluck the flower from the plant rather than cutting them.
c. Cut the heel of the stem by giving an angular cut.
d. Immediately put the flowers in water after harvesting for four hours at 14 – 15oC.
e. Always add 7 – 10 ml commercial bleach/Sodium Hypochlorite solutions in one liter water i.e.
1% solution.
f. Pack the flowers in a box with following dimensions.
g. Harvest 2 to 3 times a week, however to get a uniform product some cultivars are
recommended to be harvested at least 3 times a week by warm weather.

A good flower is:

1. Stalk length = 45 – 55cm
2. Diameter of flower= 10 – 12cm
A Gerbera cut flower has a minimum vase life of 8 – 10 days.

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Yield potential in different countries:

Country Type per m2 per year Type per m2 per year

Holland Standards 230 -250 stems Miniatures 450 -550 stems
Australia Standards 180- 250 stems Miniatures 400 - 550 stems
New Zealand Standards 180 -250 stems Miniatures 400 -500 stems

*** This figures are based on a 2 year crop production include the change of new plants.

Post Harvest Operations of Flowers

1. Pick the flower from the plant when one or two rows of stamen are visible. This is important because raw flowers
need much more energy to develop completely but they have only a few reserves. Due to this the durability of
raw flowers is shorter.

2. Pick the flower of the plant instead of cutting it off. When the stem is cut, a part of it will remain on the plant and
starts rotting. This part can infect the heart of the plant, which will result in stagnation in the development of new
shoots. Therefore it is very important that the entire stem must be picked off the plant.

3. After the flower has been picked, 2 to 4 cm need to be cut off the lowest part off the stem. The lowest part of the
stem consists of very narrow xylem vessels, through which the water can hardly be transported into the stem. By
cutting off this hard part of the stem the flower can take up the water much better, which is important to avoid
breach of the stem and bending necks.

4. Put the stems in clean buckets with clean water immediately after harvesting and place them in a cool area.
Before every use these buckets need to be disinfected to avoid the growth of bacteria in it. Bacteria block the
stem so that it cannot take up any water. Using clean water is very important, the pH of the water may not be too
high, otherwise you create an ideal climate for bacteria. A pH level between 3.5 and 4 is good. Chloride is a good
product to be added to the water, because this kills bacteria and makes the pH of the water reduce. Don‟t place
the buckets in direct sunlight, because it will break down the Chloride.

5. The flowers take up water more easily if a large part of the stem is placed in water, 10 to 15 cm is ideal. The
temperature may not be too high, because otherwise the flowers would lose too much water through
evaporation. A temperature between 10° and 15° Celsius is ideal.

6. The area in which the gerberas are being watered for a long period should be free from ethylene. Ethylene is an
ageing hormone that affects the durability of the gerbera. Ethylene is liberated for example from the exhaust-
gases of engines. To avoid ethylene ageing of the gerbera flower, it is recommendable to turn off the engine of
the truck during loading, as a precaution.

7. The loss of water in a gerbera flower causes ageing, so this should be avoided as much as possible. Avoiding
draught or wind, as well as increasing the relative humidity around the gerberas up to 70% can decrease the
evaporation of water by the flower.

8. During the long period of watering the flowers, special flower nutrition can be added to the water. This gerbera
flower nutrition consists of sugars and ingredients to bring the pH down as well as to reduce the growth of
bacteria. Sugars have a favourable effect on the durability of gerbera flowers, but if only sugars would be added,
this would seriously stimulate the growth of bacteria, so this is not recommendable. A high concentration of
sugars in the petals makes it easier for the flower to take up water, which results in a better blooming and
durability. We recommend the use of an anti bacterial product (Florisant 500, or Chrysal RVB) to reduce the
growth of Bacteria in the flower stems.
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9. During storage and transport the process of ageing can be slowed down by keeping them in a cool climate. By
slowing down this process of live, the reserves in the flower won‟t be used and so they are saved for usage
during blooming at the consumer‟s. The ideal temperature during storage in the cool room and transport is
between 6° and 9° Celsius

PESTS AND DISEASES :

White fly, Broad Mite, Thrips, Red Spider, Aphids; Powdery Mildew, White rust,

Symptoms of pests;

Note; The life cycle of the insects depend on the temperature, when it‟s hot (+ 30 degrees) you have to spray with a
shorter interval to keep the insects under control. Instead of ones a week you have to spray twice a week, best treatment
strategy is spray ones a week and do one LVM (low volume misting) treatment a week.

A. Aphids: When populations overcrowd leaves or stems, winged forms are produced, which migrate to greener
pastures to begin new infestations. Aphids excrete sticky honeydew that accumulates on the foliage of the plant.
This honeydew supports the growth of black sooty-mould fungi, which often renders the affected plant unsightly
and unsaleable.
Thrips; Thrips are small, slender, usually dark-coloured pests, about 1-3 mm long at maturity, with fine, feathery
wings. They feed on foliage, stems, and flowers. Affected foliage may appear to be ragged, scarred, and deformed.
Stippling or silvering maybe present on the leaves, along with an unsightly residue of tiny black drops of excrement
left by the pests. Thrips have rasping mouth parts that abrade the surface of flower petals or leaves that release plant
sap, which is then sucked up. This rasping injures the plant tissue, leaving brownish streaks on light coloured flower
petals, or whitish or silvery streaks on foliage or dark coloured flower petals. Like aphids thrips can also carry certain
plant viral diseases.

B. White Fly: Whitefly‟s are tiny (about 1-2 mm long) and resemble tiny white moths. Large numbers cause
reduced plant vigor, chlorosis, and yellowing of the foliage. Like aphids, they also excrete large quantities of
honeydew, which leads to the development of sooty mould on the foliage. Be sure that you use chemicals for the
fly, and the eggs.

C. Spider Mites; The spider mites or two spotted mite is the most common found on gerberas. The mite is tiny
(about 0.5-1.5 mm long) and you need a binocular to see the mites.
Mites feed by inserting their stylets into the plant cells, primarily on the underside of the leaves, and sucking out
the cell contents. Small greyish or yellowish stippled spots appear shortly thereafter on the upper leaf surfaces.
Be sure that you use chemicals for the spider, and the eggs.

D. Broad Mites and Cyclamen Mites; These are essentially microscopic in size, and are usually transparent or
translucent in colour. A binocular microscope is needed to view them. They inhabit meristematic areas such as
the vegetative growing point or young, developing flower buds. Leaves and / or petals are normally badly
distorted and deformed. Leaves may become rigid, much thicker than normal, and may be rolled and or cupped
at the edges, resulting is severely damaged plants.

Prevention: We advice to spray / LVM during the warmer period every week with chemicals which are killing a
wide range of insects. If a problem occurs with a type of insect; spray a separate time with a chemical which is
special made to kill that type of insect.

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Concentration per
Pests Suggested control
litre
Whitefly Astra, Lanate (Methomyl) 0.4 g
Rogor (Dimethoate) 2 ml
Endosulphon 2 ml
Neemazol 2 ml
Malathion 2 ml
Confidor (Imidacloprid) 0.5 ml
Pride (Acetamiprid) 0.4 g
Leaf Miner Chlorpyriphos 1 ml
Nuvan (Dichlorovos) 1 ml
Vertimec (Abamectin) 0.4 ml
Acephate (Acephate) 1.5 g
Metacid (Methyl Parathion) 1 ml
Thrips Regent (Fipronil) 1.5 ml
Confidor (Imidacloprid) 0.5 ml
Nuvan (Dichlorvos) 1.5 ml
Nuvacvon (Monocrotophos) 2 ml
Rogor (Dimethoate) 2 ml
Pride (Acetamiprid) 0.4 g
Vertimec Abamectin) 0.4 ml
Red mites Pure Water Spray
Wettable Sulphur 1.5 g
Karathane (Dinocap) 0.4 ml
Kelthane (Dicofol) 1.5 ml
Vertimec (Abamectin) 0.4 ml
Magister (Fenazaquin) 1 ml
Cyclamen Mites Wettable Sulphur 1.5 g
Karathane (Dinocap) 0.4 ml
Vertimec (Abamectin) 0.4 ml
Catterpiller Lanate (Methomyl) 1.5 g
Thimet (Phorate) (S) 2g/plant
Decis (Deltamethrin) 0.5 ml

DISEASE CONTROL IN GERBERA

Concentration per
Pests Suggested control
litre
Root rot Aliette (Fosetyl Alluminium) (D) 2g
Topsin-M (Thiophanate-Methyl) (D) 2g
Benlate (Benomyl) (D) 3g
Bavistin (Carbendazim) (D) 2g
Captaf (Captan) 2g
Crown rot Aliette (Fosetyl Alluminium) (D) 1.5 g
Topsin-M (Thiophanate-Methyl) (D) 2g
Trichoderma (D) 3–5g
Fusarium Topsin-M (Thiophanate-Methyl) (D) 2g
Trichoderma herzenium (D) 3–5g
Alternaria Leaf Spot Dithane M-45 (Mancozeb) 1.5 g
Powdary Mildew Wettable Sulphur .5 g
Karathane (Dinocap) 0.4 ml
Topsin-M (Thiphanate-Methyl) (D) 2g
Quintol (Iprodion+Carbendazim) (D) 0.5 g
Nematodes Neemcake 30 – 50g/plant
Suzon (Diazinon) (D) 1.5 ml
Carbofuran (Furadan) 10g/sqm

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NOTE : (D) : Drench @ 30 – 40ml/plant

(S) : Soil application around plant

NEVER APPLY FOLLOWING CHEMICALS ON GERBERA

Sl.No. Trade Name Consistent
1 Hostathion Triazophos
2 Tilt Propiconazole
3 Topaz Penconazable
4 Contaf Hexconazole
5 Spark Cypermethrin +Triazophos
6 Polytrin Profenophos
Metalaxyl 8% +
7 Ridomil
Mancozeb 64%

 Flower bent – Loss of cell turgidity and under nutrition (lack of Calcium)
 Pre-harvest stem break – High root pressure and high humidity in the air.
 Premature wilting of Gerbera flower – Cloudy weather followed by bright sun or carbohydrate
depletion.
 Double-faced Gerbera flower – A physiological disorder caused by imbalance of nutrients.
Too much growth too little flower buds.
 Non-uniform flower blooming – Physical injury to flower stem/pest damage/phytotoxicity.
 Short stem length – High salinity level, moisture stress, low soil temp.

DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS
1. Nitrogen: General yellowing starts on older leaves and them moves gradually upward because nitrogen
is translocated out of older leaves to the new growth under deficiency.
2. Phosphorus: Brownish discoloration along the vein on underside of old leaves.
3. Potassium: Marginal necrosis of old leaves.
4. Calcium: Extreme yellowing of young leaves
5. Magnesium: Interveinal chlorosis on older leaves, leaves get thick and crispy.
6. Iron: Interveinal chlorosis on young leaves. Serious deficiency results in a yellowish-white coloring.
7. Zinc: Chlorosis, one half of leaf blade ceases to expand and develop while other halt is normal i.e., C
shaped leaf structure.
8. Manganese: Leaves turn yellowish, starting with younger ones; veins remain green, heavy chlorosis
9. Copper: Chlorosis in younger leaves; flower develops bad.
10. Molybdenum: Chlorosis on the edges of leaves.
11. Boron: Bases of younger leaves are black colored.
Control measure
Chelated sources (like Microsole, Tracel, Micnelf) of these microelements as a foliar spray.
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Table: Protected cultivation of gerbera under low cost poly house (560 m2)
Sl. Particulars Year
No. I II III IV V VI
I Non Recurring Contingency (NRC)
1 Construction of poly house 2,52,000 - - 50,000 - -
@ Rs. 450/m2 (for 560m2)
Top: UV stabilized plastic
Side: 70% Agro shade net
2 Irrigation systems & others
a. Irrigation system including 80,000 - - 10000 - -
foggers and
2 HP motor
b. Grading and packing area 50,000 - - - - -

c. Irrigation equipments and 15,000 - - - - -

fertilizer storage
d. pH and EC meter 20,000 - - - - -
Total of NRC 4,17,000 60,000
II Recurring Contingency
a. Planting materials (3200pl/unit) 83,200 - - 85,000 - -
@ Rs. 26/pl
b. Bed preparation 50,000 - - 25,000 - -
(FYM, VC, neem cake, sand, red
soil, excavation, labour cost,
fertilizer, etc.,)

c. Soil sterilization 1500 - - 2000 - -

d. Management cost
d.1 Supervision, maintenance and 50,000 50,000 55,000 55,000 60,000 60,000
harvesting
(2 labour/ unit for 365 days)
d.2 Fertilizer and Plant protection 50,000 50,000 50,000 50,000 50,000 50,000

d.3 Packaging and transportation 25,000 25,000 30,000 30,000 35,000 35,000

d.4 Polyhouse maintenance including 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000
electricity charges
Total of ORC 2,69,700 1,35,000 1,45,000 2,57,000 1,55,000 1,55,000
Grand Total (NRC+ORC) 6,86,700 1,35,000 1,45,000 2,57,000 1,55,000 1,55,000

Cost and Returns of Gerbera Production under Protected Cultivation

Sl. Particulars Year

No. I II III IV V VI
1 Total cost 6,86,700 1,35,000 1,45,000 2,57,000 1,55,000 1,55,000
2 Flower yield/ poly house/year 1,20,000 1,30,000 1,35,000 1,20,000 1,30,000 1,35,000

3 Gross return @ Rs. 2.5/flower 3,00,000 3,25,000 3,37,500 3,00,000 3,25,000 3,37,500

4 Net Returns -3,66,700 1,90,000 1,92,500 43,000 1,70,000 1,82,500

NOTE: As the life span of the structure (excluding material) is for about 10-15 years, the returns from 2 year onwards will be
nd

substantially high.

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Exercise No.: 13 Date: ____________

PROTECTED CULTIVATION OF ORCHIDS

 Orchidaceae is a large family of monocotyledons comprising about 800 genera

and 25,000 species around the world.
 Orchids are accepted to be the world‟s most exotic and fascinating flowers, with
their extraordinary variety of sizes, shapes, colours and markings.
 These features make them highly priced among the ornamentals. The family is
also well known for the high levels of specialization in floral structures and pollination.
 Majority of the cultivated orchids are natives of tropical counties. In India, they
are mainly found in North eastern hills, Kerala and Western Ghats and few in Kashmir.
 They grow in the humid tropical forests. Orchid growing has become a great hobby all over the world in addition
to its commercial value for cut flower industry.
 The secret of successful cultivation of orchids is to provide them with conditions as identical as possible with the
environment under which they were growing in the wild.
 Due to their peculiar nutritional habits, Orchids require special techniques of cultivation, it they are to grow
healthy and put out a good crop of flowers.

HABIT AND HABITATS

 There are many orchids which are very beautiful belonging to different climatic zones and these cannot grow
under the same climatic conditions.
 India with a vast geographic expanse and climatic zones ranging from tropical to temperature supports a rich
diversity of flora.
 A vast majority of Indian orchids are confined to mountains where they are distributed from the base of hill to an
elevation of 4,300m in climates ranging from tropical to temperate.

CLIMATIC ZONES
Orchids are broadly classified depending on the climatic zones which they choose to grow, accordingly, three
different types of orchids with different climatic zones have been recognized.

I. TROPICAL ZONE (300-900M):

This zone is characterized by dense, humid tropical forests with high amount of rainfall and humidity
(90-100%). The temperature ranges from 22 to 27oC.
This warm and humid belt is the home of epiphytic orchids, like Aerides, Arundina, Ascocentrum,
Dendrobium, Vanda teres etc. (Kerala, Chennai and other Coastal places).

II. SUB TROPICAL ZONE (1800-3500m)

 This zone has mixed forests and receives less rain.
 Moss covered tree branches and rocks form a congenial habitat for orchids.
 The temperature ranges from 25-30oC and humidity almost 100% during monsoon.
 The most beautiful orchids occur in this zone. The epiphytic species of Bulbophyllum, Coelogyne,
Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Eria and Liparis are found growing here. The terrestrial spps. Like Calanthe,
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Hebenaria, Phaius spps. Some rare orchids like C. gigantium, P. fairieanum have also been reported
from this zone (Western Ghats, South Karnataka).

III. TEMPERATE ZONE (1800-3500M)

o The temperate zone remains covered with snow for 3-5 months a year.
o The temperature during summer varies from 10-14oC with Relative humidity between 80-100%.
o The trees of Rhododendron magnolia and Pinus are moss covered providing habitats for many
epiphytic orchids like Aerides maculosum, Arachnis clarkei, Bulbophyllum spps. Paphiopedilum spps.,
Vanda Coreulea and over and above the excellent Cymbidium spps. and hybrids.

IV. ALPINE ZONE (3500-5000M)

o This zone, situated in the Himalayan range, is snow covered for about 4-6 months and mostly some
terrestrial orchids are found to grow at lower ridges. Some of the orchids recorded form this zone are
Bulbophyllum retusiusculu, Habenaria cumminsiana, Herminium longilobautm, Nervilla macroglossa,
Pleione maculate, etc.

SELECTION OF ORCHIDS

Orchids should be selected carefully keeping in view their growing conditions. The Know-how to select orchids
is a bit question and there is no such thing as difficult as growing an orchids but it is simply a matter of learning how plants
grown in nature and duplicating it as closely as possible. Certain essential requirements must be met.
 Suitable temperature
 An adequate supply of water
 Plenty of fresh moving air
 Suitable light
 A suitable and adequate supply of essential mineral salts.

When we buy orchid hybrids, we should ask for the ones which will suit our climatic conditions. Another point to be
taken into account is to buy orchids according to the type of space you have.
It is all about choosing the right type of plant for the particular conditions and facilities available.
 The only available space you have at house are window, still then you can go for shade loving orchids like
Vanda
 For drawing rooms, orchids with foliage should be selected. Paphiopedilum, Phaius, Calanthe.
 For Varandhas, partial shade loving orchids such as Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Rhyncostylis, Aerides which can
be humg in wooden baskets can be selected.
 If there is a large space outside, sun loving orchids like Arudiana graminifolia and some Dendrobium, Vanda,
Aranda, Arachins, Oncidium plants can be grown.

The choice of orchids should be made in such a way that you get flowers round the year.

WHERE TO GROW

 Orchids should be grown in suitable containers according to their habitat.

 If you grow plants indoors and some require additional heat, this can be most conveniently supplied by heat
boards or propagating beds.

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 Provided the root area is kept warm, heating the whole growing area is not required; quite often there is enough
radiant heat for the remainder of the plant. Inside most houses, the humidity is lower than most orchids
appreciate.
 This can be increased by growing the plants on a tray of gravel with water kept to a level just below the surface
of the gravel.
 Plants in pots standing on the gravel will benefit from the rising humidity.
 In warmer regions, if you grow plants outside, an area below the outer branches of a tree will often be
satisfactory.
 Place the pots on a small bench or bricks to allow free circulation of air, yet prevent insects entering the pots.
 Most of the terrestrial orchids can be grown in soil or pots but most of the erect and epiphytic ones can be hung
in baskets down the roof.
 They can also be arranged on the wooden logs or green fern and tied to the tree trunks if you have them in your
compound.
 Trees in the garden form a natural Orchidarum.

FACTORS AFFECTING ORCHID GROWTH

LIGHT

o Sunlight has several „Photomorphogenetic influences‟ upon plants such as inducing photosynthesis,
phototropism and photoperiodism.
o Light is essential for plants in many ways.
o It helps the mature plant to flower.
o Bud initiation in plants is the result of the action of a hormone, the phytochrome, which requires for its
production, the correct duration of light and dark periods.
o It provides the energy necessary for the manufacture of carbohydrates.
 Light, like many other cultural factors, will vary from orchid genus to genus under cultivation.
o The optimum which orchids generally require is between 3000-6000 foot candles.
o Cypripedium and Phalenopsis need only between 200-300 foot candles and hence are to be kept in
comparatively more shaded regions of the orchid house.
o Cymbidium will grow under full sun. Therefore, it becomes necessary to shade some orchid green houses to
ensure that the proper amount of light will be available for good plant growth.
o An intimate knowledge of the light requirements of orchids has led to the development of the fascinating
procedure called „light gardening‟ which now quite popular among orchid growers.
o There are particular regions in the spectrum of sunlight which aids particular processes in the physiology of
plants.
o Thus the blue and orange-red regions of the spectrum aid in photosynthesis,
o while absorption in the far-red regions of the spectrum stimulates flowering.
o Based on this knowledge, extra amount of illumination is now being supplied to orchids either to supplement
sunlight or to replace it entirely, with the result that more vigorous growth and greater output of flowers are
achieved.
o Light gardening has made it possible to grow orchids even in cellars where no sunlight penetrates.

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PHOTOPERIODIC CONTROL OF FLOWERING

 Even though the majority of orchids are day-neutral, there are a few species which are controllable.
 In these plants, the hormone phytochrome is produced only then the day and night are able to control the time
of flowering in such species.
 The correct ratio between the light and dark periods and in some cases, the correct temperature also initiates
the production of phytochrome, which is a protein acting as an enzyme.
 In general, orchids grow best in diffused light but there are certain orchids which grow well in high light. We
should give our plants as much light as possible provided the roots stay moist and cool.

TEMPERATURE

 The temperature regimes used will be governed by the genera grown. Even though various species of orchids
vary in their individual requirements of optimum temperature,
 Generally orchids thrive in a day temperature varying between 16 to 21 o C and a night temperature of 13 to
16oC.
 Three basic temperature regimes enable the enthusiast to grow nearly all cultivable orchids. They are
1. The cold or cool
2. The intermediate (temperate)
3. The warm or hot.
Summer: Day 16-21o C Cymbidiums,
Night 13o C Odontoglossums,
Paphiopedilums,
COOL SPECIES
Winter: Day 13-16o C Zygopetalums thrive
Night 10o C well.

Summer: Day 18-24o C Cattleyas, Laelias,

Night 16-18o C Oncidiums,
INTERMEDIATE Stanhopeas and
SPECIES Winter: Day 16-21o C Dendrobiums thrive well.
Night 13-16o C
Summer: Day 21-29o C Phalaenopsis,
Night 18-21o C Phaphiopedilums and
WARM SPECIES evergreen
Winter: Day 21-29o C Dendrobiums thrive well.
Night 18-21o C

HUMIDITY

 Humidity is very important for the good growth of all plants especially tropical ones and particularly epiphytes,
which is much more difficult to control than either heat or light.
 It has been proved that about 50% humidity is suitable for most orchids.
 As a rule, they do not thrive in places where the relative humidity is less than 50%. In wild, the majority of
orchids flourish in regions of perpetual mist.
 Since they are not regular soil plants, with a proper root system to absorb and supply them with enough
moisture from the soil, epiphytic orchids do best in an atmosphere as saturated with water vapour as possible.

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 Excessive humidity is dangerous, for it brings about susceptibility to certain diseases. Plant parts may be
attacked by various bacteria and fungi. Excessive high relative humidity (above 70%) contributes to succulent
growth which is more susceptible to infection than hard growth.
 The danger of infection during the high relative humidity maintained for the purpose of cooling the plants in the
daytime is lessened by good air movement.
 Humidity levels vary greatly from area to area and from country to country and it would be unwise to
generalize.
 The most popularly used device for creating humidity is the evaporative water coolers.
 Spraying the benches, walls and floor of the orchid house or misting with very fine nozzles are also effective in
this respect.
 In stagnant air of a greenhouse, it is wise to reduce humidity at night. This is in complete contrast to natural
conditions where the moisture content of the air is usually much greater during darkness but where it is
counteracted by air movements which are absent in green house.
 As a general rule, any form of watering, clamping down or spraying should not be performed in the late
afternoon or evening.
 In orchid houses we should run oscillating fans continuously.
 During the warmer months, an evaporated cooler keeps the orchids house day time temperature around 10 oC
and increases further air movement.

