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 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE
IN THE PAMIRS
(GORNO-BADAKHSHAN, TAJIKISTAN)

This is the first book to deal comprehensively with the history, anthropology
and recent social and economic development of the Pamiri people in Gorno-
Badakhshan, Eastern Tajikistan since Olufsen and Schultz published their
monographs on the Pamirs in 1904 and 1914. After the collapse of the Soviet
Union, such high mountain areas were more or less forgotten and people would
have suffered severely from their isolation if an Aga Khan Foundation project
of 1993–4 had not afforded broader support. A picture of an almost surrealistic
world: Pamiri income and living conditions after 1991 dropped to the level of a
poor Sahelian country, former scientists, university professors and engineers
found themselves using ox-ploughs to plant potatoes and wheat for survival. On
the other hand, a literacy rate of 100 per cent and excellent skills have proved to
be an enormous human capital resource for economic recovery, resulting in an
increase in agricultural production which during Soviet times had never occurred.

Frank Bliss is Professor for Development Anthropology at Hamburg University

and partner of Bliss & Gaesing – Associated Consultants, planning and evaluation
participatory development programmes.
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC
CHANGE IN THE PAMIRS
(GORNO-BADAKHSHAN,
TAJIKISTAN)

Frank Bliss

Translated from German by Nicola Pacult and Sonia Guss

with the support of Tim Sharp
 First published 2006
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group
© 2006 Frank Bliss

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2006.

“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or

reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Bliss, Frank.
Social and economic change in the Pamirs : (Gorno-Badakhshan,
Tajikistan) / Frank Bliss ; translated from the German language by
Nicola Pacult and Sonia Guss with support of Tim Sharp.– 1st ed.
p. cm.
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Kåuçhistonåi Badakhshon (Tajikistan)–Economic conditions. 2. Kåuçhistonåi
Badakhshon (Tajikistan)–Social conditions. 3. Ethnology–Pamir Region. I. Title.
HC421.3.Z7K843 2005
958.6–dc22 2005001405

ISBN10: 0–415–30806–2 (Print Edition)

ISBN13: 9–78–0–415–30806–9
 CONTENTS

List of illustrations viii

Preface xiii
Abbreviations xvii

1 Introduction 1
The basic situation 1
Study methods 7
On the subject of the book 13

2 General features of Gorno-Badakhshan 18

Physical geography 18
Natural resources 30
Landscapes of the Pamirs from a cultural-geographic
perspective 37
The population of Gorno-Badakhshan 44

3 History of the Pamirs 49

The Pamirs and the Silk Road 49
The pre-Islamic period 51
From Islam to the eve of the Great Game 58
The Great Game and the Russian occupation of the Pamirs 67
The early Soviet period 75
Travellers on the ‘roof of the world’ 82

4 Ethnology of the Pamiris 90

Indo-Europeans in the Pamirs 91
Economy 103
Power and administration 143
Pamiri society 147
Household life 152

v
 CONTENTS

Inventory of material culture 165

Communications and transportation 184
Music, dance, games and poetry of the Pamiris 188

5 The Kyrgyz of the Murghâb 193

History and tribal organisation 193
Kyrgyz traditional economy 197
Housing and equipment 205
Social life 213

6 Ismailis and Sunnis 221

Islam and Islamic groups in the Pamirs 221
Ancient religious traces and current popular faith 237

7 Economy and society in the Soviet system 243

Public administration and Soviet development policy 243
Collectivisation of agriculture and the economy of the state
farms 249
Social infrastructure in Soviet times 254
Employment, income and individual prosperity 259
Soviet society, family and gender 261

8 The economic collapse 271

The end of the Soviet Union and the civil war in Tajikistan 271
Economic collapse 278
Employment, income and diet 282
Agriculture, industry and trade 284
Social infrastructure and services 288
Socio-cultural effects 291

9 International development aid 297

The Humanitarian Assistance Programme of the
Aga Khan Foundation 298
Agricultural development 305
Other economic and welfare activities 316
Communal development 318
The programme’s impact on agriculture, productivity
and diet 320
Impact on industry, business and trade 322
Society in transition and the ‘new thinking’ 324
A summary of external development assistance 328

vi
 CONTENTS

10 Development constraints and prospects 330

The development potentials and constraints of the
Pamir region 331
Induced development constraints: drugs and border troops 336
Development prospects and conclusions 339

