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EXTENSIVE READING

Extensive Reading is an innovative resource bridging theory and practice for

those seeking to learn about extensive reading (ER) for L2 students’ language
development, including ways to motivate students to read extensively and to as-
sess learning. Grounded in contemporary theory and the latest research both on
ER and motivation, experts Sue Leather and Jez Uden ofer a rich array of orig-
inal activities to help teachers in the classroom and beyond with this efective
but difcult-to-implement pedagogical tool. Advanced students, researchers,
teacher trainers, and pre- and in-service teachers – and ultimately their students
themselves – will beneft from this book.

Sue Leather is an English Language Teaching consultant, teacher trainer, ed-

itor, and writer. She has worked as a teacher and trainer in the UK, Canada,
Spain, and the Netherlands.

Jez Uden has worked as an English language teacher and teacher trainer in the
UK, Italy, Australia, Qatar, Vietnam, and Spain.
Research and Resources in Language Teaching
Series Editors: Anne Burns, University of New South Wales, Australia
and Jill Hadfeld, Unitec Institute of Technology, New Zealand

Research and Resources in Language Teaching is a groundbreaking series

that aims to integrate the latest research in language teaching and learning with
innovative classroom practice. Books in the series ofer accessible accounts of
current research on a particular topic, linked to a wide range of practical and
immediately usable classroom activities.

Motivating Learning
Zoltán Dörnyei and Jill Hadfeld

Active Listening
Michael Rost and J. J. Wilson

Refective Dialogue
Advising in Language Learning
Satoko Kato and Jo Mynard

Teacher Development Over Time

Practical Activities for Language Teachers
Tessa Woodward, Kathleen Graves, and Donald Freeman

Communicating Identities
Gary Barkhuizen and Pat Strauss

Extensive Reading
The Role of Motivation
Sue Leather and Jez Uden

For more information about this series, please visit: www.routledge.com/

Research-and-Resources-in-Language-Teaching/book-series/PEARRLT
EXTENSIVE READING
The Role of Motivation

Sue Leather and Jez Uden

First published 2021
by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2021 Taylor & Francis
The right of Sue Leather and Jez Uden to be identifed as authors of
this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77
and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval
system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identifcation and
explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Leather, Sue, (English language teacher) author. |
Uden, Jez, author.
Title: Extensive reading: the role of motivation / Sue Leather and Jez Uden.
Identifers: LCCN 2020051399 (print) | LCCN 2020051400 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Individualized reading instruction. |
Reading. | Language and languages—Study and teaching—
Foreign speakers. | Motivation in education.
Classifcation: LCC LB1050.L387 2021 (print) | LCC LB1050 (ebook) |
DDC 372.41/7—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020051399
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020051400

ISBN: 978-0-367-41711-6 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-367-41708-6 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-81584-4 (ebk)
Typeset in Bembo
by codeMantra
CONTENTS

List of Illustrations x

PART 1
From Research to Implications 1
Introduction 1
A. Learner Beliefs: Can I Do this Task? 2
A.1 Expecting Success 3
A.2 Comprehending the Materials 4
A.3 Reading Something Interesting 6
A.4 Choosing What to Read 8
B. Values: Do I Want to Do this Task? 12
B.1 Attainment Value 12
B.2 Utility Value 14
B.3 Cost 15
B.4 Interest 16
C. Goals: Why Am I Doing the Task? 21
C.1 Goal Setting 22
D. Bringing Beliefs, Values, and Goals into Action: What Do I Need
to Do to Succeed? 24
D.1 Self-regulatory Behaviour 24
D.2 How Teachers Can Help Learners Develop
Self-regulation through Motivational Feedback 27
vi Contents