AIR RELATIONS

Industrial regions offer hazards to orchid growing, both by the production of smoke and haze which reduce the
light available to the plants, and by the production of noxious fumes. When soot and grime collect on the plants, wash
them off with a forceful spray of water at frequent intervals. Dirt collecting on the leaves may plug up the stomata and cut
down the working power of the leaves.

WATER QUALITY AND WATERING

o Good quality water is very important requirement to grow orchids successfully.

o Acceptable water sources include deionized distilled water and rain water.
o Watering needs depend on the potting media and the growing conditions.
o Correct watering has a direct relationship between atmospheric humidity and compost mixture.
Fundamentally the lower the atmospheric humidity, the damper should be the compost, and the higher the
humidity the lower the moisture content of the potting mixture.
o A potting media should never be wet but just evenly moist.
o Occasionally short term drying out is beneficial as this closely imitates natural conditions whereby epiphytes
are subject to very dry spells.
o Although it is not advisable to water pots daily, they should all be examined frequently and if too dry, well
watering or even submerging by total dipping is suggested.
o Terrestrial orchids require more water than epiphytes.
o Some orchids have heavy thick leaves with large pseudo bulbs; these are storage devices for water,
adapted by the plant to suit quite dry environments.
o These plants must be allowed to partially dry out in between watering to have a wet/dry cycle of five to
seven days.
o Other varieties have thin, soft leaves, requiring more frequent watering.

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o Some like Pahpiopedilums do not have any pseudo bulbs at all, these therefore must be kept moist but not
at all times wet.
Generally speaking, watering twice or thrice a week would be best.

When drawing up such a schedule the following factors should be kept in mind.

 Actively growing plants need more water than resting plants.

 Large plants need more water than smaller ones or seedlings.
 Plants grown in larger pots retain moisture for longer periods than those in smaller pots and hence need less
frequent watering.
 Plants require more water on a sunny day than on a cloudy day.
 Plants growing in full sun utilize water more than those in shade.
 Osmunda and coconut fibre retain moisture longer than either tree fern or bark, hence watered less frequently.
 Plants which are freshy potted should be watered very sparingly till new roots appear. As the number of roots
appears there should be a gradual increase in the amount of watering.
 After plant maturation, watering should be completely stopped or withheld for a time to induce flowering.
 For orchids, which are collected from the wild, where they survive on a minimal supply of water obtained through
rains, and absorbed through the velamen roots, over watering is a hazard always to be reckoned with under
cultural conditions.
 Wrinkling of the pseudo bulbs and yellowing of the leaves are sure sings of excessive watering. Then stop
watering immediately and confine to spraying only aerial parts till new root appear.
 The quality of water used, whether it is for spraying, damping down or watering direct, is of great importance.
Since tap water has usually been chemically treated it should be used with caution.
 For best results, orchids need a slightly acidic water of about pH-5.
 The best water is undoubtedly rainwater except in areas with a high degree of atmospheric pollution which is
common in industrial areas with a high degree of atmospheric pollution which is common in industrial areas and
in older style high density housing.
 As it is not possible to store sufficiently large quantity of freshly aerated rain water, it can be revitalized by
pumping air into it win an aquarium aerator.
 The temperature of the water is important. If the water temperature and surrounding air temperature are equal
no harm will result and slight differences either way can tolerated by healthy plants.
 Fatal, or long term damage not easily discernible at first, can result from watering with too cold water. Under
watering with too cold water.
 Under watering will cause shriveling of the leaves and pseudo bulbs and new growth will be small. The roots
may be thin and starved.
 If the medium is in good condition, simply step up the frequency of watering.

 Ideally, plants should remain highly moist to moist and should never be dry. More plants are lost to over
watering that is watering too often-than by under watering.
 For most orchids, especially those with pseudo bulbs, a good rule is: “If in doubt, do not water.”

MICRO PROPAGATION OF ORCHIDS

Orchids, the doyen among ornamentals are one of the few flowering plants of commercial valve to be
propagated in vitro both through seed and tissue culture. The modern methods of propagation have brought orchid
cultivation on par with other commercial crops.
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In vitro seed culture: Orchids seeds are extremely small (80-130 Mm wide and 410-560 Mm long) and usually
undifferentiated. They produced in large numbers ranging from 1300 to 5 lakh/capsule. Each seed contains an
undifferentiated embryo composed of 80-100 cells without any functional endosperm. Under natural conditions the orchid
seeds germinate in association with fungus (Mycorrhiza).

Viability testing: At IIHR a new technique was developed for viability testing of orchid seeds with the help of tetrazolium
chloride (2,3,5 Triphenyl 1-2-4 tetrazolium chloride) and malachite green. The chemical, tetrazolium chloride is imbibed
by the seeds as colourless solution and is reduced by the enzymes present in the viable embryo to a red coloured
substance formazan. In the absence of any enzyme the dead embryo will remain uncoloured composition of nutrient
media.

Different media used in Orchid seed culture range from simple three salts to complexes 20 or more salts. Some
media like knudson C, Vacin & Went are broad spectrum, while media like Burgeff N 3f are exclusively for paphiopedilum
seeds. Most of the orchids seeds utilize dissacharides such as sucrose, which is most commonly used carbon source.
Organogenesis is promoted at sub optimal conc. While protocorm proliferation is enhanced by supraoptimal
concentrations. However, after as certain stage of development the orchid seedlings do not require any exogenous
supply of sugars and it can be drastically reduced. Some species of cymbidium however prefers glucose to sucrose while
phalaenopsis prefers fructose to glucose.

According to some workers Ammonium nitrate is the best nitrogen source for early germination and protocorm
formation. After the roots and leaves are formed the protocorms prefer nitrate for their continued growth.

FEEDING/NUTRITION

Whether or not to feed orchid plants has long been a controversial question. Until quite recently the general
consensus of opinion was that it was not necessary and could in fact be dangerous, the advent of new, inert, plastic
potting materials may, however, necessitate the feeding of plants. If in doubt the beginner should not feed but rely on
rainwater to supply his plants‟ needs.

Three basic principles apply to orchid feeding:

1. Only well rooted plants should be fed;

2. The feed is preferable in small but frequent doses;
3. It should only be applied during the period of maximum active growth.
The actual feed can be organic or inorganic.

ORGANIC FEEDING

The use of organic fertilizers seems obvious since they are the natural food or orchids. Unfortunately, however,
the precise chemical formulae of organic feeds are not usually known and it is therefore impossible to control accurately a
plant‟s intake. The application of organic feeds has a great disadvantage in that it decomposes the potting compost very
quickly. There are several commercial organic feeds on the market and many of these are good for orchids, especially
those prepared from fish or seaweed bases.

INORGANIC FEEDING

With inorganic feeding the exact proportions of the different chemicals can be accurately ascertained and the
plants feed according to their requirements. The essential elements are Nitrogen (N), Phosphorous (P), and Potassium
(K). The NPK mixture fertilizer 2%N, 0.2% to 0.5% of P and K is mainly responsible for the control of flower and fruit

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development. A growth regulator like GA3 enhances flowering and also the yield of flowers when sprayed at 1.5ppm/lt
once in 15 days before flowering. IBA at 1ppm/lt promotes the growth of new shoots.

Orchids growing in nature do not need much of manuring but those grown in the orchidariums need spraying in the liquid
forms. Fertilizer doses should be dilute. The plants are easily burnt by over fertilizer which can be seen as burnt leaf tips.
One of the liquid spray‟s which gives healthy growth is the Ohio spray.

Composition of Ohio solution made up for 1 gallon / 4.5 lt. of water.

* Potassium nitrate 2.63g

* Ammonium sulphate 0.44g
* Magnesium sulphate 2.04g
* Monocalcium phosphate 1.00g
* Calcium sulphate 4.86g
* Iron sulphate 0.50g
* Manganese sulphate 0.25ml.

Requirements for inorganic feeding and tolerance against excessive amounts are correlated but much feeding is done by
trial and error. The order from highest to lowest in terms of requirements for the commoner genera is Cymbidium,
Phalaenopsis, Dendrobium and Cattleya. Intolerant of inorganic feeding are Paphiopedilums and even organic feeds are
usually given in liquid form it is possible to dry feed and the addition of dried blood and bone meal is often practiced
especially when dealing with Cymbidium, Coelogyne, Lycaste, etc.

CONTAINERS AND COMPOSTS

For the naturally growing orchids the tree trunks, ground, damp broken walls and rocks are the containers. But
when we grow orchids domestically and commercially we need special types of containers well suited for their habitat.
Some of the most suitable containers used are (1) Pots, (2) Baskets, (3) Wooden logs, (4) Tree ferns, (5) Coconut husks,
etc.

Clay pots are generally used for orchids. They may have few to many holes for good drainage and aeration. The pot size
may vary from thumb size to 20 inch pots. Plastic pots can also be used. Wooden baskets are made up of high quality
wood which can withstand frequent watering. These may also differ in size and shape generally square baskets are used.
Similarly tree fern blocks can also be cut into different sizes and shapes and the plants can be tied to these with thin
copper wires.

In the above containers (Pots and baskets) compost mixture is added in different proportions. Care should be taken while
preparing the above compost mixtures so that it provides, (1) Aeration, (2) Drainage (3) Rich mineral nutrition etc.

The potting mixture which is generally used, consists of the following material: Brick pieces, Charcoal pieces, Peat moss,
Stone pieces or jelly, tree fern fiber, farm yard manure, Rock wool plugs, Peat moss, Vermiculite, Pots which have side
drainage holes the compost used is brick pieces, stones pieces, coke which are mixed in equal proportions 1:1:1. At the
bottom of the pots slightly bigger pieces of charcoal are put. Pots with bottom drainage holes are filled up with very small
pieces of charcoal and tree fern fiber powdered in equal proportions of 1:1. These compost mixtures are used for
epiphytic orchids.

In choosing suitable types of container, is it pot, basket or raft the needs of the plant must be considered alone
with one‟s own preferences. The bark of cork oak is extremely amenable to plant growth as well as being very durable.
Ordinary oak or pine bark is not so durable but even so will last for several years. Because of their porosity and durability
the stems of tree ferns are also extremely good.

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In larger collections, the traditional clay pots are still used, mainly because of their cheapness. They are also useful for
the beginner as indiscretions of over watering are offset by the porous nature of the pot which, incidentally, also helps to
maintain atmospheric humidity. Expanded polystyrene is very good, especially since its fantastic insulating properties
protect the roots and favour their growth but its one great disadvantage is that it is so light that plants are likely to be
knocked over more readily. The advantage of baskets is that air can enter from all directions, but this can lead to a more
rapid drying out of the compost, especially in hot summer spells, and therefore watering is more of a chore with them.
The best way of watering baskets is by dipping. Wire baskets, either of galvanized iron or aluminum or plastic-covered
copper-wire, can be used and shaped to fashion. Terrestrials present no problems, being grown exclusively in clay or
plastic pots or pans. For terrestrial or ground orchids, we use sand, mud and farm yard manure in equal proportions and
earthen pots. Now a days in Florida a new coconut basket has been introduced called the COCONEST. This is unique
spun coconut fiber NEST treated with organic substances, crating an strong flexible shell, allowing air to circulate and
retain humidity in the natural way, allowing a constant moist compost for growing. The NEST provides an even
distribution of water to the fine growing roots.

POTTING MATERIALS

Osmunda:

This is the root fibers of the Royal fern, Osmunda regalis. It is hard, durable, sufficiently springy but rigid enough
for good anchorage and contains very little mineral matter. Its great disadvantage is its high price and today good quality
osmunda is almost unobtainable.

