HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

Health can be defined as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-
being.
Health is affected by three factors-
o Genetic disorders- disorders which the child inherits from parents from birth.

o Infections- caused due to pathogens.

o Life style- includes the habits that we have or lack such as intake of food and
water, rest and exercise which we give to our body etc.
When People are healthy they are more efficient to work which increases
productivity and brings economic prosperity.
The factors which are responsible for maintaining good health are-
o Balanced diet- the diet which contains all kinds of essential nutrients in a
proportionate manner.
o Personal hygiene.

o Regular exercise, meditation, yoga.

Aspects which are needed to be added to achieve good health are-
o Awareness about diseases and their effects.

o Proper disposal of wastes.

o Control of vectors.

o Maintenance of hygiene.

o Vaccination (immunization)
DISEASES
The conditions in which one or more organs of the body are not working properly,
characterized by various signs and symptoms are called diseases.
The organisms which cause diseases are called pathogens. Most of the parasites
are pathogen.

Pathogens have to adapt to life within the environment of the host. For example,
the pathogens that enter the gut must know a way of surviving in the stomach at
low pH and resisting the various digestive enzymes.

Diseases can be broadly classified into two types-

Infectious diseases: Infectious diseases are those which are transmitted from
an infected person to another healthy person.
 Non- infectious diseases: Non-infectious diseases are those which are not
transmitted from an infected person to another person.
Infectious diseases includes-
Bacterial diseases, Fungal diseases, Viral diseases, Protozoan diseases, Helminth
diseases.
BACTERIAL DISEASES:-
Typhoid
o Caused by Salmonella typhi.
o Affects small intestine and then migrates to other parts of the body through
blood.
o Transmitted by contaminated food and water.
o Symptoms- Sustained high fever (39° to 40°C), weakness, stomach pain,
constipation, headache and loss of appetite, intestinal perforation and death
may occur in severe cases.
o Typhoid fever is confirmed by Widal test.
o A classic case in medicine, that of Mary Mallon nicknamed Typhoid Mary, is
worth mentioning here. She was a cook by profession and was a typhoid carrier
who continued to spread typhoid for several years through the food she
prepared.
Pneumonia
o Caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae
o Affects alveoli of lungs.
o As a result of the infection, the alveoli get filled with fluid leading to severe
problems in respiration.
o Transmitted by dropelts released by infected person, sharing glasses and
utensils.
o Common symptoms are fever, chills, cough and headache and in severe cases
lips and finger nails turn gray to bluish colour.
o Plague, diphtheria, tetanus, tuberculosis etc., are some of the other bacterial
diseases in man.
VIRAL DISEASES: -
Common cold
o Caused by Rhino virus.
o Affects nose and respiratory passage but not the lungs.
o Transmitted by direct inhalation of droplets from cough and sneeze of infected
person, through contaminated objects like pen, books, cups etc.
o Nasal congestion and discharge, sore throat, hoarseness, tiredness, cough etc.
are common symptoms.
PROTOZOAN DISEASES
Malaria
Caused by Plasmodium (P. vivax, P. malaria and P. falciparum). Of these,
malignant malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum is the most serious one and
can even be fatal.
Affects liver and RBC.
Transmits by biting of female anopheles mosquito which acts as a vector.
High fever occurring on alternate days, chill, vomiting are the common symptoms.
Malarial parasite requires two hosts to complete their life cycle - Human and
Anopheles mosquito.
Life cycle of malarial parasite: -
o Female Anopheles mosquito bites a healthy human and injects sporozoites
(infective stage) with bites.
o The parasites reach the liver through blood and starts multiplying within the
liver cells.
o Parasites then attack the red blood cells and reproduce asexually in the red
blood cells and rupture the red blood cells which release a toxic substance
haemozoin responsible for chill and high fever recurring every 3 to 4 hours.
o Some of the parasites differentiate into male and female gametocytes which
are taken up by the female Anoppheles mosquito during biting and sucking the
blood of infected person.
o Formation of gametes and fertilization takes place in the intestine of mosquito.
o The zygote develops and forms thousands of sporozoites which migrate into the
salivary gland of the mosquito.
o When the mosquito bites another human, the sporozoites are injected.
Amoebiasis (amoebic dysentery)
Caused by Entamoeba histolytica.
Affects large intestine of man.
Transmitted by house flies which acts as mechanical carriers and serve to transmit
the parasite from faeces of infected person to food and water and contaminated
with cysts of Entamoeba.
Constipation, abdominal pain, cramps, stools with mucous and blood clots are
common symptoms.
 HELMINTH DISEASES
Ascariasis
o Caused by Ascaris lumbricoides

o Affects intestine of man.