Glossary 344
Notes 351
Select bibliography 362

vii
 ILLUSTRATIONS

Plates
0.1 The khalifa of Roshorve reads one of the holy books of the
Ismailis xvi
1.1 The author with some village elders in a village near the Chinese
border 8
1.2 The team repairing access to a bridge in order to allow the car
to cross a river 9
1.3 Team members cross a ‘bridge’ over the rapids of the Bartang
river 9
1.4 The team is received in one of the most isolated villages of the
upper Bartang near Lake Sares 11
1.5 Traditional reception in the village of Nisûr 12
2.1 Near Roshân city the Pyandsh loses its force and flows gently
through a series of serene lakes 19
2.2 A typical view of the Pyandsh river in the southern Darwâs area 19
2.3 Track on a typical Pamir plain 20
2.4 Landscape in a typical small Pamir 21
2.5 An enormous scree slope along the track to the upper Bartang
valley 22
2.6 A typical inflow to the Pyandsh river 23
2.7 The beginning of the Shakhdara valley 24
2.8 In the middle Bartang valley rocks reach down to the river 24
2.9 A rich pasture for yaks and cattle near the village of Javshangoz 30
2.10 A high mountain stream at about 4,200 m with live peat soil 31
2.11 The most impressive artsha tree in the Roshorve area at an
altitude of 3,100 m 32
2.12 One of the last forests in the Pamirs 33
2.13 Above the banks of the Wandsh river lies the most remote
village of the area, Poi Masûr 44
3.1 Ancient fortress in the upper Shakhdara valley near the village
of Javshangoz 51

viii
 ILLUSTRATIONS

3.2 Earthen jar from Shugnân 53

3.3 Ancient rock engravings near the main road from Khorog to
Ishkashim 54
3.4 ‘Owring’ or footpath on the Afghan side of the Pyandsh near
Kala-i-Khumb 55
3.5 Kala-i-Wamâr, the most important stronghold in the Roshân area 64
3.6 The 8th battalion of line from Bukhara in Kala-i-Khumb 66
3.7 Soviet troops entering Pamir territory in order to establish
Soviet control 79
3.8 A man stands in Tajikistan and looks across the Pyandsh to
Afghanistan 81
3.9 Farmer from the Bartang valley 84
4.1 Young fair-haired girls from the middle Wandsh valley 96
4.2 A 15-year-old fair-haired girl from the middle Wandsh valley 96
4.3 Some girls from the Yasgulem valley, showing a ‘Dinarian’
physical type 97
4.4 Older women from the village of Porshnev, Shugnân District 97
4.5 Two village elders from the Darwâs area near Kala-i-Khumb
with some Iranian and/or Turkish features 98
4.6 A farmer from the upper Wandsh valley with an Iranian
appearance 99
4.7 Older men from the village of Roshorve showing the effects of
rough living conditions in a high mountain area 100
4.8 Women from the village of Porshev (Shugnân) harvest potatoes
with a hooked implement 105
4.9 A young man using a traditional wooden plough 107
4.10 A young girl in Namadgut (Ishkashim District) using a sling to
drive birds away from ripe wheat fields 109
4.11 Older women in the village of Tusyan (Shakhdara valley)
cutting wheat with sickles 110
4.12 With all the Sovkhoz machinery out of order, a boy from the
Shakhdara valley leads a team of five oxen round a threshing
floor 111
4.13 Men from Tusyan (Shakhdara valley) use zekund (wooden
pitchforks) to separate spelt grain from its straw in the wind 112
4.14 A woman in Sejd (upper Shakhdara valley) cleans the wheat in
a soil-filled sieve 113
4.15 A young woman from Roshorve (Bartang valley) cleans wheat
in a final stage before it is stored as bread grain 114
4.16 A man from the Ishkashim District (Wakhân valley) operates a
small traditional water mill 115
4.17 Woman from Shidz (Roshân) preparing mulberry flour 117
4.18 Older man from Khorog laying out apple slices on old sacks to
dry them in the sun 118

ix
 ILLUSTRATIONS

4.19 Enormous stack of hay and dried herbs on the roof of a Pamiri
house for use as cattle fodder 121
4.20 An irrigation canal about 100 m above the Pyandsh river 126
4.21 Beginning of a small irrigation canal in the lower Shakhdara
valley near the intake 127
4.22 Irrigation in progress in a field in the Roshân District 128
4.23 Wooden (walnut) container for fine clothes 134
4.24 Cradle for small children in Roshorve 135
4.25 One of the last men in the Pamir region to make the famous
rabôb 136
4.26 Woman from Jomdsh spinning with a spindle 138
4.27 Woman from Shidz using a rebuilt spinning wheel 139
4.28 Young woman in Roshorve (upper Bartang valley) prepares
bread 161
4.29 Baking bread in a mud oven 162
4.30 Group of women and girls smoking opium, c. 1900 164
4.31 Typical traditional Pamiri house with small light dome,
(tshor khonâ), Pyandsh valley 168
4.32 Traditional Pamiri house in Vîr with small stock of fodder on
the roof 169
4.33 Tshor khôna seen from the interior of a Pamiri house 171
4.34 Interior of a newly (1980) built Pamiri house in traditional
style showing common furniture 172
4.35 Old but still used granaries or storage houses in the village of
Basîd 173
4.36 Bowmen in the Yasgulem valley in the 1920s 176
4.37 Old woman in Roshorve (Bartang) uses tersgen to heat a
Russian-type iron stove 177
4.38 Two women in the middle Bartang valley with heavy loads of
dried shrubs 177
4.39 Woman from Gharm-Tshashma (Shugnân) wearing the national
Tajik dress 180
4.40 Men from Garan wearing woollen chupân 181
4.41 ‘Owring’ on the Afghan side of the Pyandsh 185
4.42 Suspension bridge over the Bartang river 187
4.43 The khalifa of Roshorve plays an old rabôb that he inherited
from his father 188
4.44 Girls in Roshorve (Bartang) with tambourines preparing to
receive guests 189
4.45 A reception party in Nisûr 190
4.46 Dancing girls in a Pamiri village 191
5.1 Kyrgyz ‘summer’ camp in late September with three yurts in the
valley of the upper Aksu 198
5.2 Family life inside a yurt 203