Polypodium fiber

This is the root fibers of the common polyploidy fern, Polypodium vulgare. It is softer and finer than Osmunda
fiber and neither so durable nor so good for anchorage and aeration. A little soil should be added to it and this obviously
also increases its mineral nutrition.

Sphagnum

This bog moss is cheap, has excellent water retention property and is inert chemically. It is usually mixed with
some other media but can be used by itself for the establishing of seedlings and newly imported plants that need special
attention.

Tree fern
This is usually obtainable as the ground-down trunks of tree ferns. It is hard, fairly durable, without mineral content and
not very expensive but the fibers are not always long and spongy enough to provide good anchorage. Broken brick,
pumice granules, gravel and broken coke, fir bark, peat, synthetic materials can either be used by themselves in a form of
hydroponic orchid culture or mixed with sphagnum. Generally medium should be porous and well aerated for the roots to
freely grow and respire easily. Easily available and cheap medium should be used either individually or in combinations.
A mixture of brick and charcoal or peat moss which is degradable and holds moisture for a long time can be used.

POTTING

After the selection of plants proper potting with proper compost mixture has to be done. While potting the
epiphytic orchids like Vanda and Dendrobium care should be taken that aerial shoots or Keikis should not break. Vanda
plants are staked. Proper labeling should be done after the potting is over.

The pots should be filled to about 1/3 of their height with the compost material chosen. The bottoms of baskets
should be covered with large flat crocks. The bases generally the prepared pots. The oldest pseudo bulb should be
against the edge of the pot and the youngest ones towards the center so that there will be ample space for new shoots

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and pseudo bulbs to grow. More potting material is gradually added, being temped down firmly with a potting stick
working from the outside towards the center. With a coarse potting medium the top level should be 1-2 c, below pot level.

Monopodial orchids, such as Vanda, Renanthera and Phalaenopsis, should be potted similarly but, since they do
not have pseudo bulbs, they should all be planted in the center of the pots. In Paphiopedilum the potting material is
topped up with sphagnum, which, with correct watering, will continue to grow and be beneficial to the plants as well as act
as an indicator of the condition of the compost.

Without compelling reasons orchids should not be repotted. If, however, aeration of the potting material is poor
because of decomposition it must be replaced. If in doubt, put it off for another year| basically care must be taken that
new growth and shoots are not overlapping the rim of the pot, for large neglected plants which have been potted for a
long time are notoriously difficult to handle and it is very easy to break off new shoots and roots. As to the frequency and
time of repotting there are certain rules.

Annual repotting

Calanthe, Dendrobium, Phalaenopsis and its hybrids, Paphipedilum and Phalaenopsis.

Every other year

Cattleya, Dendrobium, Oncidium and Odontoglossum

Every third year

Vanda and its allies, Cymbidium

Less frequently
All „tussock‟ orchids

It must be stressed again that repotting can seriously disturb a plant and therefore should not be undertaken
more than necessary. Repotting times do not vary very much but should usually be at the beginning of the active growing
season or at least when the new roots appear. The techniques or repotting can be difficult both for amateurs and
professionals and certain rules must be learned, especially regarding the treatment of the roots. To remove the root-ball
from the pot it is advisable to use a knife. All old potting material, dead roots and shriveled pseudo bulbs have to be
removed. With sympodial orchids such as Cattleya, Dendrobium, Odotoglossum, etc., not more than 5 or less than 3
pseudo bulbs should remain. When the older pseudo bulbs, the back bulbs are removed from many orchids it will be
noted that they often have „eyes‟. These back bulbs can be planted in small pots and within 2-3 years will belike ordinary
plants. The containers, pots, pans, baskets or rafts, should be large enough to carry two shoots or developing growths.
Too large pots are to be avoided because they can actually retard growth and inhibit flowering. While repotting, the plant
is held at the base and loosened along the pot inside. The old roots and leaves are removed. Then the plant is potted
again.

HARVESTING, POST-HARVEST HANDLING AND PACKAGING

HARVESTING:

This is a very important operation and the growers should have thorough knowledge about the flowering
behaviour of the orchids used for cut-flower production. Proper time, stage and method of harvest determine the quality
of the produce. In general, orchid flowers do not mature until 3 to 4 days after they open. Flowers cut prior to their
maturity may wilt before reaching the wholesaler. Harvesting should preferably be done in the evening. All the tools
should be sterilized. Flowers harvested in the heat of the day can be stressed because of high temperature. Dark
coloured flowers may be as much as 5.5o C warmer than white flowers during mid afternoon. When individual Cattleya
and Cymbidium flowers are cut, the peduncle should immediately be inserted in a tube of water. In Hawaii and

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Singapore, some Dendrobium and Aranda growers immerse the entire sprays of flowers in water for 15 minutes before
packing and shipping (Sheehan, 1980).

POST-HARVEST HANDLING

GRADING: There are no standard grades for orchid flowers and their prices are fixed according to the size. In case of
Cattleya flowers both colour and size are considered while pricing. Grading is done mainly on length of the flower spike,
flower number and size and arrangement of flowers on the spike. Sometimes the number of lateral branches on the
inflorescence is also taken into consideration.

STORAGE: Since most orchid flowers are long-lived on the plants, they should not be harvested until needed. If these
are to be cut they should be stored at 5-7 C. At this temperature most orchid flowers can be stored for 10 to 14 days.
Plastic film storage is attractive and can be utilized.

PACKAGING

Packaging is another important aspect in the flower trade. If it is not done properly, the flowers may wither or
suffer mechanical injury during transit. An ideal package should be airtight, water proof, strong enough to withstand
handling and small in volume. Many ways are followed to pack orchid flowers. Cymbidium spikes are often packed 100
flowers to a box. Standard florist boxes are used for the packing of Cattleya floors. Hawaiian Dendrobium is packed in 4
dozen sprays per box. Keeping of a wet cotton at the cut end of the flower stem which is wrapped with a polythene
wrapper helps to maintain humidity.

VASE-LIFE

Orchid flowers, though long-lasting, should properly be handled to ensure minimum shelf life. Immediately after
arrival, the lower 0.75 cm. of the peduncle is cut off, and the flower is inserted into a fresh tube of water containing
preservative. In case of spray-type of orchids, the basal 2.5cm of the stem is cut upon arrival, placed in warm water at
38o C with a preservative and hardened off at 5o C. In cut-flower industry the major chemical environmental pollutant
affecting senescence is ethylene. Orchid flowers are very sensitive ethylene and proper management and control of
ethylene and ethylene like pollutants are important for the success of the industry.

Foliar application of aluminum chloride at 500ppm, ammonium molybdate at 100ppm or boric acid at 1000ppm
lengthened the vase-life of Oncidium foldiana. Hydroxy quinoline resulted in additional bloom opening of the flowers and
also increased the vase-life (Dong and Lim, 1983).

PESTS AND DISEASES

As with all other plants, orchids in the wild are subject to disease of various kinds as well as attacks by numerous
pests. Many of these diseases are transmitted into the greenhouse by imported orchids; others are introduced from
different sources. Healthy plants usually withstand infections and many a calamity can be prevented by high standards of
cleanliness in cultivation. Orchids are prone to a number of diseases caused by various agents like viruses, fungi,
bacteria, insect pests, etc.

Fortunately it can be said that, in general, orchids are quite hardy and less liable than other indoor plants to
catch disease or attract pests. Moreover, the advent of modern chemicals allows us to control most infections efficiently
or even prevent their occurrence. Preventive measures should be followed strictly and according to rules. Most fungi and
bacteria thrive under damp and soggy conditions, because invariably the spores need moisture for germination. Hence
over crowding should be avoided in orchid houses and facilities provided for free air circulation. Debris should not be
allow3ed to accumulate in the house or in its near vicinity. Watering, spraying, fogging etc should be done early in the

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day so that by night, when usually the temperature comes down, the plants may remain completely dry and relatively
impervious to attack by fungi or bacteria.

A clean plant environment is the best defense against pests and diseases; sterilize pots and tools and dispose of old
leaves and potting mixtures. Isolate or destroy infected plants. Provide good air circulation so that the leaves way gently,
and water plants early on sunny days when they will dry quickly. Careful weekly inspection with a strong magnifying glass
may alert you early on to illness or infestation. Remember to vary the kinds of insecticides and fungicides you use on
your plants in order to prevent the pest or disease from developing a resistance to a specific treatment. Always read the
chemical labels carefully, follow the instructions and observe all cautions.

The chart below identifies and illustrates types of damage to orchids and the various causes.
PEST/SYMPTOM CAUSE REMEDY
APHIDS: Leaves and stems appear Aphids are soft bodies plant lice less Wash off black fungus with water and
stunted; flowers may be malformed than 3mm long. Disease carries that mild kitchen detergent. Use an
or fail to open. Aphids are visible, suck sap. They have lump bodies, insecticide containing malathiion,
particularly on new growth. MOST narrow heads and a broad range of desis, nicotine or pyrethrum.
VULNERABLE: CATTLEYA, colours. Many are flying pests. All
ONCIDIUM, PHALAENOPSIS aphids secrete a shiny, sticky fluid
known as honeydew that invites ants
and an unsightly black fungus.
MEALY BUGS: Cottony masses Soft-bodied insects less than 6 mm Remove small infestations with a
especially infest points of juncture long. Mealy bugs have a white, cotton swab dipped in methylated
such as the crook between two powdery coat. They suck sap from spirits. On heavy infestations, use an
leaves. Plants may appear stunted stems, leaves and buds. The pests insecticide containing Malathion or
or shriveled. produce a sticky honeydew that nicotine.
MOST VULNERABLE: attracts ants and plays host to a
CATTLEYA, harmless but ill-appearing black
DENDROBIUM, PHALAENOPSIS fungus.
SCALES: Round or oval shell in Many species of scale insects infest Pick off small infestations with
brown, grey or white, often orchids, sucking their sap. Soft tweezers or a knife, or swab with
accompanied by a sooty mould. The scales are 2 to 8 mm long and methylated spirits. Spray adult
plant may be stunted, with leaves produce honeydew. Armoured scales with an insecticide containing
yellowing and falling off. scales are less than 3mm long and Malathion or nicotine.
MOST VULNERABLE: have a tough shell but do not
CATTLEYA, produce honeydew. Scales crawl to
CYMBIDIUM, PAHIOPEDILUM, one spot where they remain.
MILTONIA, ZYGOPETALUM
SLUGS AND SNAILS: Snails are 1.2 to 5 cm long; slugs A tuft of cotton wool around the stem
The plant is punctured with ragged may reach 12.5cm. Both are legless will protect flowers. Trap snails and
holes, and a slimy trail is visible mollusks that generally hide during slugs with pesticide bait containing
where pests have passed. the day and emerge at night to feed metaldehyde or methiocarb. Or lure
VULNERABLE: ALL ORCHIDS, on foliage, buds, flowers and root slugs at night into a saucer of beer to
ESPECIALLY SEEDLINGS. tips. The pests generally lay their drown.
eggs in damp areas or in the potting
mixtures.
SPIDER MITES: Leaves appear Less than 0.5mm long, spider mites Scrub and rinse foliage with warm
pitted or stipped with white. A white may be seen by tapping a leaf over a water to break up webs. Spray
webbing may show on the underside piece of paper so that they fall off. Or heavy infestations with pesticide
of the leaves. touch a leaf with cellophane tape, containing malathion or derris.
MOST VULNERABLE; CYMBIDIUM, then examine the tape with a
DENDROBIU, magnifying glass. Normally, spider
PHALAENOPSIS. mites suck sap only from the
undersides of leaves.