o The eggs of the parasite are excreted along with the faeces of infected persons
which contaminate soil, water, plants, etc.
o Transmitted by contaminated water, vegetable fruits etc.

o Symptoms are Internal bleeding, muscular pain, fever, anemia, blockage of

intestinal passage.
Filariasis or elephantiasis
o Caused by Wuchereria bancrofti and Wuchereria malayi.

o Affects lymphatic vessels of the lower limbs and genital organs.

o Transmitted by biting of infected female culex mosquito.

o Chronic inflammation of the organs where they live, abnormal swellings of the
lower limbs, scrotum, penis are common symptoms.
FUNGAL DISEASE: -
Ringworm
o Caused by Microsporum, Trichophyton, Epidermophyton.

o Affects skin, nails, folds of skin, groin.

o Transmitted by sharing towel, clothes, or even comb with infected person.

o Appearance of dry skin, scaly lesions in nails and scalp with intense itching are
some of the common symptoms.
o Heat and moisture help these fungi to grow.

PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF DISEASES

Maintenance of hygiene is very important for prevention and control of diseases.
Measures for hygiene include keeping the body clean; consumption of clean
drinking water, food, vegetables, fruits, proper disposal of waste and excreta;
periodic cleaning and disinfection of water reservoirs, pools, cesspools and tanks.
In case of air borne diseases, close contact with the infected person and his
belongings should be avoided.
For vector borne diseases such as malaria and filariasis, the measures to control
diseases are-
o Control or eliminate the vectors and their breeding places.
o Avoiding stagnation of water in and around residential areas.
o Regular cleaning of household coolers.
o Use of mosquito nets.
o Introducing fishes like Gambusia in ponds that feed on mosquito larvae.

o Spraying of insecticides in ditches, drainage areas and swamps, etc.

o Doors and windows should be provided with wire mesh to prevent the entry of
mosquitoes.
o Such precautions have become more important especially in the light of recent
widespread incidences of the vector-borne (Aedes mosquitoes) diseases like
dengue and chikungunya in many parts of India.
The use of vaccines and immunization programmes has enabled to control
diseases like smallpox, diphtheria, polio, pneumonia, tetanus etc.
IMMUNITY: -
The overall ability of the body to fight against disease causing microorganisms with
the help of immune system is called immunity.
Immunity is of two types-
1. Innate immunity.
2. Acquired immunity.
Innate immunity: -
The immunity which is present at the time of birth is called innate immunity.
Innate immunity is non-specific type of defense.
Innate immunity consists of various barriers which prevent the entry of
microorganisms into the body.
Innate immunity consists of four types of barriers.
o Physical barriers - Skin on our body is the main barrier which prevents entry of
the micro-organisms and mucus coating of the epithelium lining the respiratory,
gastrointestinal and urogenital tracts also help in trapping microbes entering
our body.
o Physiological barriers - Acid in the stomach, saliva in the mouth, tears from
eyes–all prevent microbial growth.
o Cellular barriers – Certain types of leukocytes (WBC) of our body
like polymorpho-nuclear leukocytes (PMNL-
neutrophils), monocytes and natural killer (type of lymphocytes) in the blood
as well as macrophages in tissues can phagocytose and destroy microbes.
o Cytokine barriers - Virus-infected cells secrete proteins called interferons which
protect non-infected cells from further viral infection.
Acquired immunity: -
The immunity which develops during lifetime by exposure to suitable foreign
agents like microorganisms is called acquired immunity.
Acquired immunity is pathogen specific and it is characterized by memory.
When the body first encounters a pathogen it produces a response which takes
long time to develop and of low intensity called as primary immune response and
if the body encounters the same pathogen it produces highly intensified and quick
response called as secondary immune response or anamnestic response.
After responding to the foreign microorganisms and elimination of the pthogen,
the immune system keeps the memory of the that encounter (primary response)
and during its second encounter with the same pathogen produces a highly
intensified immune response (secondary response).
The primary and secondary immune responses are carried out with the help of two
special types of lymphocytes present in our blood,
o B-lymphocytes: - The B-lymphocytes produce an army of proteins in response
to pathogens into our blood to fight with them called as antibodies.
o T-lymphocytes: - The T-cells themselves do not produce antibodies but help B
cells to produce them.
STRUCTURE OF ANTIBODY: -
Each antibody molecule has four peptide chains, two long chains and two short
chains arranged in a Y shaped structure.
Two long chains are called heavy chains and two short chains are called light
chains, hence an antibody is represented as H2L2.
Antibodies are also called as immunoglobulins (Ig).
Different types of antibodies are produced in our bodies which are IgA, IgM, IgE,
IgG are some of them.
 TYPES OF IMMUNITY: -
Based on the type of immune cell acting against the antigens, immunity can be
classified into two types-
o Humoral immunity - The immunity which is mediated by antibodies produced
by B-lymphocytes is called humoral immunity.
o Cell- mediated immunity (CMI) - The immunity which is mediated by T-
lymphocytes by directly attaching themselves to the antigens is called cell
mediated immunity.
During organ transplantation, tissue matching and blood group matching are
essential before undertaking any graft/transplant and even after this the patient
has to take immuno–suppresants all his/her life because the body is able to
differentiate ‘self ’ and ‘nonself’ and the cell-mediated immune response is
responsible for the graft rejection.

