Comprehensive Guide to Maxwell's Equations and Electrom
Expanded Explanation:
Chapter 4
Maxwell·s Equations
4.1
Fundamentals of vector calculus
4.1.1
Dot product or Scalar product
The dot product of two vectors is de·ned as follows
®a.®b = abcos·
(4.1)
here · is the angle between two vectors. a and b are the
magnitudes of ®a and ®b. If ®a = ax·i + ay ·j + az ·z and ®b =
bx·i + by ·j + bz ·z then the dot product or scalar product is
given by
®a.®b = axbx + ayby + azbz
(4.2)
The dot product of two vectors is a scalar quantity.
Physical Signi·cance
The dot product is mathemati-
cally put forward and could be applied in physics under
suitable circumstances.
For example the work done is
maximum when the displacement is along the force. Thus
work done is de·ned as the dot product of force ( ®F) and
displacement( ®d) and is a scalar quantity. Hence W = ®F. ®d.
4.1.2
Vector product or Cross product
The vector product of two vectors is de·ned as follows
®a × ®b = a b sin· ·n
(4.3)
here · is the angle between two vectors. a and b are the
magnitudes of ®a and ®b. ·n is a unit vector perpendicular to
both ®a and ®b. If ®a = ax·i+ay ·j +az ·z and ®b = bx·i+by ·j +bz ·z
then their cross product is given by
®a × ®b =
·i
·j
·k
ax
ay
az
bx
by
bz
Expanded Explanation:
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4.1.6
The Gradient
Consider a scalar function V. The operator ·acting on the
scalar function V is given by
·V = ·i ·V
·x + ·j ·V
·y + ·k ·V
·z
(4.6)
The gradient ·V points along the maximum variation of
the function V and the magnitude of ·V gives the rate of
change in the maximal direction.
Physical signi·cance:
Let us consider a positive point
charge in space. Let the potential set up by the charge in
the surrounding be V and is a scalar quantity. The potential
decreases as the distance from the charge increases. Thus
the gradient of potential results in the electric ·eld strength
which is a vector quantity. This could be written as
®E = ··V
·r ·r
(4.7)
Here r is the position vector and ·r is the unit vector along
position vector. The negative sign indicates the decrease in
potential. Thus the above equation could be written as
®E = ··V = ·V
·x
·i + ·V
·y
·j + ·V
·z
·k
(4.8)
Thus the Electric ·eld strength is de·ned as negative of
gradient of potential also known as grad V.
4.1.7
The Divergence
The divergence of a vector ·eld is mathematically written
as ·. ®E. The vector ·eld E is represented by ®E = Ex·i +
Ey ·j + Ez ·k. From the de·nition of the ·we can construct
divergence as
·. ®E =
·i ·
·x + ·j ·
·y + ·k ·
·z
Expanded Explanation:
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4.2
Line, Surface and Volume inte-
grals
4.2.1
Line integral
Line integral is an expression of the form
·A
P
®A. ®dl
(4.11)
here ®A represents the vector ·eld and dl represents a in-
Figure 4.3: Line Integral
·nitesimally small length at a point M along the path PQ
in the ·eld. The dot product ®A.vecdl and · is the angle
made dl with ®A. For a closed path the integral is written as
·
®A. ®dl
(4.12)
·
is the symbol used for closed contour integral. This is
also called as circulation of ®A around the closed path. The
Figure 4.4: Circulation of vector
line integral concept can be applied to calculate the poten-
tial difference between to points in an electric ·eld.
4.2.2
Surface integral
Consider a surface of area S in a vector ·eld ®A. consider
a small in·nitesimal area dS on the surface around point
M as in the ·gure. Consider ·n a unit vector normal to ds
and dS ·n represents area vector of ®dS. The surface integral
over the entire surface S is given by
·
s
®A. ®dS
(4.13)
Here
·
s is the symbol used for surface integral. The sur-
Figure 4.5: Surface Integral
face integral gives the net outward ·ux of the vector ·eld
through the surface. For a closed surface the surface inte-
gral is given by
·
s
®A. ®dS
(4.14)
In case of surface integral for a closed surface the ·n chosen
outwards. The surface integral could be applied to calcu-
Expanded Explanation:
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and is a scalar quantity. The net charge in the volume is
given by volume integral of the form
·
v
·vdv
(4.15)
here
·
v is the symbol for volume integral.