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DISEASES

PEST/SYMPTOM CAUSE REMEDY

BLACK ROT: Purplish blotches edged Black rot is caused by several Drench infected plants with a
with yellow appear on leaves and new types of fungi that favour high fungicide such as captan or zineb.
shoots. Rotting may work downwards humidity, cool temperatures and Remove infected parts cut 2.5cm into
from leaves or upwards from roots and standing water. Damping off, healthy tissue and seal cuts with
rhizomes. which affects seedlings, is also fungicide. Destroy badly diseased
MOST VULNERABLE: caused by these fungi and occurs plants.
CATTLEYA-TYPE most readily in community pots.
ORCHIDS,
PHALAENOPSIS.
LEAF SPOT: Raised or sunken spots in Leaf spot is usually caused by Reduce humidity and increase air
yellow, brown or purplish shades spread those species of fungi that thrive circulation. Cut off diseased leaves;
quickly over leaves. In advanced in high humidity. IT is especially spray cuts with fungicide. Apply
stages, leaves turn yellow or brown and destructive to seedlings but rarely captan or a systemic fungicide
die. fatal to mature plants. containing binomial or thiphanate-
MOST VULNERABLE: ONCIDIUM, methyl weekly.
DENDROBIUM
PEATAL BLIGHT: Small brown circles, Petal blight, also known by the Cut off and destroy infected
often with pink edges, appear on sepals name of the fungus that causes blossoms. Spray plants with a
and petals. botrytis, generally appears in cool, fungicide containing benomyl,
MOST VULNERABLE: damp weather when there is captan, thiophanate-methyl, thiram or
CATTLEYA-TYPE inadequate air circulation. zineb.
ORCHIDS, DENDROBIUM, Microscopic spors are carried by
ONCIDIUM. insects, water or human hands.
PHALAENOPSIS, VANDA Fungus tends to attach old and
fading flowers.
VIRUS: Leaves may show yellow, black Two main types of viral diseases, There is no cure. Destroy infected
or brown pitting, mottling, mottling and cymbidium mosaic and Cattleya plants. When dividing, flame
streaking. Flowers too may be streaked mosaic, spread through the sterilizes the knife between cuts, dip
or mottled. vascular systems of plants. Highly potting sticks in a10 percent
VULNERABLE: infectious, viruses may be household bleach solution.
ALL ORCHIDS. transmitted by infected plants.
Highly infectious, viruses may be
transmitted by infected plants,
hands, fools, aphids.

As a general rule:
1) Apply fungicides and insecticides early in the morning or late in the evening.
2) Use a fine nozzle for spraying.
3) Heavily infected plants should be discarded and burnt, and should not be used as propagating material.

ORCHIDS IN TRADE AND ECONOMY

Floriculture has emerged as a major area in the agribusiness in the recent years. India produces annually about
2.07 lakh metric tons of lose flowers and 50 crore number of cut flowers worth over Rs. 300 crores. The international
trade on floriculture is estimated at about five billion dollars per annum, of which India‟s share is only 10 million dollars.
Though India‟s presence in the world market has been negligible, it is all set to expand rapidly with increased production
and addition of new items of orchids.

At present Orchid cut flower trade is a multi-million dollar business. The cut flowers of species like Cymbidium,
Paphipedilum, Phalaenopsis, Cattleyas and Dendrobiums have a tremendous market in USA and Europe. It is estimated
that two hundred million Cattleya flowers are sold annually in American market. Some of the developing countries like

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Malaysia. Singapore, Thailand and Sri Lanka are fast catching up the international market and run the cut flower industry
on c0-operative basis they pool the collections and export them to Europe, Japan and U.S.A. a few orchids figure
prominently as State or National flowers. E.g. Cypripedium reginae by Minnesota and Cattleya skinneri by Cost Rica.

Through commercial orchid cut flower nurseries provide under 3% of the world cut flowers they earn
considerable foreign exchange profit for many countries. The Netherlands is the only European country with a sizeable
orchid export industry. In 1993, the Netherlands exported 51.8 million stems of orchids valued at 77.4 million.
Phalaenopsis orchids were the 14th most popular cut flowers sold in Dutch auctions in 1993 with sales exceeding 12.8
millions. More than 3,600 tons of Dendrobiums were sent to Europe in 1993 from Thailand and more from Singapore.
Dendrobium orchids accounted for 3.2 million dollars of sales in Dutch auction market; but most were imported directly
whole sale distributions in France, Germany, England and Italy.

The largest importer of tropical cut orchids in Europe in Italy, importing about 21,43,425 kgs in 1993 and
30,00,725 kgs in 1996. Germany is the second largest importer of tropical orchids in Europe with 4, 78,446 kilos.

The growth and popularity of orchids is gaining lot of importance in our country due to the high rate of return. An
initial investment of Rs. 35,000 for say about 500 plants @ Rs. 70/- per plant) in a green house of just 150 sq. ft will yield
an annual income of Rs. 37,000 once the plants starts flowering after about 18-20 months. Each plant giving about 10
healthy flower stalks sold at an average rate of Rs. 10/- per stalk. This works out to be a profitable return of about 100%.

What prevents farmers in large scale cultivation is the high cost of plants. A plant costs Rs. 70 and to own even
100 plants a sum of 7,000 is necessary. Besides there is initial investment in Agro net cover, special pots, and iron pot
stands. Realizing the credit need and considering the immense potential for orchid cultivation, NABARD has formulated a
model scheme for refinancing under this scheme, banks will provide loans up to Rs. 15,000 without any collateral security
for three years at 12.5% interest. Loan repayment will start only after one year, when plants start yielding. State Bank of
India alone has financed 1,50,000 plants in the Ernakulam District in Kerala. The Ernakulam District Consultative
Committee headed by the District Collector has identified orchid cultivation as a thrust area for credit support and
women‟s programme.

INSURANCE:

A Comprehensive insurance scheme, the first of its kind in India was implemented by New India Assurance Co.
Ltd. To provide security to the small orchid growers. The scheme is unique in the sense that apart from natural
calamities, it covers pests and diseases also. For a grower with less than 1,000 plants, premium is only three percent of
the insured amount for two years. For more than 1,000 plants, premium 3.5 percent.
@@@@@@@

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Exercise No.: 14 Date: ____________

TRADE AND INTERNATIONAL QUALITY STANDARDS OF CUT FLOWERS

INTRODUCTION

India is bestowed with natural resources and diverse agro-climatic situation, which provides large
scope for production of best quality flowers and vegetables. Flowers have been intimately associated with
mankind since time immemorial by way of religious offerings and social ceremonies. But flowers as a
commodity of a trade are only 5-6 decade old (Singh, 2005).

Flowers are highly valued floricultural products with high export potentiality. The world consumption of
floriculture produce is worth of US $ 12064 million, out of which the share of cut flowers is approximately US $
5371 million. Indian share in the world market is about US $ 17 million for cut flowers
(www.unionfluers.org,2006). The flowers like rose, carnation, chrysanthemum, gerbera and orchids are in high
demand in international market. The grading of these flowers is normally done on the basis of flower quality,
which is judged by color, appearance, stalk length and straightness and bloom regularity.

In rose, large flowered varieties with stalk length of 60-90 cm and whorl size of 3-5 cm without any
deformities are preferred in international market. Similarly, in standard type of carnation, tight unopened flower
buds having 55 cm stem length and 7 cm bud size are harvested for export market as specified by Society of
American Florists (www. Apeda. com, 2006).

India stands second in the world after China with respect to vegetable production. At present India is
exporting fresh vegetable to the tune of 939.70 crores (Gandhi, 2005). Among the vegetables, onions. okra,
chilli, tomato, potato, garlic, beans and peas are the major crops being exported from India to other countries.
Fresh yellow or brown onions with 100-110g weight and 7-10 cm in diameter having low pungency and better
TSS (10-12%) are ideal for exporting to Japan market, while light to dark red onions with strong pungency and
high TSS (12-14 %) are preferred in Srilanka. Similarly, cultivars like Clemson Spineless and Annie Oakley in
okra having green color, smooth surface and low ridged immature fruits with 4-10 cm in length are preferred in
European countries (www.freshfel.org, 2006).

PRESENT STATUS OF CUT FLOWER EXPORT

Floriculture Exports Reported by the Indian Government Global Trade Atlas Navigator (GTA) July 25,
2005 is $17 million of cut flowers and $5 million in Live Plants, Cuttings and slips.

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Table 1. The value of world trade in floriculture in 2004 (Millions of US$)

Imports
1. Cut Flowers $ 5371
2. Live plants $ 4535
3. Bulbs $ 931
4. Cut foliage $ 758
5. Cuttings, cane, slips $ 344
6. Young rose plants $ 125
TOTAL $12 064
Source: www.unionfleurs.org.2006
Table 2. The top ten fresh cut flowers sold on the Dutch auctions in 2005 (millions of Euros*)
Type of Flower Sales 2005 % Var. over 2004
1. Rose 782.6 + 3.2
2. Spray chrysanthemum 293.1 + 2.7
3. Tulip 191.5 + 3.5
4. Lily 164.1 + 3.7
5. Gerbera 121.2 + 4.5
6. Cymbidium 70.2 + 7.6
7. Fresia 57.4 - 3.7
8. Std. Chrysanthemum 46.7 +20.2
9. Anthurium 41.0 + 3.1
10. Alstroemeria 39.1 + 2.0
* 1 Euro= Rs. 60/- Source: www.unionfleurs.org. 2006
Table 3. Main import markets for cut flowers by value 1991-2000 (in US $ million)

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Germany, USA, UK, France and Netherlands together contribute more than 50 per cent of world import
of cut flowers.
Table 4. Global export trends of cut flowers by country (in US $ million)

Table 4 indicates that around 50 per cent of world cut flower export is contributed by Netherlands alone
followed by Colombia, Italy and Belgium.
QUALITY STANDARDS FOR IMPORTANT CUT FLOWERS FOR EXPORT

1. General requirements of cut rose

 Straight, strong stem capable of holding the flowers in upright position.
 Uniform stem length
 Tight bud and open slowly
 Stem length of 60-90cms.
 Size of the flower should be representative of the cultivars
 Flower Should be free from blemishes, bruising, injuries from diseases and pests
 Flower should have more number of petals arranged capacity
Table 5. ROSE – Rosa hybrida the Society of American Florist standards (SAF)

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2. SAF standards for the cut carnations (Dianthus caryophyllus)

 Bright, clean, firm flowers and leaves.