Based on the nature of antibodies, immunity is divided into two types-

o Active immunity - When a host is exposed to antigens, which may be in the
form of living or dead microbes or other proteins, antibodies are produced in
the host body, this type of immunity is called active immunity.
o Active immunity is slow and takes time to give its full effective response.
Injecting the microbes deliberately during immunisation or infectious organisms
gaining access into body during natural infection induce active immunity.
o Passive immunity - When ready-made antibodies are directly given to protect
the body against foreign agents this type of immunity is called passive
immunity.
Example- The yellowish fluid colostrum secreted by mother during the initial days
of lactation has abundant antibodies (IgA) to protect the infant. The foetus also
receives some antibodies from their mother, through the placenta during
pregnancy.
VACCINATION AND IMMUNIZATION: -
The principle of immunisation or vaccination is based on the property of ‘memory’
of the immune system.
In vaccination, a preparation of antigenic proteins of pathogen or
inactivated/weakened pathogen (vaccine) are introduced into the body. The
antibodies produced in the body against these antigens would neutralise the
pathogenic agents during actual infection with the same pathogen.
The vaccines also generate memory B-cells and T-cells that recognise the pathogen
quickly on subsequent exposure and overwhelm the invaders with a massive
production of antibodies.
Immunization is the process where performed antibodies or antitoxin (a
preparation containing antibodies to the toxin) is introduced to the body. In cases
of snakebites, the injection which is given to the patients, contain preformed
antibodies against the snake venom. This type of immunisation is called passive
immunisation.

Recombinant DNA technology has allowed the production of antigenic

polypeptides of pathogen in bacteria or yeast. Vaccines produced using this
approach allow large scale production and hence greater availability for
immunisation, e.g., hepatitis B vaccine produced from yeast.
ALLERGY: -
The exaggerated response of the immune system to certain antigens present in
the environment is called allergy.
The substances to which immune response is produced are called allergens.
Common examples of allergens are mites in dust, pollens, animal dander etc.
Allergy is due to the release of chemicals like histamine and serotonin from the
mast cells.
The antibodies produced to these are of IgE type.
Symptoms of allergic reactions include sneezing, watery eyes, running nose and
difficulty in breathing.
The patient is diagnosed by injecting or exposing the patient to very small doses of
allergens.
 Drugs like anti-histamine, adrenalin and steroids quickly reduce the symptoms of
allergy.
AUTO IMMUNITY: -
The immune system of body is able to identify and differentiate between self and
non self
Due to genetic and other unknown reasons, the body attacks self-cell which results
in damage to the body and is called auto-immune disease.
Rheumatoid arthritis is an auto-immune disease.
IMMUNE SYSTEM IN THE BODY: -
Immune system consists of-
o Lymphoid organs

o Lymphoid tissues

o B- cells and T-cells

o Antibodies

Lymphoid organs-
The organs where origin and/or maturation and proliferation of lymphocytes occur
are called lymphoid organs.
Lymphoid organs are of two types-
1. Primary lymphoid organs
2. Secondary lymphoid organs.
The primary lymphoid organs are bone marrow and thymus where immature
lymphocytes differentiate into antigen-sensitive lymphocytes.
The bone marrow is the main lymphoid organ where all blood cells including
lymphocytes are produced.
The thymus is a lobed organ located near the heart and beneath the breast bone.
Spleen, tonsil, lymph node, Peyer’s patches of small intestine and appendix are
secondary lymphoid organs where proliferation of lymphocytes take place.
The secondary lymphoid organs provide the sites for interaction of lymphocytes
with the antigen, which then proliferate to become effector cells.
The spleen is a large bean shaped organ mainly contains lymphocytes and
phagocytes which acts as a filter of the blood by trapping blood-borne
microorganisms and has a large reservoir of erythrocytes.
The lymph nodes are small solid structures located at different points along the
lymphatic system.
Lymph nodes serve to trap the antigens and these antigens trapped are
responsible for the activation of lymphocytes and cause the immune response.