4.3
Some Theorems of Electrostat-
ics, Electricity, Magnetism and
Electromagnetic induction
4.3.1
Gauss ·ux theorem - Gauss· law in
electrostatics
Consider a region in space consisting of charges. Let a
surface of any shape enclose these charges and is called a
Gaussian surface. Let q be the charge enclosed by a closed
surface S. The closed surface could be considered to be
made up of number of elementary surfaces dS. If ®D is the
electric ·ux density at dS then the surface integral gives
the total electric ·ux over the surface S could be obtained
as
Figure 4.7: Gauss· Flux Theorem - Electrostatics
·=
·
s
®D. ®dS =
Õ
q
(4.16)
here · is the total ·ux and Í q = (q1 + q2 + ...) is the total
charge enclosed by the surface.
4.3.2
Gauss Divergence Theorem
Divergence of ®D
Consider a vector ·eld ®D. Consider a point P in the
vector ·eld. Let ·v be the density of charges at the point
P. It can be shown that the divergence of the ®D is given by
·. ®D = ·v
(4.17)
This is also the Maxwell·s ·rst equation.
Figure 4.8: Gauss divergence theorem
Statement:
The Gauss divergence theorem states that
the integral of the normal component of the ·ux density
over a closed surface of any shape in an electric ·eld is
Expanded Explanation:
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Figure 4.9: Stokes· theorem
Statement:
The surface integral of curl of ®F throughout
a chosen surface is equal to the circulation of the ®F around
the boundary of the chosen surface.
Mathematically
·
s
(·× ®F). ®dS =
·
®F. ®dl
(4.20)
4.3.4
Gauss· law of Magnetostatics
Consider a closed Gaussian surface of any shape in a
magnetic ·eld. The magnetic ·elds lines exist in closed
loops. Hence for every ·ux line that enters the closed sur-
face a ·ux line emerges out else where. Thus for a closed
surface in a magnetic ·eld the total inward ·ux(Positive)
is equal to total outward ·ux(Negative). Thus the net ·ux
through the Gaussian surface is zero. Thus it could be writ-
ten
·
s
®B. ®dS = 0
(4.21)
Here ®B magnetic ·ux density. Applying Gauss divergence
theorem we get
Figure 4.10: Gauss· Flux Theorem - Magnetostatics
·
s
®B. ®dS =
·
v
(·. ®B) dv = 0
Hence it could be written
·. ®B = 0
(4.22)
This is one of the Maxwell·s equations.
4.3.5
Amperes Law
Statement:
The circulation of magnetic ·eld strength
®H along a closed path is equal to the net current enclosed
(Ienc) by the loop. Mathematically
·
®H. ®dl = Ienc
(4.23)
Expanded Explanation:
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2. Proportional to the current through the element I.
3. Proportional to the Sine of the angle ·, Sin(·).
4. Inversely proportional to the square of the distance r.
The direction of the magnetic ·eld
®
dH is perpendicular
to the plane containing both the element and the vector ®r.
Mathematically we get
dH ·I dl Sin(·)
r2
dH = I dl Sin(·)
4·r2
(4.27)
Here 1
4· is the proportionality constant. the above equation
could be expressed in the vector form as
®
dH = I ®dl × ·r
4·r2
(4.28)
Thus the Biot-Savart Law.
4.3.7
Faraday·s Laws of electro-magnetic in-
duction
Statement
1. When ever there is a change in magnetic ·ux linked
with the circuit an emf (e) is induced and is equal to
rate of change of magnetic ·ux.
2. The em f induced is in such a direction that it apposes
the cause.
Mathematically the induced em f is given by
e = ·d·
dt
(4.29)
Here · is magnetic ·ux linked with the circuit. For a coil
of N turns the induced em f due to rate of change of ·ux is
given by
e = ·N d·
dt
(4.30)
Faraday·s law in integral and differential forms
For a conducting loop linked with change in magnetic ·ux
the rate of change ·ux is
d·
dt =
·
s
·®B
Expanded Explanation:
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Figure 4.12: DC and AC circuits - Continuity equation
In case of AC circuits containing capacitors the equa-
tion ·. ®J = 0 fails as follows. During the positive half
cycle, say, the capacitor charges. If we imagine a closed
surface enclosing the capacitor plate and the attached con-
ductor there will be inward ·ow to the closed surface but
not outward ·ow. Thus in order to rescue the equation
of continuity Maxwell introduced the concept of displace-
ment current density.
