جملة كلية الرتبية االساسية
كلية الرتبية االساسية – اجلامعة املشتنصرية
Journal of the College of Basic Education Vol.29 (NO. 119) 2023, pp. 30-44
A Critical Discourse Analysis of Some Texts Selected from Hemingway’s
The Old Man and the Sea.
FAIZA QANBAR ALI
College of Political Sciences- Department of International Relations
Al-Mustansiriyah University
[email protected] Abstract:
Most of the critical discourse analysis is directed to analysing media
discourses and political discourses, however; literary works can be subjected
to critical discourse analysis on different levels such as drama and novels.
This paper focuses on employing Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) in
investigating linguistic and rhetorical devices of Hemingway’s The Old Man
and the Sea. The main objective of the current study is to analyse the literary
texts selected from The Old Man and the Sea in terms of linguistics and
rhetorical features by adopting two models: Fairclough’s three-dimensional
model (2001) and Burke’s four master tropes model (1969). The study has
reached the following concluding points: Hemingway uses more informal and
simple vocabulary and concrete specific words. Besides, the linguistic
analysis shows that the present discourse uses conjunctions and pronouns,
and the current social analysis has different occasions including Santiago, the
boy, and the fish.
Keywords: CDA, linguistic devices, rhetorical devices, Fairclough, Burke.
Introduction:
Language is seen as a communicative tool employed for covering different
linguistic and rhetorical messages through analysing literary texts. In the
current study, six literary texts have been selected from Hemingway’s The
Old Man and the Sea, which has been analysed in terms of critical discourse
analysis. The study attempts to analyse the literary texts using two models.
Fairclough’s three-dimensional model (2001) and Burke’s four master tropes
model (1969). The paper is structured as follows: the first part is theoretical
which gives a necessary skeletal account of CDA’s main features of the
literary texts and basic tents of Fairclough’s model and Burke’s model. The
second part is methodological and sketches out a critical approach to
discourse analysis and rhetorical approach. The third part presents the main
findings of the study. The last part outlines the conclusion and
recommendations.
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جملة كلية الرتبية االساسية
كلية الرتبية االساسية – اجلامعة املشتنصرية
Journal of the College of Basic Education Vol.29 (NO. 119) 2023, pp. 30-44
Literature Review
Language
Language is a tool to convey information, ideas, concepts, or feeling that
comes to the heart in the sense of the word as a means of conveying
something. According to the experts, there are various definitions of
language, including Harimurti Kridalaksana (1993:21), who defines language
as a symbol system that sounds an arbitrary language that allows people to
work together, interact and identify.
According to Wibowo (2001:3), language is a system of symbols that are
meaningful and articulate sounds that are arbitrary and conventional, which is
used as a means of communication by a group of men to give birth to feelings
and thoughts.
According to Wardhaugh (1994, p.133), language is a system of arbitrary
vocal symbols used for human communication. Moreover, language is not
only a means of communication but also a vital medium for establishing and
maintaining social relationships involving that language is spoken,
productive, and creative (YULE,1999:P.120).
Discourse Analysis
Discourse is a broad term that can be defined differently by different scholars
and linguists. On the one hand, Van Dijk (1977, p.133) views discourse as a
text in context as data that is liable for empirical analysis. similarly,
Fairclough (1989, p.24) sees discourse as ‘’the whole process of social
interaction of which a text is just a part’’.
On the other hand, Schiffrin (1994, p.170) defines discourse analysis as the
study of language use beyond the sentence level in terms of two trends. The
first trend is formal or structural in that DA is seen as the exploration of
language use by focusing on pieces larger than sentences. The second trend is
functional which is concerned with intra-sentential relations as much as with
language use.
Critical Discourse Analysis
Van Dijk (1998, p.33) points out that CDA is concerned with studying and
analysing written and spoken texts to reveal the discursive source of power,
dominance, inequality, and bias. It examines how these discursive sources are
maintained and produced within specific social, political, and historical
contexts. In a similar vein, Sheyholislami (2001, p.1) states that ‘’CDA aims
at making transparent the connections between discourse practice, social
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جملة كلية الرتبية االساسية
كلية الرتبية االساسية – اجلامعة املشتنصرية
Journal of the College of Basic Education Vol.29 (NO. 119) 2023, pp. 30-44
practice, and social structure, connections that might be opaque to the lay
person’’.
Widdowson (2007, p.144) defines CDA as an approach that is concerned
with the use of language for the exercise of socio-political power, ideology,
and social belief. Similarly, Rahimi and Riasati (2011, p.204) define CDA as
an approach that allows researchers, learners, and teachers to look at elements
of texts, both at the micro and macro linguistic level. At the microlinguistic
level, it analyses the grammatical structure of the texts. On the other hand, at
the macro linguistic level, it analyses the linguistic properties beyond
grammatical structures such as the denotation and connotation meaning of
words and their metaphorical function. On the same token, Amerian and
Fateme (2014, p.99) define CDA as a discipline that uncovers both the
hidden and transparent social as well as political norms and values.
Fairclough’s Three-dimensional Model
According to Norman Fairclough, one of the prominent theoreticians who
contributed many articles and books that establish CDA as a field of research.
Thus, Fairclough presents three stages of CDA. Firstly, a description is a
stage concerned with the formal properties of the text. Secondly,
interpretation is the stage concerned with the relationship between the text
and interaction with the text as a process of production and as a source in the
process of interpretation. Thirdly, an explanation is a stage concerned with
the relationship between interaction and social context with the social
determination of the processes of production and as a source in the process of
interpretation (Fairclough,1992, p.73).