 Fairly light petals near the centre of the flowers and tight and unopened.
 Symmetrical flowers, size and shape should be true to the variety
 No split or mended calyx
 No buds or suckers
 No decay or damage
 Straight stem and normal growth

Table 6. Carnation grades

(Natade A.S., 2005)

3. SAF specification standards for chrysanthemum (Chrysanthimum morifolium)

 Bright, clean healthy foliage and flowers

 Flowers with similar varietal characteristics bunched together
 Flowers and foliage free from any defects, injury, dirt or any foreign materials.
 Free from discoloration, nutrition, chemical or mechanical abnormalities
 Fairly tight flower with undeveloped centre
 Fairly straight stiff stems capable of supporting the flower in an upright position
 Foliage stripped off from not more than one third of stem

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Table 7. Chrysanthemum grades (Natade A.S., 2005)

4. Quality standards of anthurium (Anthurium andreanum)

 An ideal plant should be a prolific producer of flowers

 A desirable plant should grow vigorously and have shorter internodes
 A heart shaped symmetrical spathe with overlapping of fused lobes are preferred
 The spadix should be shorter than spathe
 The spathe should be free from sunburn disease or other injuries
Table 8. Anthurium grades

(Natade A.S., 2005)

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Table 9. Gladiolus – Gladiolus grandiflorus (SAF)

(Arora and Kushal Singh 2002)

Table 10. Gerbera – Gerbera jamesonii

Natade A.S., 2005

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List of Cut flowers Exporters:

CONCLUSION

In the present days of fast changing urban social system and global village concept, quality of flowers
play an important role. Hence, there will be enhanced demand for these commodities in future too. India has
good potentiality for export of cut flowers provided some of the constraints faced by the Indian exporters are
tackled effectively.
CONSTRAINTS FACED BY INDIAN EXPORTERS
a. Higher air freight
Air freight for vegetables and flower export from India to gulf countries and U.K., etc., is very
high compared to Kenya, Jordan, Lebanon etc. This is one of the major bottlenecks in increasing the
export.
b. Restriction in the export
Many times because of failure of a particular crop and increased local demand the export has
to be restricted. This does not allow regular export due to which we loose many foreign markets.
c. Non- availability of suitable varieties
In onion we do not have production of yellow onions which are in demand in European and
Japanese markets.
d. No proper packing of the produce
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In many vegetables open mesh jute bags are still being used whereas preference is there for
open mesh plastic woven bags. The corrugated fibre board boxes, being used at present, also do not
have required strength and thus are damaged in transit.
e. No proper space for handling
Cold storage facilities at parts or airports do not exist. Adequate handling space also does not
exist. This results in damage to stock.
f. Inadequate research and development backup
Not much export oriented R and D programmes are being taken up in vegetables. The quality
of the produce is, therefore not uniform as per the requirement of foreign markets. Lot of labour is thus
wasted in sorting and grading of the produce.
Pesticide Residual Testing Laboratories in India
 Industrial toxicological research centre – Lucknow
 Central food lab – Kolkata
 Central food technological research institute – Mysore
 National Institute for nutrition – Hyderabad
 Central grain storage institute – Hapur

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Exercise No.:15 Date: ____________

IEC - IMPORTER EXPORTER CODE NUMBER

Importer Exporter Code Number

Definition of IEC Code

IEC Code is unique 10 digit code issued by DGFT – Director General of Foreign Trade , Ministry of
Commerce, Government of India to Indian Companies.

Full form of IEC Code

Full form of IEC Code is: “Importer Exporter Code”. To import or export in India, IEC Code is
mandatory. No person or entity shall make any Import or Export without IEC Code Number.

IEC Code No Notification

Directorate General of Foreign Trade(DGFT) issued a Policy Circular No.15 (RE-2006)/2004-2009

Date: 27th July, 2006) for New System for issuance of Importer-Exporter Code Number.

Eligibility, Legal Provisions and Conditions for IEC Code Number

Eligibility condition and Legal Provisions are given for IEC Code Number Application in Foreign Trade
(Regulation) Rules, 1993 Ministry of Commerce, Notification No. GSR 791 (E), dated 30-12-1993.

Application for Grant of IEC Number

An application for grant of IEC number shall be made by the Registered/Head Office of the applicant
and apply to the nearest Regional Authority of Directorate General Foreign Trade, the Registered office
in case of company and Head office in case of others, falls in the „Aayaat Niryaat Form - ANF2A‟ and
shall be accompanied by documents prescribed therein. In case of STPI/ EHTP/ BTP units, the
Regional Offices of the DGFT having jurisdiction over the district in which the Registered/ Head Office
of the STPI unit is located shall issue or amend the IECs.

Only one IEC would be issued against a single PAN number. Any proprietor can have only one IEC
number and in case there are more than one IECs allotted to a proprietor, the same may be
surrendered to the Regional Office for cancellation.

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IEC Code Application Form

The application can be download Form in PDF or Word. This is called "Aayaat Niryaat Form -
ANF2A". Along with IEC Code Number Application Form it is necessary to submit Appendix-18B
Attested by Applicant's Banker in his letter head with two passport size photo).

List Of Regional Authorities Of DGFT And The Corresponding Office of Reserve Bank Of
India, Exchange Control Department

You can find the list of Foreign Exchange Control Department of the RBI as given in Appendix-18D.

Validity of IEC No

An IEC number allotted to an applicant shall be valid for all its branches/divisions/units/factories as
indicated in the format of IEC given in Appendix- 18B.

Duplicate Copy of IEC Number

Where an IEC Number is lost or misplaced, the issuing authority may consider requests for grant of a
duplicate copy of IEC number, if accompanied by an affidavit.

Surrender of IEC Number

If an IEC holder does not wish to operate the allotted IEC number, he may surrender the same by
informing the issuing authority. On receipt of such intimation, the issuing authority shall immediately
cancel the same and electronically transmit it to DGFT for onward transmission to the Customs and
Regional Authorities.

Application Fee For IEC Code Number

Application Fee : Rs 1,000

Mode of Payment : In Demand Draft of any Bank or Payment through EFT ( Electronic Fund Transfer
by Nominated Bank by DGFT Like HDFC Bank, ICICI Bank, State Bank of India, UTI Bank, Punjab
National Bank, Central Bank etc) or Application fee can deposited by TR6 Challan with Duplicate Copy
in any branch of Central Bank of India and TR6 Challan need to be submit along with IEC Code
Application.

Specified fee shall be paid for making an application under any provision of the Policy and Handbook of
Procedure Volume-I.. The scale of fee, mode of payment, procedure for refund of fee and the
categories of persons exempted from the payment of fee are contained in Appendix-21B.

Territorial Jurisdiction of Regional Authorities

Every application, unless otherwise specified, shall be submitted to the Regional Authority of Directorate General
Foreign Trade, as per the territorial jurisdiction of the Regional authorities indicated in Policy and Handbook of
Procedure Volume-I.

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Filing of Application

Application can be filed online in DGFT website, details of online links are given below.

Every application for an Import/Export licence/ certificate/ Authorisation/ permission or any other purpose should
be complete in all respects as required under the relevant provisions of the Policy/Procedures and shall be
signed by the applicant as defined in paragraph 9.9 of the Policy. An incomplete application is liable to be
rejected giving specific reason for rejection. However in case of manual applications, the applicant would furnish
a soft copy of the application in MS word format.

Profile of Importer/ Exporter

Each Importer/Exporter shall be required to file importer/ exporter profile once with the Regional Authority in Part
1 of „Aayaat Niryaat Form - ANF2A‟. Regional Authority shall enter the information furnished in Part 1 of „Aayaat
Niryaat Form ANF-2A‟ in their database so as to dispense with the need for asking the repetitive information. In
case of any change in the information given in Part 1 of „Aayaat Niryaat Form ANF-2A‟, importer/exporter shall
intimate the same to the Regional Authority.

Self Addressed Stamped Envelope

The applicant shall furnish a self addressed envelope of 40 x 15 cm with postal stamp affixed on the envelope as
follows for all documents required to be sent by Speed Post:

a Within local area Rs. 20.00

b Up to 200 Kms. Rs. 25.00
c Between 200 to 1000 Kms Rs. 30.00
d Beyond 1000 Kms. Rs. 50.00

IEC No: Exempted Categories

The following categories of importers or exporters are exempted from obtaining Importer - Exporter Code (IEC)
number:

0. Importers covered by clause 3 (1) [except sub-clauses (e) and (l)] and exporters covered by clause 3(2)
[except sub-clauses (i) and (k)] of the Foreign Trade (Exemption from application of Rules in certain cases)
Order, 1993.
1. Ministries/Departments of the Central or State Government.
2. Persons importing or exporting goods for personal use not connected with trade or manufacture or
agriculture.
3. Persons importing/exporting goods from/to Nepal provided the CIF value of a single consignment does not
exceed Indian Rs.25,000.
4. Persons importing/exporting goods from/to Myanmar through Indo-Myanmar border areas provided the CIF
value of a single consignment does not exceed Indian Rs.25,000.

However, the exemption from obtaining Importer-Exporter Code (IEC) number shall not be applicable for the
export of Special Chemicals, Organisms, Materials, Equipments and Technologies (SCOMET) as listed in
Appendix- 3, Schedule 2 of the ITC(HS) except in the case of exports by category(ii) above.
5. The following permanent IEC numbers shall be used by the categories of importers/ exporters mentioned
against them for import/ export purposes.
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6.

S.No Code Number Categories of Importers/ Exporters

1 0100000011 All Ministries/Departments of the Central Government and agencies wholly or partially owned by
them.
2 0100000029 All Ministries/Departments of the State Government and agencies wholly or partially owned by them.
3 0100000037 Diplomatic personnel, Counselor officers in India and the officials of the UNO and its specialised
agencies.
4 0100000045 Indians returning from/going abroad and claiming benefit under the Baggage Rules.
5 0100000053 Persons/ Institutions/ Hospitals importing or exporting goods for personnel use, not connected with
trade or manufacture or agriculture.
6 0100000061 Persons importing/ exporting goods from/to Nepal provided the CIF value of a single consignment
does not exceed Indian Rupees 25000/-.
7 0100000070 Persons importing/ exporting goods from/to Myanmar through Indo- Myanmar border areas provided
the CIF value of a single consignment does not exceed Indian Rupees 25000/-.
8 0100000088 Ford Foundation
9 0100000096 Importers importing goods for display or use in fairs/exhibitions or similar events under the
provisions of ATA carnet.
10 0100000100 Director, National Blood Group Reference Laboratory, Bombay or their authorized offices.
11 0100000126 Individuals/Charitable Institutions/ Registered NGOs importing goods, which have been exempted
from Customs duty under the Notification issued by Ministry of Finance for bonafide use by the
victims affected by natural calamity.
12 0100000134 Persons importing/exporting permissible goods as notified from time to time, from/to China through
Gunji, Namgaya Shipkila and Nathula ports.

Note: Commercial Public Sector Undertaking (PSU) who have obtained PAN will however be
required to obtain Importer Exporter Code number. The permanent IEC number as mentioned
above, shall be used by non-commercial PSUs.

Guidelines for Application of IEC Code Number.

Mandatory Requirements to apply for IEC Code Number

1. PAN Number
2. Current Bank Account
3. Bankers Certificate
4. IEC Code Number Application Fee Rs 1,000.00
(Expert TIP : Pay via EFT (Electronic Fund Transfer ), and submit IEC Online
Application form, If you wish to receive IEC Number instantly)
5. The physical application containing required documents should reach DGFT RLA
concerned within 15 days of its online submission.
6. E-mail is not mandatory. If it is provided it will facilitate faster communication.

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Check List of Documents to apply for IEC Code

1. Covering Letter on your company's letter head for issue of new IEC Code Number.
2. Two copies of the application in prescribed format ( Aayaat Niryaat Form ANF 2A ) must be
submitted to your regional Jt.DGFT Office.
3. Each individual page of the application has to be signed by the applicant.
4. Part 1 & Part 4 has to be filled in by all applicants. In case of applications submitted
electronically.
5. No hard copies of Part 1 may be submitted. However in cases where applications are
submitted otherwise, hard copy of Part 1has to be submitted.
6. Only relevant portions of Part 2 need to be filled in.
7. Rs 1,000 Bank Receipt (in duplicate)/Demand Draft/EFT details evidencing payment of
application fee in terms of Appendix 21B.
8. Certificate from the Banker of the applicant firm in the format given in Appendix 18A.
9. Self certified copy of PAN issuing letter or PAN (Permanent Account Number) Card issued by
Income Tax Authority.
10. Two copies of passport size photographs of the applicant duly attested by the Banker of the
applicant.
11. Self addresses envelope with Rs.25/- postal stamp for delivery of IEC certificate by registered
post or challan/DD of Rs.100/- for speed post.