Fig. lymphoid organs

Lymphoid tissue-
Lymphoid tissue are located within the lining of the respiratory, digestive and
urogenital tracts.
Lymphoid tissues are also called mucosa associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) which
constitutes about 50 per cent of the lymphoid tissue in human body.
AIDS: -
The term AIDS stands for Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome.
The disease is acquired during life time of an individual.
‘Syndrome’ means a group of symptoms.
AIDS was first reported in 1981.
AIDS is caused by human immune deficiency virus (HIV).
HIV is a retrovirus having RNA as the genetic material in an envelope.
Mode of transmission: -
o Sexual contact with infected persons.

o By transfusion of contaminated blood and blood products.

o By sharing infected needles as in the case of intravenous drug abusers.

o From infected mother to her child through placenta.

Life cycle of HIV: -

o After getting into the body the virus enters into macrophages or T-helper cells.
o The viral RNA genome replicated to form viral DNA with the enzyme
called reverse transcriptase.
o The viral DNA gets incorporated into the host cell’s DNA and directs the
infected cells to produce virus particles and the macrophages continue to
produce virus and acts like a HIV factory.
o Viruses released from macrophages attack T-helper cells and cause a
progressive reduction in the number of T-helper cells and due to which the
person starts suffering from infections with several other microorganisms.
Diagnosed by ELISA (enzyme linked immune-sorbent assay).
Treated with anti-retroviral drugs but that is only partially effective.
Prevention of AIDS:-
As AIDS has no cure, prevention is the better option.
o To follow safe blood transfusion.

o To use disposable needles.

o To distribute free condoms and spread awareness among people.

o Advocating safe sex. (Avoiding sex with multiple partners)

o To prevent drug abuse.

o Promoting regular check-ups for HIV in susceptible population.

NACO: - National AIDS Control Organisation.

CANCER: -
Cancer is the uncontrolled cell division leading to the formation of a mass of cells
called as a tumor.
Contact inhibition is the property of normal cells by virtue of which contact with
other cells inhibits their uncontrolled growth.
Cancer cells lost the property of contact inhibition and as a result of this,
cancerous cells continue to divide giving rise to masses of cells called tumors.
Tumors are of two types: benign and malignant.
Benign tumors normally remain confined to their original location and do not
spread to other parts of the body and cause little damage.
The malignant tumors are a mass of proliferating cells called neoplastic or tumor
cells.
Malignant tumors grow very rapidly and invade and ultimately damage
surrounding tissues.
 The property by which cancer cells moves to distant places from their origin by
blood and invade the normal cells and make them cancerous is called
as metastasis.
Causes of cancer: -
o Transformation of normal cells into cancerous cells may be induced by physical,
chemical or biological agents called as carcinogens.
Physical carcinogens- ionizing radiation like X-rays, gamma rays and non-
ionizing radiations like UV radiation of sun.
Chemical carcinogens- tobacco smoke and some other chemicals.
Biological carcinogens-
1. Cancer causing viruses are called oncogenic viruses have genes called viral
oncogenes.
2. Cellular oncogenes or proto-oncogenes in normal cells, when get activated lead
to oncogenic transformation of normal cells.
Detection of cancer-
o Biopsy and histo-pathological study of the tissues.

In biopsy, a piece of the suspected tissue cut into thin sections then stained
and examined under microscope (histo-pathological studies) by a pathologist.
o Radiography by using X-rays, CT (computed tomography)

Computed tomography uses X-rays to generate a three-dimensional image of

the internals of an object.
o MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

MRI uses strong magnetic fields and non-ionising radiations to accurately

detect pathological and physiological changes in the living tissue.
o Use of antibodies against cancer-specific antigens.

