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The Diversity of Fishes
The Diversity of Fishes
Biology, Evolution and Ecology

Third Edition

DOUGLAS E. FACEY
Emeritus Professor of Biology, Saint Michael’s College,
Vermont, USA

BRIAN W. BOWEN
Research Professor, Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology,
University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA

BRUCE B. COLLETTE
Research Associate, NOAA, National Museum of Natural History,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA

GENE S. HELFMAN
Emeritus Professor of Ecology, Odum School of Ecology,
University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
This edition first published 2023
© 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

Edition History
Gene S. Helfman, Bruce B. Collette, Douglas E. Facey (1e, 1997); Gene S. Helfman, Bruce B. Collette, Douglas E. Facey, and Brian W. Bowen
(2e, 2009)

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to
reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

The right of Douglas E. Facey, Brian W. Bowen, Bruce B. Collette, and Gene S. Helfman to be identified as the authors of this work has been
asserted in accordance with law.

Registered Offices
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

Editorial Office
The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print-­on-­demand. Some content that appears in standard print
­versions of this book may not be available in other formats.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties
with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without
limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales
representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is
referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse
the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the
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shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or
other damages.

Library of Congress Cataloging-­in-­Publication Data

Names: Facey, Douglas E., author. | Bowen, Brian W. (Brian William), 1957-
author. | Collette, Bruce B., author. | Helfman, Gene S., author.
Title: The diversity of fishes : biology, evolution and ecology / Douglas
E. Facey, Brian W. Bowen, Bruce B. Collette, Gene S. Helfman.
Description: Third edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2023. | Revised edition
of: The diversity of fishes / Gene Helfman ... [et al.] 2nd ed. 2009. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022030874 (print) | LCCN 2022030875 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119341918 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119341802 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781119341833 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Fishes. | Fishes—Variation. | Fishes—Adaptation.
Classification: LCC QL615 .F33 2023 (print) | LCC QL615 (ebook) | DDC
597–dc23/eng/20220810
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022030874
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022030875

Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Images: Courtesy of Gene Helfman; Luiz A. Rocha, California Academy of Sciences; Jon Hyde & Kimberly Sultze, www.hydesultze.com;
Andrew Nagy

Set in 9.5/12.5pt SourceSansPro by Straive, Pondicherry, India

 To our parents, for their encouragement of our nascent interest in things biological;
To our spouses – Janice, RuthEllen, Sara, and Judy – for their patience and understanding during the production of this volume;
And to students, colleagues, and fish lovers for their efforts to preserve biodiversity for future generations.
Contents
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION ix
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION x
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION xi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xiii
ABOUT THE COMPANION WEBSITE xiv