x
 ILLUSTRATIONS

5.3 Construction of a yurt; the wooden frame has already been

erected 206
5.4 Permanent Kyrgyz houses and yurts use the same furniture and
household effects 208
5.5 Preparations to make a felt carpet, c. 1930 210
5.6 Old woman in a Kyrgyz camp near Rang-kul preparing sheep
wool twine for a pullover 212
6.1 Local leader from Ishkashim, end of the nineteenth century 228
6.2 Group of dervishes in an unknown place in the Pamirs, c. 1900 233
6.3 ‘For decades I have been a disciple’ – an old man in the tradition
of Sufism 234
6.4 Mazâr or holy place in the upper Wakhân area 239
6.5 Older man from Yasgulem tries to break a sheep’s leg bone 242
7.1 Modern combine of Soviet production on farmland near the
Shakhdara river 251
7.2 Village library in Tusyan 258
7.3 Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels and Vladimir Illich (Lenin) – the
‘founding fathers’ of socialism and communism – on a painted
board in a rayon centre 266
8.1 Armed opposition forces (GBAO in origin) controlling the
entrance to the Wandsh valley 277
8.2 Almost empty government store in Khorog 288
8.3 The old khalifa from Roshorve shows two pairs of boots that he
made himself 294
8.4 Water wheel on the Gund river built to replace the urban water
supply system 295
9.1 Food aid store in the Gund valley 301
9.2 Rehabilitation of infrastructure to ensure basic communication 302
9.3 Volunteers from Roshorve (Bartang) digging a trench on an
extremely difficult slope 314
9.4 The first signs of an economic recovery: the basar of Khorog 324
10.1 Younger women and men at a festival near Khorog 334
10.2 CIS troops with light tanks near their headquarters in Khorog,
c. early 1990s 338

Figures
1.1 Map of Badakhshan, under Afghan, Bukhara and Russian
dominion, 1896–9 3
1.2 Area map of Tajikistan, Gorno-Badakhshan and neighbouring
countries, 2003 5
1.3 Map of Gorno-Badakhshan and the Afghan Wakhân Corridor,
2003 16

xi
 ILLUSTRATIONS

4.1 Section through the roof of a Pamiri house 168

4.2 ‘Lantern’ roof of a Pamiri house with four layers of poles
symbolising the four elements 170

Tables
2.1 Population of GBAO per rayon for 1997 46
2.2 Population of GBAO, 1910–86 47
4.1 The various languages of the Pamir, c. 1920s 101
4.2 Numbers in each ethnic or language group, 1980s 101

xii
 PREFACE

The idea for this book was born one summer evening in 1997 in the small village
of Roshorve in the upper Bartang valley. I had, together with several colleagues,
driven up to the 3,000 m line at which the village lay in the course of a monitoring
mission for the Pamir Relief and Development Programme (PRDP), sponsored by
the Aga Khan Foundation (AKF) and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische
Zusammenarbeit (GTZ). After a ten-hour journey, we had managed to reach the
most remote community of Tajikistan, perhaps even of all former Soviet central
Asia. Immediately after our arrival, a sheep was slaughtered for us, which was later
served together with bread, potatoes and other regional products on a large carpet.
We barely had time to eat before several musicians came to the house of our host,
playing the rabôb (a type of violin) and several tambourines, and singing old songs
from the Pamirs. Even though it was late, women, men and children joined us from
all around and we danced until midnight. Exhausted, we finally fell into the steppe
rug beds prepared for us.
Before falling asleep, I turned the day’s events over in my mind. The bumpy
drive through the gorges of the Bartang, precarious bridges, being stuck in a side
stream with the Russian jeep, being pulled out of the icy water by friendly farmers,
finally arriving in Roshorve with the sunset, where we were greeted by a group
of young girls with bread and salt as well as by music. Then the unforgettable
evening with more music and the joy of dancing and the prospect of many more
exciting days at the foot of the Peak of the Revolution (Pic Revolutija) with its
altitude of 6,794 m, in a region practically cut off from the rest of the world. What
occupation could be more interesting than that of an ethnologist? By the next
morning, when we were able to begin the day with freshly baked bread with butter
and tea, it was clear to me that someone ought to write about the people in the
Pamirs, their eventful past and their enormous present problems after the collapse
of the Soviet Union and the independence of Tajikistan.
My monitoring duties for the PRDP (renamed in the interval, due to an extension
of area of operation, MSDSP, Mountain Society Development and Support
Programme) did not end until 1998. They were followed by missions to the Kyrgyz
Republic and other countries which left me no time to pursue my idea, even though
I had already taken around 2,500 pictures specifically for the planned publication.

xiii
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