4.5
Displacement Current
4.5.1
De·nition
Displacement current density is a correction factor intro-
duced by Maxwell in order to explain the continuity of
electric current in time-varying circuits. It has the same
unit as electric current density. Displacement current is as-
sociated with magnetic current but it does not describe the
·ow of charge.
4.5.2
Maxwell-Ampere Law
Introducing the concept of displacement current for time
varying circuits, Maxwell suggested corrections to the
Amperes law. According to Gauss· Law
·. ®D = ·v
Differentiating the above equation with respect to time
·
·t
·. ®D
= ··v
·t
·. ·®D
·t = ··v
·t
(4.39)
The equation of continuity is given by
·. ®J = ···v
·t
Hence equation 4.39 could be written as
·. ®J = ··.
·®D
·t
!
·.
Expanded Explanation:
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Substituting for D in equation 4.41 from equation 4.45,
we get
ID = ·
·t
·
d Vs ej·t
.A
Executing differentiation the displacement current is given
by
ID = j·· A
d
Vs ejwt
(4.46)
4.6
Maxwell·s Equations
Using the laws and theorems discussed in this chapter
Four Maxwell·s equations for time-varying ·elds could be
written as
1. Gauss· Law of Electrostatics ·. ®D = ·v
2. Faraday·s Law ·× ®E = ··®B
·t
3. Gauss· Law of Magnetic ·elds ·. ®B = 0
4. Maxwell - Ampere Law ·× ®H = ®J + ·®D
·t
The Four Maxwell·s equations for static ·elds could be
written as
1. ·. ®D = ·v
2. ·× ®E = 0
3. ·. ®B = 0
4. ·× ®H = ®J
The above equations are used to study the electromag-
netic waves.
Department of Physics
28
A T M E College of Engineering, Mysuru
[Additional elaboration and context for applications in physics and engineering would be inserted here.]
Expanded Explanation:
Chapter 5
Electromagnetic waves
5.1
Introduction
The existence of EM waves was predicted by Maxwell the-
oretically using the point form of Faraday·s Law of electro-
magnetic induction. As per Faraday·s law a time varying
magnetic ·eld induces electric ·eld which varies with re-
spect to space and time. The reverse is also evident from
the equations. Thus Electromagnetic wave is the propaga-
tion of energy in terms of varying electric and magnetic
·elds which are in mutually perpendicular directions and
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
5.2
Wave equation for EM waves in
vacuum in terms of electric ·eld
using Maxwell·s Equations
Consider the Maxwell·s equations
·× ®E = ··®B
·t
(5.1)
·× ®H = ®J + ·®D
·t
(5.2)
Substituting D = ·E and B = µH in the above equations
we get
·× ®E = ·µ·®H
·t
(5.3)
·× ®H = ®J + · ·®E
·t
(5.4)
To derive wave equation in terms of electric ·eld, the term
®H has to be eliminated. Taking curl on both sides the equa-
tion 5.3 we get
·× ·× ®E = ·µ ·
·t
·× ®H
(5.5)
According to vector analysis A × (B × C) = B(A.C) ·
C(A.B). Thus
·× ·× ®E = ·
·. ®E
··2 ®E
As per the Maxwells equation ·. ®D = ·v. Since D = ·E
it could be written as ·. ®E = ·v
Expanded Explanation:
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5.3
Plane electromagnetic waves in
vacuum
Electromagnetic waves that travels in one direction and
uniform in the other two orthogonal directions is called
plane electromagnetic waves.
For example consider a
plane electromagnetic wave traveling along z axis the elec-
tric and magnetic vibrations are uniform and con·ned to
x-y plane.
Figure 5.1: Plane Electromagnetic Waves
Consider a plane electromagnetic wave propagating
along +ve x-axis. If the time varying electric and mag-
netic ·elds are along y and z axes respectively then we can
write
®E = A Cos
2·
· (x ·ct)
·i
(5.14)
®B = 1
c A Cos
2·
· (x ·ct)
·j
(5.15)
The ratio of the amplitudes of Electric and Magnetic ·elds
from equations 5.14 and 5.15 is given by
Ey
Bz
=c
(5.16)
Here ·c· is the velocity of light.
5.4
Polarization of Elecromagnetic
waves
5.4.1
Transverse nature of electromagnetic
waves
The electric and magnetic variations are mutually perpen-
dicular and perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
Thus electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature. Elec-
tromagnetic waves also exhibit polarization. Consider an
electromagnetic wave propagating along z-axis. The the
electric ·eld vector of this electromagnetic wave makes an
angle theta with respect to x-axis, say. This electric vec-