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Exercise No.: 16 Date: ____________

PLANT PROTECTION CHEMICALS FOR CONTROLLING PESTS AND DISEASES UNDER PROTECTED
CULTIVATION

Brand Name Chemical Name Remarks

Red spider Mite
Kelthane Dicofol 18.5% EC Contact
Vertimec Abamectin 18% EC Contact, translaminor action
Pentac Dienchlor 50% Contact (Very poisonous)
Appollo Chlofentazine 50% Kills eggs
Nissorun Hexythiazox 10% Kills eggs
Omite Proparytite 30% WP Kills eggs
Cascade Flufenoxuron Stomach action with contact activity & has
translaminar action
Mytac Amitraz 20% Contact
Karate Lamda-Cyhalothrin 5% EC Controls eggs and larvae, used with adult killer
Folimate Omethoate 5% Systemic, very poisonous
Magister Fenazaquine 10% EC
Polo/Pegasus Difenthiuron 50% WP
Curacron Profenofos 50% EC Systemic
Temik 10G Aldicarb 10G Systemic, soil application (Granules)
Marshal Carbosulfan 25% DS Systemic
Torque Fenbutatinoxide 50% Contact, soft and specific to mites
Metasystox Oxy-Demeton Methyl 25% EC Systemic
Hostathion Triazophos 40% EC Contact, not to use on flower
Dursban Chlorpyriphos 20% EC Contact
Tedion 18 Tetradifon Contact, kills only larvae
Morocide Binapacryl 40% EC
Neoron Bromopropylate
Mit 505 Ethion 50% EC
Spark Deltamethrin 1% & Triazophos
35% EC
Ecomite Natural alcoloids Biological
Exodus Jasmine root extract Biological
Genex Extract of medicinal plants Biological
Thrips
Lannate Methomyl 12.5% Strong
Orthene Acephate 75%SP Systemic
Nogos Dichlorvos 76%EC Contact
Dursban Chlorpyriphos 20%EC Contact
Folimate Omethoate Systemic
Malathion Malathion 50%EC Contact
Rogor Dimethoate 30%EC
Ambush Permethrin 25%EC Contact

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Ripcord Cypermethrin 25% EC Curative

Karate Lamda Cyhalothrin 5% EC Curative
Anthio Formothion 25% EC Contact and systemic
Thiodan Endosulfan 35% EC Systemic
Vertimec Abamectin 18% Curative
Nuvacron Monocrotophos 36% SL Systemic
Mavrik Fulvalinate 25% EC
Confidor / Atom Imidacloprid 17.8% SL Systemic
Regent Fipronil 5% SC
White Fly:
Lannate Methomyl 12.5% SP
Orthene Acephate 75% SP Systemic
*DDVP Dichlorvos 76% EC Contact
Chlorfen vinphos Chlorfenvinphos 50% SP Contact
Decis Deltamethrin 2.8% EC Contact
Ripcord Cypermethrin 2.5% EC Contact
Talstar Bifenthrin Contact, curative
Furadan Carbofuran 3G Systemic
Actara Thiamethoxan 25% WG Systemic
Pegasus Diafenthiuron 50% WP Systemic
Aphids
Nuvacron Monocrotophos 36% SL Systemic
DDVP Dichlorvos 76% EC Contact
Endosulfan Endosulfan 35% EC Systemic
Lannate Methomyl 12.5% SP Systemic
Furadan Carbofuran 10G Systemic (soil application)
Metasystox Oxy-Demeton Methyl 25% EC Systemic
Decis Delta Methrin 2.8% EC Contact
Guzathion Axinphos 200 EC Contact
Lebaycid Fenthion 82.5% EC Contact and systemic
Mavric Fulvalinate 25% EC
Confidor / Atom Imidacloprid 17.8% SL Systemic
Nematodes
Temik 10 G Aldicarb 10 G Systemic, soil application (9kg / 1000 m2)
Furadan Carbofuran 10 G
Methyl Bromide Soil preparation before planting
99% L
Nemacur 400 EC Fenamiphos Systemic (4 L / ha)
Trichorich Bio-agent formulations Developed by IIHR
Downey Mildew
Ridomil MZ Metalaxyl 17.5% WP and Systemic, contact preventive and curative
mancozeb 56% WP (residues), (soil drench)
Apron Metalaxyl 35% SD
Aliette Fosetyl-A1 80% WP Systemic (residues)
Milraz Cymoxinil (curzate) and Propineb Systemic (residues on blooms)
76WP
Previcur N Propamocarb Systemic, Prophylactic and curative (foliar spray
HCl 722 g/L or drench)
Bravo/Kavach Chlorothalonil 75% WP Contact (residues)
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Dithane M 45 Mancozeb 75% Contact

Blitox Copper oxychloride 50% WP Contact
Delan Dithianon 75% WP Systemic (resdidues)
Curzate Cymoxinil 8% & Mancozeb 64% Systemic
WP
Powdery Mildew
Meltatox Dodemorph acetate 40% Systemic, preventive and curative
Kocide Copper-hydroxide 77% WP
Nimrod Bupirimate 25% Systemic
Baycor Bitertanol 25% WP Systemic (Broad spectrum)
Preventive and curative
Rubigan Fenarimol 12% EC Systemic
Wettable sulphur Sulphur 80% WP Contact (residues)
Thiovit Sulphur Use in initial stage
Bavistin Carbendazim 50% WP Systemic (Broad spectrum)
Topsin – M Thiophanate-Methyl 70% WP Systemic (Residues on blooms)
Benomyl Benomyl 50% WP Systemic (Residues on blooms_
Ronilan Vinchlozolin 50% Broad spectrum
Daconil Chlorthalonil 75% WP Systemic
Bayleton Triademifon 25% WP
Funginex/Saprol Triforine 19% Systemic
Bayfidan Triadimenol 250 EC Systemic
Afugan Pyrazophos 30% EC Systemic
Contaf / Manage Hexaconazole 5% EC Systemic
Tilt Porpiconozole Systemic
Topaz Penconozole 10% EC Systemic
Score Difenconazole 25% EC Systemic

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Exercise No.: 17 Date: ____________

USEFUL WEBSITE AND e- MAIL ADDRESS OF FLOWER GROWERS/EXPORTERS

Anthura BV http://www.anthura.nl/ Breeder Anthurium & Netherlands

Orchids
AVO Anthurium http://www.avonl/ Anthurium young plants Netherlands
Vogels
Ball Flora Plants http://www.balfloraplant.com/ Breeder propagator USA
vegetative plants
Barberet & Blanc http://www.barberet.com/ Breeder of carnations France & Spain

Bartels Stek http://www.bartelsstek.nl/ Selection and breeding Netherlands

summer flowers
Benzur Nurseries http://www.benzur.com/ Propagator Proteas etc Israel
CBA http://www.cba-nv.nl/ Chrysanthemum Breeders Netherlands
Association
Cleangro Ltd http://www.cleangro.co.uk/ New Chrysanthemum UK
varieties
Combifleur bv http:// Perennials young plants Netherlands
Corn Bak bv http://www.bromelia.com/ Bromeliaceae, Nepenthes Netherlands
& Dionaea
Daehnfeldt http://www.daehnfeldt.com/ Breeder flower seeds Denmark
Danziger Dan Flower http://www.danziger.co.il/ Breeder:Aster, Solidago Israel
Gypsophila, Million Stars
De Ruiter New http://www.deruiter.com/ Rose Breeders Netherlands
Roses
De Vor Nurseries http://www.dewittco.com/ Breeder roses for Latin USA
America
Emst Benary Seeds http://www.benary.com/ Breeder Flower seed Germany
Esperit Plant http://www.ficus.com/ Breeder selector new ficus Netherlands
Ex-Plants Aps http://www.ex-plant.com/ Breeding and seed Denmark
production
Fides Goldstock http://www.jgb.com/ Chrysanthemum cut and Netherlands
Breeding pot, santinis, NG
impatiens, kalanchoe,
fortunea
Fischer http://www.pelfi.de/ Pelargonium, Poinsettia, Germany
Fleurselect http://www.fleuroselect.com/ New flower seed selection Netherlands
Goldsmith Seeds http://www.goldsmithseeds.com/ Breeders producers hybrid USA, Netherlands
seed, annuals
biennials:Cyclamen,
impatiens, petunias,
cyclamen, geraniums
H&B Flower bulbs http://www.hbflowerbulbs.com/ Zantedeschia and others Netherlands
Hadeco http://www.hadecobulbs.com/ Bulbs:Hippeastrum hybrids
and 40 other kinds of lower
bulbs & cut flowers
Hilverda http://www.hilverda.nl/ Carnations, roses, USA
alstroemeria, limonium
Holtkamp-GRH http://www.optumara.com/ Breeder Saintpaulia Netherlands

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Interplant http://www.interplant.nl/ Breeder large medium Netherlands

small, spray roses
Jan Spek Roses http://www.rozen.com./ Breeder tester of roses Netherlands
De Jong http://www.bouvardia.nl/ Breeder developer Netherlands and
Bouvardia USA
Kieft Seeds http://www.kieftseeds.com/ Annual and perennial Netherlands
seeds potted Plants. Cut
and dried flowers
Konst Alstroemeria http://www.alstroemeria.com/ Breeder alstroemeria Netherlands
Kooji http://www.kooij.nl/ Carnation breeding and Germany
selection
Kordes Roses http://www.kordes-rosen.com/ Rose Breeders Netherlands
KP Holland http://www.kpholland.nl/ Breeder Spathiphyllum, Netherlands
Anthurium, Kalanchoe,
Curcuma
Landsbergen http://www.lansbergen.com/ Gerbera Netherlands
Gerberas
Lex+ http://www.lex.nl/ Rose Breeders France
Meilland International http://www.meilland.com/ Rose Breeders France & Italy
NIRP International http://www.nirpinternational.com/ Rose Breeders Netherlands
Oliji http://www.olijrozen.nl/ Rose Breeders Netherlands
Preesman http://www.preesman.com/ Breeder Roses and Germany
Gerbera
Rosen Tantau http://www.rosen-tantau.com/ Rose Breeders Netherlands
Schreurs de Kwakel http://www.schreurs.nl/ Breeder Roses Netherlands
Terra Nigra http://www.terranigra.com/ Breeder roses and gerbera Netherlands
Van Staaveren http://www.vanstaaveren.nl/ Breeder freesia and Netherlands
alstroemeria
Vegmo http://www.vegmoplant.nl/ Young anemone, Netherlands
Mattthiola
Fides http://www.fgb.nl/ Breeder Chrysanthemum Netherlands
Florist de Kwakel http://www.gerbera.com/ Breeder Gerbera Netherlands
Goldsmith Seeds http://www.goldseed.com/ Breeder flower seeds USA
Hilverda Bv http://www.hilverda.nl/ Breeder Carnations Netherlands
Jackson & Perkins http://www.jpgreenhouse.com/ Breeder cut & garden USA
roses
John de Jong http://www.bouvardia.nl/ Breeder bouvardia Netherlands
Bouvardia
Kieft Seeds http://www.kieftseeds.com/ Breeder Celosia and other USA & Netherlands
Royal van Zanten http://www.kvzg.com/ Breeder lilies & other bulbs Netherlands
Konst Alstroemeria http://www.alstroemeria.com/ Breeder Alstroemeria Netherlands
P Kooij & Son BV http://www.kooji.nl/ Breeder carnations Netherlands
KP Holland http://www.kpholland.nl./ Breeder Spathiphyllum Netherlands
Anthurium
Moerheim New http://www.moerheim.com/ Breeder propagator new Netherlands
Plants plants
Moral Diffusion http://www.cyclamen.com/ Breeder cyclamen France
Muller Flower Seeds http://www.mullerseeds.com/ Flower seeds Netherlands
NIRP International http://www.nirpinternational.com/ Breeder roses France
Oglevee Ltd. http://www.oglevee.com/ Breeder & virus indexing USA
pelargoniums poinsettia
Olij Rozen http://www.olijrozen.nl/ Breeding and propagation Netherlands
roses
Pan America Seeds http://www.panamericanseed.com/ Breeder producer bedding, USA
pots, flowers

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Penning Freesia http://www.xs4all.nl.penbreed/ Breeder freesia & amaryllis Netherlands