The Motivational Reading Cycle 29

12 Tips for Developing Motivation in Second Language
Reading 32

PART 2
From Implications to Application 33
Introduction 33
A. Creating the Right Reading Environment 33
Activity 1: What Kind of Book? 33
Activity 2: Find Someone Who… 35
Activity 3: Finding the Right Time and Place for Reading 36
Activity 4: Interest Inventory 39
Activity 5: Sharing Your Reading Interests 40
Activity 6: Finding Your Reading Level 41
Activity 7: Sharing Reading Experiences 42
Activity 8: Minimising Distractions 43
B. Ideas for the Generating Initial Reading Motivation 44
Activity 9: Choose and Tell 44
Activity 10: What Do I Think I’ll Learn 45
Activity 11: Chapter Headings 46
Activity 12: Predicting the Story 48
Activity 13: Matching Blurbs and Titles 48
Activity 14: Listen to an Opening Chapter 51
Activity 15: Goals Poster 52
Activity 16: It’s a Fact 53
Activity 17: Reading Groups 55
Activity 18: Don’t Give Too Much Away! 56
Activity 19: Teachers’ Mime 57
Activity 20: What’s the Context? 57
C. Ideas for Maintaining & Protecting Reading Motivation 59
Activity 21: Setting Weekly Word Targets 59
Activity 22: Performance Goals Using M-Reader 61
Activity 23: Writing a Character’s Diary 62
Activity 24: Defend Yourself! 64
 Contents vii

Activity 25: Describe Your Favourite Character 65

Activity 26: Letter of Advice to a Character 66
Activity 27: Dramatise Part of the Story 67
Activity 28: Students Ask the Questions 68
Activity 29: Storyboard 69
Activity 30: The Six-Book Challenge 70
Activity 31: Visualise and Draw a Scene
from a Book 72
Activity 32: Shoebox Diorama 73
Activity 33: Idea Circles 74
Activity 34: Character Analysis 76
Activity 35: Creating an Extensive Reading Blog
(Online Newsletter) 77
Activity 36: Using Websites to Synthesise Content 78
Activity 37: Group Talk 79
Activity 38: Reading Progress Check 80
Activity 39: Connecting the Story to the Learner 82
Activity 40: Act a Picture 83
Activity 41: Making a Movie Trailer 84
Activity 42: Role Play an Interview with the Author 85
Activity 43: Interview with the Author 86
Activity 44: Writing an Alternative Ending 86
D. Ideas for Encouraging Positive Retrospective Evaluation 87
Activity 45: Why You Should Read this Book! 87
Activity 46: Self-Assessment Graph 89
Activity 47: Social Feedback 91
Activity 48: Self-Regulation: Problems
and Solutions 91
Activity 49: Reading Evaluation Questionnaire
(Personal Feedback) 92
Activity 50: Giving Feedback on Reading
(Reading Conferences) 94
Activity 51: What I Learned 96
Activity 52: Story Summary 97
Activity 53: In 75 Words 98
viii Contents

E. Teacher Training & Development Sessions 99

Activity 54: How Useful is Extensive Reading? 99
Activity 55: Teacher Development 1: Current Beliefs
about ER 101
Activity 56: Extensive Reading Workshop: Benefts of
Extensive Reading 103
Activity 57: Extensive Reading Workshop: Problems &
Solutions 107
Activity 58: How to Check for Appropriately Levelled
Materials using Lextutor 110
Activity 59: How to Grade Appropriately Levelled
Materials using Lextutor 112

PART 3
From Application to Implementation 115
Introduction 115
A. If You Are a Teacher Whose Students ‘Don’t Like Reading’ 115
B. If You Are a Teacher Who Wants to Introduce a Longer
Programme of ER into Your Schedule 116
C. If You Are a Teacher Looking for Creative Ways of Introducing
and Working with ER 116
D. If You Are a Teacher Who Needs to Convince the Principal/
Parents/Other Teachers of the Benefts of ER 117
E. If You Are a Teacher Who Just Has an Hour (or Less) a Week in
the Timetable to Do ER 118
F. If You Are a Teacher or Trainer Organising a Workshop on ER
for Other Teachers 119
G. If You Are a Teacher Wanting to Create ER as an Extra
Curricular Activity 119
H. If You Are a Teacher Wanting to Integrate Content and Language
Learning Objectives into an ER Programme 121
I. If You Are a Teacher Who Wants to Start an Online ER Programme 122
J. If You Are a Teacher with a Limited Budget for Starting an ER
Programme 124
 Contents ix