Part I – Introduction 1

1 The Science of Ichthyology 3

2 Phylogenetic Procedures 16

Part II – Form, Function, Ontogeny 29

3 Structure and Function of the Head 31

4 Structure and Function of the Trunk and Fins 52

5 Circulation, Gas Transport, Metabolism, Digestion, and Energetics 73

6 Nervous System and Sensory Organs 92

7 Homeostasis 114

8 Reproduction 133

9 Larvae, Juveniles, Adults, Age, and Growth 150

10 Special Habitats and Special Adaptations 175

Part III – Taxonomy, Phylogeny, and Evolution 205

11 A History of Fishes 207

12 Chondrichthyes: Sharks, Skates, Rays, and Chimaeras 242

13 Living Representatives of Primitive Fishes 267

14 Teleosts I: Elopomorpha through Paracanthopterygii 295

15 Teleosts II: Spiny-Rayed Fishes 321

vii
viii CO N T E N TS

Part IV – Fish Behavior 359

16 Fishes as Predators and Prey 361

17 Fishes as Social Animals 388

18 Cycles of Activity and Behavior 423

Part V – Fish Distribution, Ecology, and Conservation 449

19 Zoogeography and Phylogeography 451

20 Fish Populations 486

21 The Functional Role of Fishes in Communities and Ecosystems 505

22 Conservation 552

APPENDIX 1 - GLOSSARY OF GENETIC/MOLECULAR TERMINOLOGY 597

REFERENCES 601

INDEX 679
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Preface to the Third Edition
Thank you to all who helped make the first two editions of and Chapter 4 addresses structure and function of the
The Diversity of Fishes successful. We greatly appreciate the trunk (e.g. bones, muscles, integument, scales, fins,
feedback and suggestions from those who have used them. And locomotion).
to those who have been asking us about an update – thanks for • In chapters addressing the history of the fishes (Chapter 11)
your patience. Here is what you can expect in the third edition. and systematics of the major groups of fishes (Chapters 12–
15), we have largely adopted the approach of Nelson et al.
• We have done our best to update information while rec-
(2016), which includes consideration of molecular phy-
ognizing that no textbook can represent the most current
logenetics. However, we have retained the approach of
information in any large field. This book is intended as a
Nelson (2006) where conclusions from molecular data are
starting point, not the final destination. Therefore, we
quite different from those based on morphological evi-
encourage those using the text to consult more current
dence (see Chapter 15, for example). We note differences
sources for updated information.
between the approaches and encourage readers to con-
• This edition includes more color photographs to better sult current sources for updated information and perspec-
demonstrate the diversity and beauty of fishes that attract tives, as our collective understanding of the relationships
many to the field. We include photographs from public among groups of fishes continues to evolve.
agencies, in part to acknowledge the valuable contri-
butions to Ichthyology of those in natural resources and • Fishes as predators and prey are considered together in
management organizations. one chapter (Chapter 16). Many fishes are both predators
and prey, and many physical and behavioral adaptations
• Reorganization and consolidation of some topics has
are rather similar and, in some cases, may have developed
reduced the total number of chapters to 22.
in response to one another.
• Each chapter begins with a Summary that provides a
• Our chapter on Zoogeography and Phylogeography
broad overview of the content of that chapter. This may
(Chapter 19) uses global maps that more accurately repre-
be particularly useful for those using the text for a course
sent the comparative sizes of oceans and landmasses than
and who do not intend to utilize some chapters in detail –
maps used in prior editions.
students can read the summary of each of those chapters.
• Fish populations are covered in Chapter 20, including
• Molecular genetics has transformed many aspects of ich-
Population Ecology, Population Dynamics and Regulation,
thyology over the last few decades, and this is reflected
and Population Genetics.
throughout the text. Important concepts are introduced
in Chapters 1 and 2, supported by an Appendix of termi- • Fish interactions with other species within fish assem-
nology at the end of the book, and specific contributions of blages and broader communities, and their impacts on
molecular genetics to the field of ichthyology are included ecosystems are addressed in Chapter 21. This is a long
in many chapters. chapter but avoids the redundancy of addressing similar
• Structure and function are addressed together rather types of interactions and impacts in multiple chapters.
than treated in separate chapters. For example, Chapter 3 • As in the past, we conclude with a chapter on
addresses structure and function of the head (e.g. bones, Conservation (Chapter 22), but this now includes
muscles, breathing, jaw suspension, feeding, dentition), Conservation Genetics.

