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Historical Knowledge
 Historical Knowledge
In Quest of Theory, Method and Evidence

edited by
Susanna Fellman and Marjatta Rahikainen
 Historical Knowledge: In Quest of Theory, Method and Evidence
Edited by Susanna Fellman and Marjatta Rahikainen

This book first published 2012

Cambridge Scholars Publishing

12 Back Chapman Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, ne6 2xx, uk

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Copyright © 2012 by Susanna Fellman and Marjatta Rahikainen and contributors

All rights for this book reserved.

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner.

isbn (10): 1-4438-3451-3, isbn (13): 978-1-4438-3451-3

 Table of Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Marjatta Rahikainen and Susanna Fellman

Chapter One . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
On Historical Writing and Evidence
Marjatta Rahikainen and Susanna Fellman

Chapter Two . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
The Method of Clues and History Theory
Matti Peltonen

Chapter Three . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
The Silences of the Archives, the Renown of the Story
Natalie Zemon Davis

Chapter Four . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Our Words, and Theirs: A Reflection on the Historian’s Craft, Today
Carlo Ginzburg

Chapter Five . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

Microhistory and the Recovery of Complexity
Giovanni Levi

Chapter Six . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Revisiting Microhistory from the Perspective of Comparisons
Risto Alapuro

Chapter Seven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

Source Pluralism as a Method of Historical Research
Janken Myrdal
Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
 Preface

It has been a privilege to act as editors of this book. We were happy that
the three distinguished historians, Professors Natalie Zemon Davis, Carlo
Ginzburg, and Giovanni Levi, agreed to contribute to the book, and that
our three Nordic colleagues, Professors Risto Alapuro, Janken Myrdal, and
Matti Peltonen, joined the club. We were impressed when we first read the
six contributions, and when we then sat down and worked on our own
opening chapter, on the basis of these texts, we had the feeling that we were
constantly learning something new. We hope that readers of this book will
experience the same pleasant sense of learning something new just as we
did, in our capacity as editors, in encountering these texts for the first time.
Why we decided to make evidence one theme of the book has to do with
the fact that, together with Risto Alapuro and Matti Peltonen, we editors
were located in the Faculty of Social Sciences. Unlike those who study his-
tory in the Faculty of Arts and learn to take the distinction between primary
and secondary sources for granted, our students often asked why they were
required to use “primary sources” in their theses, when no such requirement
was placed on their fellow-students of sociology, economics, and political
science. This has taught us that for all the talk of rapprochement between
the disciplines, history remains distinct in terms of requirements placed on
evidence.
Thus, the goal of this book is to serve as an introduction and guide
to these themes not only for students and scholars of history, but also for
anyone outside the field with an interest in the topic. We aimed at a book
which approaches the topic in depth and from various angles, but at the
same time we aimed at something that would be easily accessible.
The insight that the historian’s right to the evidence must be defended
– paraphrasing Foucault’s Society Must Be Defended – came with Richard
Strauss’s final opera Capriccio (which premiered in München in 1942), which
viii Preface

Marjatta happened to see as an HD live performance of the Metropolitan

Opera at the time we were working on the opening chapter. In this opera,
after hearing the mocking comments of the young talents at the Countess’s
birthday party, La Roche, the director of the theater, defends in a disarming
way his faith in the theater.
Our acknowledgements go first of all to the six contributors of this
book. We wish to thank them for their fine contributions, for their kind
cooperation, and for what we learned from them. We also feel indebted
to our fellow scholars, past and present, home and abroad, without whose
efforts books like this would not materialize at all.
Our warmest thanks to Lisa Muszynski for her professional and
knowledgeable revision of the different versions of the English language
she encountered in this project.
We wish to dedicate this book, on behalf of all, to our colleague Profes-
sor Matti Peltonen, who turns sixty in April 2012, and who introduced both
microhistory and the history of mentalities to Finnish historians, throwing
open the windows and doors to the wider world.

Helsinki and Gothenburg, September 2011

Susanna Fellman Marjatta Rahikainen
University of Gothenburg University of Helsinki
 Introduction
Marjatta Rahikainen and Susanna Fellman

The intensive debate about the character of historical research and the pos-
sibility vs. impossibility of historical knowledge has now been raging for
several decades, and it is time to move on. What did historians gain from
it? Certainly historians are today more self-reflective and more theoretically
and methodologically conscious than they were before the linguistic turn
and the postmodern challenge. But it is one thing to pursue philosophical
and theoretical discourse on history writing, and quite another to make it
part of research work in practice.
The overall theme of the book, the possibility of historical knowledge,
reflects the very issue that makes historical research distinctive: the chal-
lenges of evidence and the problems, both concrete and conceptual, with
deciphering and interpreting remnants of the past. All disciplines have
their explicit and implicit ideas of valid evidence and reasoning, and in this
respect history as a discipline has today much in common with social sci-
ences and other humanistic disciplines. Yet only in history is the distinction
between primary and secondary sources crucial. Each generation addresses
new questions, but only those writing history look for evidence in archives
in order to find answers.
Requirements placed on evidence and primary sources used to occupy
much space in books on methodological and theoretical issues in histori-
cal research, but the whole issue was reduced to a marginal position after
the murderous postmodern critique. Thus sources and source criticism
have in the last few decades been overshadowed by more fashionable top-
ics of discussion. Nonetheless, the issue of sources and source criticism,
trendy or not, has in practice undergone a profound change during the
last few decades in the factual research work undertaken by historians.
2 Introduction