PART 4
From Implementation to Research 125
Introduction 125
A. What Is Action Research? 125
B. Why Action Research? 126
Samira’s Story 126
C. Stages in Action Research 129
D. Data Collection Methods 130
E. Problems to Study, Questions to Ask 131
Further Reading on Action Research 132

Conclusion 133
References 134
Index 143
ILLUSTRATIONS

Tables
1.1 Receptive vocabulary sizes of instructed learners in EFL
settings (Laufer, 2000) 5
1.2 The Children’s Reading Choices survey (Coles & Hall, 2002) 9
1.3 The four-phase model of interest development (Hidi &
Renninger, 2006; Renninger & Su, 2012) 17

Figures
1.1 The three phases of forethought, performance, and
self-refection (Zimmerman, 2002) 26
1.2 Proposed Motivational Reading cycle (based on Dörnyei, 2001) 30
4.1 Experiential learning cycle 127
4.2 The fve basic steps of Action Research 130
PART 1
From Research to Implications

Introduction
Extensive reading (ER) involves reading large quantities of longer comprehen-
sible texts, either fction or non-fction, for extended periods of time. Through
input at their level of profciency reading becomes a source of learning as well
as a source of enjoyment for learners (Nation, 2009).
ER is the deeper reading whereby people become immersed in literature,
expanding their knowledge of other people’s lives and situations, and feel-
ing real emotions in response to conficts and relationships of story characters
(Oatley, 1994). In fact, aside from linguistic development, there is growing ev-
idence that reading narratives particularly can infuence our attitudes towards
certain issues (Green, 2004; Prentice et al., 1997), help develop empathy traits
(Mar et al., 2009), and generally change the way that people think about others
(Kidd & Castano, 2013). Engaging in literature is far from a meaningless leisure
activity that ends when one closes the cover of a book (Green et al., 2002).
As far as non-fction is concerned, ER can be used to support the broader
curriculum objectives or a sustained content approach where the reading ma-
terials are related to an overall topic or theme. For example, on the theme
of predators, learners could read and learn about wild animals in the African
Savanna. In short, as well as the linguistic benefts of ER, learners are likely to
gain an increased knowledge of the world and other cultures.
Over the past 30 plus years, the benefts of Extensive Reading (ER) have been
well documented by a number of writers and researchers (Elley & Mangubhai,
1983; Grabe, 2009; Lightbown, 1988; Uden et al., 2014; Waring & Takahashi,
2000). Insights from the research are summarised in Day and Bamford
(1998:32–39), The Special Issue of The Language Teacher (1997) including articles
2 From Research to Implications

by Paul Nation and others, and Grabe (2009:313–326). In addition, Stephen

Krashen’s The Power of Reading (2004) makes a cogent and passionate claim for
the benefcial qualities of ER, and particularly of ‘free voluntary reading’.
There is, then, a substantial body of evidence supporting Extensive Reading as
an efective way for learners to be exposed to comprehensible input, through which
they can acquire not only vocabulary and fuent reading skills, but also grammar
and oral fuency. ER is exponentially more efective as a way of acquiring language
than intentional teaching from a coursebook (Waring, 2009). This accumulation of
evidence amounts to what Rob Waring has called ‘the inescapable case for exten-
sive reading’ (2009:93) and has led Grabe to wonder how much evidence is needed
to make the case for extensive reading (2009). The fact is that, despite these con-
vincing arguments, there are a huge number of language teachers globally who still
do not make ER a part of their teaching programmes. According to Alan Maley’s
(2017) survey of teachers worldwide, there are a variety of reasons for this. Three
important ones are these: frst, extensive reading is not linked to the syllabus and
the examination; second, there is downward pressure on teachers to conform to
syllabi and textbooks; and third, there is resistance from teachers themselves, who
may fnd it difcult to give more control of learning to their students.
The research leads us to the need to increase motivation for ER. How can
we as educators become motivated to use ER in the classroom, and how can
we motivate our students to read extensively and thereby beneft from it? Our
book aims to address this issue of the role of motivation in Extensive Reading.
We introduce two key theoretical ideas (Wigfeld et al., 2015) relevant to our
discussion. The frst idea centres around the notion that motivation is primarily
infuenced by individuals’ beliefs, values, and goals, found in expectancy-value
theory. The second deals with how motivation is translated into action and how
learners regulate their achievement behaviour. In relation to the frst, learners
might ask the following questions:
“Can I do this task?”
“Do I want to do this task?”
“Why am I doing this task?”
With regard to the second idea, learners might ask:
“What do I have to do to succeed in this task?”
By reviewing these major theories on motivation, we will show how the
research can lead to activities both inside and outside of the classroom that can
motivate and inspire teachers and students alike.