Techniques of molecular biology can be applied to detect genes in individuals

with inherited susceptibility to certain cancers.
Treatment of cancer-
o Surgery

o Radiation therapy.

o Chemotherapy

o Biological response modifiers- alpha-interferon which activate the immune

system and help in destroying the tumor.
 DRUGS AND ALCOHOL ABUSE: -
The drugs which are commonly abused are opioids, cannabinoids and coca
alkaloids.
Majority of these are obtained from flowering plants. Some are obtained from
fungi.
Opioids: -
Opioids are the drugs which bind to specific opioid receptors present in our
central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract.
Heroin commonly called smack is chemically diacetylmorphine which is a
white, odourless, bitter crystalline compound and is obtained by acetylation of
morphine extracted from the latex of poppy plant Papaver somniferum.
o Generally taken by snorting and injection, Heroin is a depressant and slows
down body functions.
Cannabinoids: -
o Cannabinoids are group of chemicals which interact with cannabinoid receptors
present principally in the brain.
o Natural cannabinoids are obtained from the inflorescences of the
plant Cannabis sativa.
o The flower tops, leaves and the resin of cannabis plant are used in various
combinations to produce marijuana, hashish, charas and ganja.
o Generally taken by inhalation and oral ingestion, effects on cardiovascular
system of the body.
Coca alkaloid
o Coca alkaloid or cocaine is obtained from coca plant Erythroxylum coca.

o Coca alkaloid interferes with the transport of the neuro-transmitter dopamine.

o Cocaine, commonly called as coke or crack is usually snorted.

o It has a potent stimulating action on central nervous system, producing a sense

of euphoria and increased energy.
o Excessive dosage of cocaine causes hallucinations.

o Some plants with hallucinogenic properties are Atropa belladona and Datura.

o Drugs like barbiturates, amphetamines, benzodiazepines, lysergic acid diethyl

amides (LSD) are used as medicines to help patients cope with mental illnesses
like depression and insomnia, are often abused.
o Morphine is a very effective sedative and painkiller (used during surgery) is
often abused.
Tobacco-
o Tobacco contains nicotine, an alkaloid.

o Nicotine stimulates adrenal gland to release adrenaline and nor-adrenaline into

blood circulation, both of which raise blood pressure and increase heart rate.
o Smoking of tobacco is associated with increased incidence of cancers of lung,
urinary bladder, throat, oral cavity, bronchitis, emphysema, coronary heart
disease, gastric ulcer etc.
ADOLESCENCE AND DRUG/ALCOHOL ABUSE: -
Adolescence means both ‘a period’ and ‘a process’ during which a child becomes
mature in terms of his/her attitudes and beliefs for effective participation in
society.
12-18 years of age may be thought of as adolescence period.
Adolescence is accompanied by several biological and behavioural changes.
Curiosity, need for adventure and excitement, and experimentation, constitute
common causes, which motivate youngsters towards drug and alcohol use.
ADDICTION AND DEPENDENCE: -
Addiction is a psychological attachment to certain effects – such as euphoria and a
temporary feeling of well-being – associated with drugs and alcohol.
With repeated use of drugs, the tolerance level of the receptors present in our
body increases and consequently the receptors respond only to higher doses of
drugs or alcohol leading to greater intake and addiction.
Dependence is the tendency of the body to manifest a characteristic and
unpleasant withdrawal syndrome if regular dose of drugs/alcohol is abruptly
discontinued.
Withdrawal syndrome is characterised by anxiety, shakiness, nausea and sweating.
EFFECTS, PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF DRUG/ALCOHOL ABUSE
Immediate effects are reckless behavior, vandalism and violence.
Excessive doses of drugs may lead to coma and death due to respiratory failure,
heart failure or cerebral hemorrhage.
Combination of drugs or their intake along with alcohol generally results in
overdosing and even death.
Those who take drugs intravenously can get infected with AIDS, hepatitis B.
The chronic use of drugs and alcohol damages nervous system and cause liver
cirrhosis.
The use of drugs and alcohol during pregnancy is also known to adversely affect
the foetus.
Use of anabolic steroids in females can cause masculinisation, increased
aggressiveness, mood swings, depression, abnormal menstrual cycles, excessive
hair growth on the face and body, enlargement of clitoris, deepening of voice.
In males anabolic steroids can cause acne, increased aggressiveness, mood swings,
depression, reduction of size of the testicles, decreased sperm production,
potential for kidney and liver dysfunction, breast enlargement, premature
baldness, enlargement of the prostate gland.

The most common warning signs of drug and alcohol abuse among youth include
drop in academic performance, unexplained absence from school/college, lack of
interest in personal hygiene, withdrawal, isolation, depression, fatigue, aggressive
and rebellious behaviour, deteriorating relationships with family and friends, loss
of interest in hobbies, change in sleeping and eating habits, fluctuations in weight,
appetite, etc.
Prevention and Control
The measures useful for prevention and control of alcohol and drugs abuse among
adolescents-
o Avoid undue peer pressure on children.
o Children should be educated and counseled to bear problems and stress in life.
o The child should seek help from parents and elders.
o Looking for danger signs.
o Affected individuals should seek medical help of qualified psychologists,
psychiatrists, and de-addiction and rehabilitation programmes.