Moreover, we think that today a historian’s right to proper evidence must

be defended.
There are factors internal and external to the community of historians
that threaten to make proper evidence rare or a luxury that only few
historians can afford. Factors internal to the community of historians are
associated with the linguistic turn and the postmodern challenge which
did not care much about sources and proper evidence. Accordingly, some
historians reasoned that sources can be used indiscriminately, as one source
is just as good as any other, and all source criticism is pointless. In this book
we wish to emphasize the value of proper evidence, primary sources and
source criticism in historical research.
Factors external to the community of historians that threaten to make
proper evidence a luxury are many. History is a slow science, and archival
work takes time, but gone are the days when historians could plunge for
years into the archives. Today professors of history can use for research work
the time that is left over after all other commitments, at best they have a
research leave for a year or two. Researchers not enjoying tenure are under
pressure to publish rapidly enough in order to get funding for the next
project. Nor is there much time for archival work for PhD students in history
who must produce their dissertations in four years. Professors, researchers
and postgraduate students are all under pressure to have something to show.
Time spent in archives under such conditions feels like a bonus.
In the early 1960s Thomas Kuhn could still write of “the unparalleled
insulation of mature scientific communities from the demands of the laity
and of everyday life … professional communities in which individual crea-
tive work is so exclusively addressed to and evaluated by other members
of the profession.”1 Today virtually everything that a historian wishes to
publish is subject not only to peer review but also to an evaluation of its
commercial potential: will the proposed anthology or monograph sell well
enough? Will the submitted article manuscript help the journal to keep its
niche in the market?
If you take in your hand an old published French or German doctoral
dissertation, its research question appears conditioned by the publishing
time, whereas the wonderfully detailed appendices (in volume two or three)
are a real treasure: there you find data about the phenomenon that interests
you here and now. But present-day publishers do not like pages filled with
detailed data. Nor are scholars and students outside the field of history

1. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 163.

 Introduction 3

used to reading such extensive monographs. So appendices, the outcome of

tedious archival work, the evidence, will not be available for future histori-
ans – for their needs the Internet is too ephemeral. For historians, the most
endangered species today is the evidence.
In this book six professors of history and historical sociology discuss
historical research on the basis of their experiences. Matti Peltonen analyses,
with Marc Bloch as one cornerstone and Carlo Ginzburg’s method of clues
as another, the debate over theory and methodology in historical research,
preceding the breakthrough of new openings around the 1970s. Natalie Ze-
mon Davis recalls what her experiences during her quest for Martin Guerre
taught her as a historian and reflects on the relationship between archival
losses and the nature of the case under study. Carlo Ginzburg discusses, in
a self-reflective air, the issue of the historian as an observer of persons under
study and suggests that historians should be sensitive to the distinction
between the two levels. Giovanni Levi maintains that microhistory aims at
reconstructing the complex and incoherent nature of the past and therefore
strives to narrate without hiding the rules of the game that the historian
has followed. Risto Alapuro approaches microhistory from the perspective
of comparative research strategies in social sciences, and after analyzing
examples of comparative studies identifies three salient aspects that offer
good starting points for any comparative studies. Janken Myrdal builds on
his experiences as a medievalist to elaborate a solid research method that
aims at making the best possible use of hopelessly fragmented, obscure and
scanty sources of whatever period.
In the opening chapter below, the editors build on the contributions of
the six professors to discuss from a present-day perspective the changes that
have taken place in historical research after the mid-twentieth century, and
what characterizes the field today. But they also reflect upon the conditions,
intellectual and practical, under which historical research is pursued today.

Bibliography
Kuhn, Thomas S. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago and London: Phoe-
nix Books and The University of Chicago Press, 1962.
 Chapter One

On Historical Writing and Evidence

Marjatta Rahikainen and Susanna Fellman

1.
Scholarly fashions come and go, and few things appear as outdated as yes-
terday’s fashion. A modifier that yesterday indicated high praise may today
indicate the worst censure offered by an updated scholarly lexis. Yet we
know from the history of humanistic disciplines and social sciences that
any idea and line of reasoning may rise from the dead – it is just a matter of
time. One day somebody will read it all with new eyes in new contexts, and
there it is again, no doubt modified in one way or another, but recognizable
nonetheless.
In hindsight new scholarly fashions appear less haphazard than they
may have appeared to contemporaries. Rather, new scholarly fashions seem
to spring up in clusters, and this tempts one into seeing them as patterned
in some way. In the 1960s and 1970s new scholarly schools sprang up just
about everywhere in Western academic communities. This may have had
something to do with the fact that the new generation of academic scholars
was more heterogeneous in its composition than its predecessors – in itself
a sign of how Western societies and the world had changed during the post-
war decades.
In many fields of history and its neighboring sciences, as also in social
sciences, a new generation of scholars strongly felt that what they were
interested in and how they wanted to pursue their research work indicated
a fundamental break with the ideas and practices of the then hegemonic
academic schools. Those who challenged the old schools of their respec-
tive disciplines liked to call their own undertakings New something: New
Archaeology, New Economic History, New History, New Social History,
New Cultural History, New whatever. After establishing their own publica-
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