A. Learner Beliefs: Can I Do this Task?

Reading in a second language requires a lot of efort and for many learners it
can appear quite daunting. To help motivate learners to read more it is essential
they believe they can read successfully, and that extensive reading can be an
 From Research to Implications 3

enjoyable and rewarding experience. The frst part of this chapter will look at
the impact that learner beliefs can have on motivation and discuss what we can
do as teachers to help raise learners’ expectancies of success when it comes to
second language reading.

A.1 Expecting Success

If we want to help develop motivation in second language reading, it is essen-
tial that learners believe that they are able to read successfully. Self-efcacy –
essentially a belief in one’s own ability to succeed on a given task (Bandura,
1997) – is more closely related to achievement than any other motivation
(Guthrie & Barber, 2019) and is among the strongest psychological predictors
of performance (Wigfeld et al., 2009). Consequently, if learners have low self-
efcacy and lack the belief they can succeed at a given task, they are unlikely
to have sufcient motivation to persevere with it. In general, people prefer to
do the things they know they can do well and tend to avoid the things they are
not so good at. Ultimately, when learners believe they can perform tasks suc-
cessfully they try harder, persist longer, perform better, and are more motivated
(Wigfeld et al., 2015). Studies consistently highlight the signifcant impacts
that positive learner beliefs have on motivation and performance (Bandura &
Locke, 2003; Multon et al., 1991).
A recent study by Wigfeld and his colleagues (2016) examined the impacts
of learner beliefs on reading comprehension. They found that students who re-
ported higher levels of self-efcacy and perceived competence scored higher on
tests than students who reported lower levels of perceived competence, even
when previous performance was controlled. Alderson et al. (2015) found similar
correlations and suggested that learner beliefs and reading comprehension are
also likely to be reciprocal. In other words, the better learners perform, the more
they will perceive themselves to be good second language readers and vice versa.
Unfortunately, there are many learners who do not believe themselves to be
good second language readers and have little interest in trying. Reasons often
cited include too many unknown words and complex grammar and linguistic
barriers that can slow down the reading process to such a degree that it becomes
difcult to connect the ideas from page to page. This results in negative atti-
tudes and increased anxiety towards reading with learners often retreating from
books altogether (Guthrie & Barber, 2019).
It is hard for learners to know what to do to increase self-belief, but that’s
where we come in as teachers. The most helpful thing we can do as teachers is
to provide our learners with reading materials they can actually read. As self-
efcacy typically increases through mastery experiences (Bandura, 1977), pro-
viding learners with comprehensible reading materials, and facilitating plenty
of successful reading experiences, means they are more likely to become more
confdent, more efcacious, and more motivated second language readers.
4 From Research to Implications