ix
Preface to the Second Edition
The first edition of The diversity of fishes was successful beyond interpretations of new findings. A basic textbook is not the
our wildest dreams. We have received constant and mostly appropriate place to attempt to summarize or critique the
positive feedback from readers, including much constructive arguments, opinions, and interpretations. We have decided to
criticism, all of which convinces us that the approach we have accept one general compilation and synthesis. As in the 1997
taken is satisfactory to ichthyological students, teachers, and edition, where we adopted with little adjustment the conclu-
researchers. Wiley-Blackwell has validated that impression: sions and terminology of Nelson (1996), we here follow Nelson
by their calculations, The diversity of fishes is the most widely (2006), who reviews the recent discoveries and clearly presents
adopted ichthyology textbook in the world. and assesses the many alternative hypotheses about most
However, ichthyology is an active science, and a great deal groups. Instructors who used our first edition will have to join
of growth has occurred since this book was first published in us in learning and disseminating many changed names as well
1997. Updates and improvements are justified by active and as rearrangements among taxa within and among phylogenies,
exciting research in all relevant areas, including a wealth of new especially Chapters 11–13. Science is continually self-correct-
discoveries (e.g., a second coelacanth species, 33 more mega- ing. We should applaud the advances and resist the temptation
mouth specimens, several new record tiniest fishes, and excit- to comfortably retain familiar names and concepts that have
ing fossil discoveries including some that push back the origin been modified in light of improved knowledge.
of fishes many million years and another involving a missing Also, we have now adopted the accepted practice of capital-
link between fishes and amphibians), application of new tech- izing common names.
nologies (molecular genetics, transgenic fish), and increased
emphasis on conservation issues (e.g., Helfman 2007). Web-
sites on fishes were essentially nonexistent when the first edi-
tion was being produced; websites now dominate as an instant Acknowledgments
source of information. Many of the volumes we used as primary
references have themselves been revised. Reflective of these Thanks especially to the many students and profession-
changes, and of shortcomings in the first edition, is the addi- als who corrected errors in the first edition (J. Andrew,
tion of a new chapter and author. Genetics received insufficient A. Clarke, D. Hall, G.D. Johnson, H. Mattingly, P. Motta,
coverage, a gross omission that has been corrected by Brian L.R. Parenti, C. Reynolds, C. Scharpf, E. Schultz,
Bowen’s contribution of a chapter devoted to that subject M.L.J. Stiassny, and S. Vives proved particularly alert editors).
and by his suggested improvements to many other chapters. Their suggestions alone led to many changes, to which we have
Brian’s contributions were aided by extensive and constructive added literally hundreds of new examples, facts, and updates.
comments from Matthew Craig, Daryl Parkyn, Luiz Rocha, and Wiley-Blackwell has provided a website for this second edition,
Robert Toonen. He is especially grateful to John Avise, Robert www.wiley.com/go/helfman, through which we hope to again
Chapman, and John Musick for their guidance and mentor- correct and update the information provided here. We encour-
ship during his professional career, and most of all to his wife, age any and all to inform us wherever they encounter real or
RuthEllen, for her forbearance and support. apparent errors of any kind in this text. Please write directly to
Among the advances made in the decade following our ini- us. Chief responsibilities fell on GSH for Chapters 1, 8–15, and
tial publication, a great deal has been discovered about the 18–26 ([email protected]); on BBC for Chap-
phylogeny of major groups, especially among jawless fishes, ters 2–4 and 16 ([email protected]); on DEF for Chapters
sarcopterygians, early actinopterygians, and holocephalans. 5–7 ([email protected]), and on BWB for Chapter 17 (bbowen@
In almost all taxa, the fossil record has expanded, prompt- hawaii.edu). Once again and more than anything, we want to
ing reanalysis and sometimes culminating in conflicting get it right.

x
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Section 1: Study tips and learning strategies

Learning Objective 1: Best practices and recommendations
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 2: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Learning Objective 3: Historical development and evolution
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 3: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 4: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 5: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 6: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 9: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Background 2: Comparative analysis and synthesis
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 11: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 12: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 17: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 18: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 19: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Introduction 3: Theoretical framework and methodology
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 21: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 22: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 27: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Conclusion 4: Interdisciplinary approaches
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 32: Study tips and learning strategies
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 34: Practical applications and examples
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 35: Key terms and definitions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 36: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 39: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 39: Current trends and future directions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 40: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Section 5: Experimental procedures and results
Practice Problem 40: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 42: Study tips and learning strategies
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 43: Historical development and evolution
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 46: Practical applications and examples
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 47: Key terms and definitions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 48: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 49: Literature review and discussion
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 50: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Quiz 6: Learning outcomes and objectives
Example 50: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 51: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 52: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 55: Literature review and discussion
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 56: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Unit 7: Theoretical framework and methodology
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 61: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 62: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 65: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 68: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Exercise 8: Statistical analysis and interpretation
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 71: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 72: Literature review and discussion
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 74: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 74: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 75: Ethical considerations and implications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 78: Research findings and conclusions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice 9: Current trends and future directions
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 81: Historical development and evolution
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 84: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 84: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 89: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
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