Santamaria http://www.santamariacuttings.it/ Breeder :Carnation cutting Italy
Schoneveld Twello http://www.schoneveld.nl/ Breeder cyclamen Primula Netherlands
Schreurs Gerbera & http://www.schreurs.nl/ Breeder roses and gerbera Netherlands
Roses
Selecta Klemm http://www.selectaklemm.de/ Breeder carnations, Germany & Italy
Impatiens, Poinsettia
Selecta Westek http://www.selectaworld.com/ Breeder supplier carnation Netherlands
cuttings
Serres de Oiseme http://www.serres-de-oiseme.com/ Chrysanthemum, research, France
cultivation, Propagation
Van Staaveren http://www.vst.kvzg.com/ Breeder alstroemeria, Netherlands
freesia, limonium
Tantau Rosen http://www.rosen-tantau.com/ Breeder indoor & outdoor Germany
roses
Terra Nigra www.flowerweb.nl/terra/ Breeder roses & gerberas Netherlands
Vegmo Plant http://www.ballholland/.com Breeder cut flower from Netherlands
seed

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E-mail Address of Horticulture Units in South India

1. Bloming Meadows Ltd. [email protected]

2. Ccl Flowers Ltd. [email protected]
3. Camson Agritech Ltd. [email protected]
4. Indus Flora Base Ltd. [email protected]
5. Idl Chemicals Ltd. [email protected]
6. Jagadale Industries Ltd. [email protected]
7. Crystal Agritech [email protected]
8. Indo Bloom Ltd. [email protected]
9. Goodwill Technologies Ltd. [email protected]
10. Karuturi Floritech Ltd. [email protected]
11. Manjushree Plantations Ltd. [email protected]
12. Blooms & Greens (P) Ltd. [email protected]
13. Rosette Agrotech Ltd. [email protected]
14. Scarlet Flowers & Agritech Ltd. scarlet@ vsnl.com
15. Sigma Blooms Ltd. Prkrishna @ eth.net
16. Maharastra Hybrid Seeds Co. Ltd. Bangalore @ mahyco.com
17. Nagarjuna Agritech Ltd. Nad @ redifmail.com
18. Sachin Floritech Ltd. [email protected]
19. Sachin Floritech Ltd. sipshare @ satyam.net.in
20. Spa Flora P. Ltd. spaagro @ vsnl.com
21. Suvarna Florex Ltd. suvarnaflorx @ sathyam.net.in
22. Pushpam Flora Base P. Ltd. pushpam @ blr.vsnl.net.in
23. Pochiraju Floritech Ltd. pochiraju @ hormail.com
24. Classic Biotech Ltd. classic2002 @ tatanova.com
25. Sri Vasavi Florex Ltd. rkravi @ idand.com
26. Zygo Flowers Ltd. zygo @ vsnl.com
27. Asian Flora rajesh 300 @ hotmail.com
28. Edin Flori Agro edin @ yahoo.com
29. Floritech India Ltd. flrose_2000 @ yahoo.com.uk
30. Universal Flowers uf @ brl.vsnl.net.in
31. Tanflora tanflorapark @ hotmail.com
32. Sun Blossoms sunblossom @ email.com
33. Spic Ltd. Spicabc @ md3.vsnl.net.in
34. Meghana Floritech Ltd. Flowers @ bgl.vsnl.net.in

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List of Address of Members of South Indian Floriculture Association

1. M/s INDO Bloom Ltd. Empire Infantry, 13 M/s Blooming Meadows Ltd.
3rd Floor, 9 Infantry Road, No.120, West, Trinity Woods,
Bangalore – 560 001. Ph. 22860792 Near Bellandur Gate, Sarjapura Road,
Bangalore-560 034,Telefax: 5720261 / 572 1987
2. M/s Vasavi Florex Ltd. 202, 2nd Floor, 14 M/s IDL Chemicals Ltd.
House of Lords, St. Marks Road, P.O No. 397, Chowdiah Road, 18th Cross,
Bangalore – 1 Malleswaram, Bangalore – 560 003,
Ph.: 22231710, 22247728, 22245998 Ph.:23314866, 2223345617
3. M/s Megana Floritech Ltd. No. 372, 12th Cross 15 M/s Crystal Agritech Ltd.
5th Main, R.M.V. 2nd Stage, Gollahali Vilalge, Nelamangala,
Bangalore – 560 094, Bangalore Rural District,
Ph. : 23511343, Fax: 23512185. Ph. 23438878
4 M/s. Majesty Floritech Ltd. 16 M/s Manjushree Plantation Ltd.
367, Cottonpet, Kolar – 563 101 14th Floor, „A‟ Wing Mittal Towers,
Ph.: 08152-222105 M.G. Road, Bangalore – 560 001,
Ph: 25594430
5 M/s. Sachin Floritech Ltd. 17 M/s Scarlet Flowers & Agritech Pvt. Ltd.
18, East Trinity Woods, Sarjapura Road, # 248, 2nd Main, J.P. Nagar, 3rd Phase,
Bangalore – 560 034 Bangalore – 560 078 ; Ph: 8463878
Ph. 25720746, 25725917, Fax:25721894
6 M/s. Indus Flora Base Ltd. 18 M/s C.C.L. Flowers
No. 1088, Hall 2nd Stage, 12th Cross, Kodiyalam Vilalge, Hosur Tq.
Bangalore – 560 008 Tamil Nadu; Ph: 04344 254557; 254707
7 M/s Jagadle Industries Ltd. 19 M/s Floritech India Limited,
No. 27, Bull Temple Road, #13, 4th Main Rad, (Sumangali Seva Ashrama Road),
Basavanagudi, Bangalore – 560 004 1st Floor, (Above Dr. Chikkalingaiah), Hebbal,
Bangalore, Telefax: 3544651 – 27661059
Ph. 26508310
8 M/s Good Technolgies 20 M/s Asian Flora,
22/A. Cambridge Road, 1st Floor Ulsoor, # 2519, Law Casa, 5th Main, 4th Cross, BDA Layout,
Bangalore – 560 008 HAL 2nd Stage, Konena Agarahara, Bangalore – 560
Ph.: 25365145 017
9 M/s Edin Flori Agro, 21 M/s Blooms & Greens Pvt. Ltd., No. 609, „Baston
40/1, 2nd Floor, S&B Towers, Centre‟ No. 84, M.G. Road, Bangalore – 560 001, Ph.
30610701, 25596333
M.G. Road, Bangalore; Ph. 25586372
10 M/s. Zygo Flowers Ltd. 22 Sunrise Chambers R 101 & 102, 1st Floor, No. 22,
26/A, 1st Block, 2nd Stage, Ulsoor Road,
R.M.V. Extension, Bangalore Ph. 23411336 Bangalore – 560 042

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11 M/s. Rossette Agro Tech Ltd. 23 M/s Optimal Connection B.V. P.O. Box 1000, 1430 BA
No. 14, MSH Layout, Anand Nagar, Aalsmeer The Netherlands.
4th Main, Bangalore – 560 024,
Ph. 23630571
12 M/s Nupur Bio-tech Ltd. 24 M/s Span Floritech Pvt. Ltd. 252, HAL III Stage,
83, 80 Feet Main Road, Bangalore – 560 075,
R.M.V. Extention 2nd Stage, Phone: 7723060 / 98440 20608,
Bangalore – 560 094, Ph: 23414117 E-mail: [email protected].
25 M/s Tanflora Infrastructure Park Ltd. No. 834, 7th 26 M/s Sigma Blooms Ltd.
Main, 2nd Cross, HAL 2nd Stage, Indiranagar, Railway Gollahali, Nelamangala Taluk, Bangalore
Bangalore – 560 008, Rural District.
Ph: 5202446/7/8, Fax: 520449 Bangalore – 562 123
27 M/s SIP Industries Ltd. 28 M/s Pushpam Flora Base Pvt. Ltd. 191, 1st Block East,
No. 2565, 16th „D‟ Main Road, HAL II Byrasandra, Jayanagar, Bangalore – 560 011,
Stage, Indiranagar, Bangalore-560 008, Ph: 26632020, Fax: 26553757
Ph. 25202316
29 M/s Karuturi Floritech Ltd. 30 M/s HI-Tech Agro Plantation Ltd. No. 38, 2nd Main
203, Embassy Centre, Road, Amariyothi, Cholanagar, Bangalore – 560 032
11, Cresent Road, Bangalore – 560 001 Oh: 3336565
Ph: 2257470, 22259470, 2351181/2/3
31 Suvarna Florex Limited, 32 M/s SPIC – ABC, Siruvani Road,
No. 298, 15th B Main Road, 3rd Sector, HSR Chitrahavadi, Coimbatore – 641101
Layout, Bangalore – 560 034
Telefax No. 5725 220, 5725223
33 M/s Nagarjuna Agritech Ltd. 34 M/s SPIC Ltd.
HIG 90, IA, Main Road, New Yelahanka Town, Biotechnology Division, Pooluvapatti
Bangalore – 560 064 Village, Siruvani Road,
Ph. 28462829 Coimbatore - 641101
35 M/s Pochiraju Floritech Ltd. 36 M/s Sun Blossom Ltd.
5/9-E, Sapthagiri Nagar, Teachers Colony, Batuvaripalli Village, Bagulu, Husur Taluk, Hosur –
Hosur – 635 109 04344 - 254295
Ph: 954344 255044
37 M/s SPA Agro Pvt. Ltd., 38 M/s Camson Agritech Ltd.
342, Raheja Arcade, Koramangala, 233, 1st Main, Domlur 2nd Stage,
Bangalore – 560 095;Ph: 25520187/189 Bangalore – 560 071, Ph: 25355138, 25352232
39 M/s. Classic Biotech Exports Ltd.
223/B, 13th „A‟ Cross, New Ylahanka Town,
Bangalore – 560 064, Ph: 28463301.

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Text Books for Hi-Tech Floriculture

Sl No Title Author/s Year
1 Advanced commercial floriculture S.K. Bhattacharjee and L.C. 2003
De
2 Advances in ornamental horticulture Vol. 1 to 6 S.K. Bhattacharjee 2006
3 Commercial floriculture Surendra Prasad Updesh 1998
Kumar
4 Commercial flower Bose & Yadav 1989
5 Commercial flowers Vol. 1 & 2 T.K. Bose, L.P. Yadav, P. Pal,
V.A. Parthasarathy & P. Das
6 Commercial flowers Vol. 1 & Vol. 2 T.K. Bose, L.P. Yadav, P. 2002
Pal,P. Das, V.A.
Parthasarathy
7 Green house management J.J. Hanan, W.O. Holley K.L. 1978
Goldsberry
8 Green house management for Horticultural crops S. Prasad and U. Kumar 2001
9 Green house management forcing of flowers, L.R. Traft 1997
vegetables and fruits
10 Green house technology and management K. Radha Manohar, C. 2000
Igathinathane
11 Greenhouse operation and management – 5th Paul V. Nelson 1981
Edition
12 Greenhouse technology G.N. Tiwari, R.K. Goyal 1998
13 Orchids of India T.K. Bose, S.K., 1999
Bhattacharjee and P. Das
14 Ornamental Horticulture Vishnu Swarup 1997
15 Ornamental Horticulture in India K.L. Chadha 1997
16 Ornamental Horticulture in India K.L. Chadha, B. Choudhary 1986
17 Pest and disease control of protected crops Dr. R.J. Penna, Dr. W.M. 1983
outdoor bulbs and corms Morgan, M.S. Ledieu,
Dr. D. Price & A Lane
18 Post-harvest biotechnology of flowers and D.K. Salunkhe, Bhatt, Desai 1990
ornamental plants
19 Post-harvest biotechnology of flowers and D.K. Salunkhe, Bhatt, Desai 1990
ornamental plants
20 Post-harvest technology of flowers and S.K. Bhattacharjee, L.C. De. 2005
ornamental plants
21 Protected cultivation of roses Dr. T.V. Reddy & Dr. C.G. 2004
Nagaraju
22 Rose growing principles and practices T.D. Biswas 1984
23 Roses Amitabha Mukhopadyay 1990
24 The A – Z of cut flowers By Gilly Love 1994

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