A.2 Comprehending the Materials

One of the huge benefts of extensive reading is that everyone has an equal
opportunity of success regardless of ability. As Day and Bamford point out
(1998) when learners are provided with books at an appropriate level, they
avoid having to experience the frustration of struggling to read materials that
are beyond their capabilities. All learners should be able to enjoy reading in a
second language successfully while developing and maintaining confdence and
belief in themselves as second language readers.
One reason that learners may lack belief in themselves as second language
readers is due to reading books that are far beyond their capabilities. One un-
known word after another can soon become a frustrating experience. When
the vocabulary load is too high, the reading process can slow down to the
extent that ideas cannot be connected from page to page and overall compre-
hension breaks down. It is not surprising that these types of experiences do not
develop motivated second language readers.
For learners to experience successful reading opportunities and enhance
their sense of efcacy, they need to be familiar with most of the words in a
text. In fact, research shows that most learners need to be familiar with at least
98% of the running words in a text in order to achieve adequate reading com-
prehension (Hu & Nation, 2000). That’s the equivalent of just one unknown
word in every 50. Around one unknown word in every 20 (95% coverage) is
viewed as a minimal threshold that enables some learners to read successfully
(Laufer & Ravenhorst-Kalovski, 2010). These fgures often come as a shock to
many teachers and are frequently met with disbelief during seminars and work-
shops. Nevertheless, the research has produced consistently high correlations
between word knowledge and reading comprehension (Koda, 2007). In other
words, the more words known, the greater the comprehension.
These fndings have signifcant implications when it comes to selecting the
right materials for learners to enjoy successful extensive reading. For example,
Nation’s 2006 corpus analysis shows that for a learner to read an authentic
(unsimplifed) novel with 98% coverage they would need to have a vocabulary
size of around 8,000–9,000-word families. The same is true of literature writ-
ten for children (Webb & Macalister, 2013). Therefore, unless learners are at a
very advanced level of English, these types of materials may not be suitable for
extensive reading. This point becomes clearer when we compare the vocabu-
lary sizes of native speakers of English and typical second language learners.
While adult native speakers of English typically have vocabulary sizes ranging
between 15,000 and 20,000 word families (Webb & Macalister, 2019), most
second language learners fall well below these fgures. In fact, estimates high-
lighted by Laufer (see Table 1.1) show that despite hundreds of hours spent
in English classes, many learners only have knowledge of between 1,000 and
2,000 word families. Webb and Macalister similarly reported that following
 From Research to Implications 5

TABLE 1.1 Receptive vocabulary sizes of instructed learners in EFL settings (Laufer,
2000)

EPL Context Total Vocabulary Size Hours of Instruction

Japan university 2,000 800–1,200
Indonesia university 1,220 900
Oman university 2,000 1,350
France high school 1,000 400
Greece high school 1,680 660
Germany high school 1,200 400
China English majors 4,000 1,800–2,400

nine years of formal study only 16% of EFL learners in Taiwan and 48% in
Denmark were shown to be familiar with the most frequent 2,000 words of
English. This is some way short of the 8,000–9,000 word families required for
comfortable reading of authentic literature.
Fortunately, there are hundreds of well-written books designed specifcally
for second and foreign language readers that ensure that learners at all stages
of their reading development can enjoy second language reading. In addition
to the numerous linguistic benefts they provide, these materials, commonly
known as graded readers or language learner literature, can play a crucial role
in enhancing learners’ self-efcacy and help them develop the belief that they
can succeed as second language readers. Headword fgures can usually be found
on the back page of graded readers to indicate the level of the books. They typi-
cally start at around the 250-headword level, meaning that even beginners with
very small vocabulary sizes are able to engage with and enjoy reading language
learner literature. As reading competencies develop, learners are able to move
systematically through the published graded reader levels which eventually fn-
ish at around the 4,000-headword level.
While this would still leave learners somewhat short of the 8,000–9,000
word families required to read unsimplifed novels, there is evidence to suggest
that some learners are able to cope with the extra demands that authentic liter-
ature presents. For example, Uden et al. (2014) found that when transitioning
from graded readers to unsimplifed novels, the participants experienced a re-
duction in text coverage from 99% (one unknown word in every 50) to around
95% (one unknown word in every 20). Despite this reduction in coverage,
three of the four participants continued to read with adequate comprehension,
comfort, and enjoyment, leading the authors to conclude that for some highly
motivated learners it is possible to successfully make the jump from graded
readers to unsimplifed fction.
Another reason that learners are able to successfully transition from graded
readers to unsimplifed literature is that not all novels require knowledge of
8,000-word families to provide 98% coverage. McQuillan (2019) argues that
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