Burke’s Four Master Tropes Model
Kenneth Burke posits that all forms of discourse rely heavily on the four
master tropes namely (metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, and irony) to
express ideas. First of all, metaphor is a type of figurative language that is
used as a means of comparing things that are essentially unlike. In metaphor,
the comparison is implied. Secondly, metonymy is a type of figure of speech
in which a thing or concept is referred to by the name of something closely
associated with it.
Thirdly, a synecdoche is a type of figure of speech in which a part is made to
represent the whole or vice versa. Finally, the irony is the substitution of a
statement for its opposite. In irony, what is said contradicts what is meant
(Burke,1980, p.230).
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جملة كلية الرتبية االساسية
كلية الرتبية االساسية – اجلامعة املشتنصرية
Journal of the College of Basic Education Vol.29 (NO. 119) 2023, pp. 30-44
Hemingway’s literary style
Among many great American writers, Hemingway is well-known for his
literary style. ‘’The Old Man and the Sea’’ typically reflects his unique style.
The language is simple and natural on the surface, but deliberate and
artificial. Moreover, his style has the effect of directness, clarity, and
freshness since Hemingway always manages to choose the word concrete,
specific, more commonly found, more Anglo-Saxon, casual, and
conversational. He also avoids using complicated syntax. Besides, his
strength lies in his short sentences and very specific details. Moreover, he
uses dialogue as an effective device as well as his simplicity is highly
suggestive and connotative and reflects the strong undercurrent of emotion.
Furthermore, Hemingway uses facts in that the main events seem to be based
on a real incident, and facts are used as a device to make the fictional word
accepted (Yaoxin, 2003, p.157).
A Brief Summary of Hemingway’s The Old Man and the Sea
The Old Man and the Sea is a story written by the American writer
Hemingway. The story is about a battle between an old fisherman and a large
marlin. The novel opens with a fisherman, who is named Santiago who spent
84 days in the sea without catching a fish. He is so unlucky that his young
learner, Manlin, was forbidden by his parents to sail with the old man and
was ordered to fish with more successful and lucky fishermen. However, the
boy visits Santiago’s shack each night, carrying his fishing gear, getting him
food, and discussing American baseball and his favourite player Joe
Dimaggio. Santiago tells Manolin that on the next day, he will venture far out
into the gulf stream to fish being confident that his unlucky past is near its
end.
Thus, on the eighty-fifth day, Santiago ventures alone, taking his skiff far
onto the Gulf stream. He sets his lines and, by the moon of the first day, a big
fish that he is sure is a marlin takes his bait. Unable to pull in the great
marlin, Santiago instead finds the fish pulling his skiff. Two days and two
nights pass in this manner, during which the old man bears the tension of the
line with his body. Though he is wounded by struggle and in pain, he
expresses sympathy for his antagonist (Marlin). Now completely exhausted
ending the long battle between the old man and the fish. Finally, reaching the
shore without the marlin since sharks have eaten the marlin entirely
(Graham,1991, p.158).
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جملة كلية الرتبية االساسية
كلية الرتبية االساسية – اجلامعة املشتنصرية
Journal of the College of Basic Education Vol.29 (NO. 119) 2023, pp. 30-44
Statement of the Problem
The main problem of this study is to investigate the linguistic and rhetorical
devices of Hemingway’s The Old Man and the Sea. The study is the first of
its kind since it is an attempt to explore the textual, discoursal, social, and
rhetorical features of literary texts.
Research Objectives
The research is an attempt to unveil the textual, discoursal, social, and
rhetorical devices which existed in Hemingway’s The Old Man and the Sea.
Accordingly, the present study aims at answering the following questions:
1. What are the distinctive linguistic devices including textual, discoursal,
and social adopted by Hemingway to convey different messages?
2. What are the most frequently used hidden intentions Hemingway tries
to send his readers by employing four master tropes?
Review of Related Literature
CDA is an approach to language analysis, which is concerned with issues of
language power and ideology. CDA aims to perceive language as social
practice and thus language users function in a group of cultural, social, and
psychological frameworks. CDA deals with the idea that language is more
than a simple means of communication and tries to analyse language as a
social behaviour to see how linguistic, and rhetorical features can be
conveyed through language. However, using CDA as an approach for literary
criticism can help researchers to look at literary texts from a new angle which
provide opportunities for understanding the hidden motifs of the texts
regarding linguistic and rhetorical aspects. Accordingly, few studies have
examined literary texts in terms of critical discourse analysis. For this reason,
this study tries to investigate and analyse literary texts by applying CDA.
Methodology
Fairclough’s Three-dimensional Model
According to Fairclough’s model, there are three dimensions of discourse.
They are as follows:
1. The object of analysis (text, description of formal properties of the
text)
2. The processes by which the object is shaped and received (writing,
speaking, reading, and listening)
3. The social-cultural practice (explanation and social determination of
the processes of production and interpretation and their social effects).
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جملة كلية الرتبية االساسية
كلية الرتبية االساسية – اجلامعة املشتنصرية
Journal of the College of Basic Education Vol.29 (NO. 119) 2023, pp. 30-44
Burke’s Four Master Tropes Model
Burke (1969) classified tropes into four master tropes:
1. Metaphor (i.e., a type of implied comparison that compares two things
by stating one with another.
2. Metonymy (i.e., a type of metaphor where something being compared
is referred to by something closely associated with it).
3. Synecdoche (i.e., a figure of speech that refers to a part of something
that is substituted to stand for the whole or vice versa).
4. Irony (i.e., a figure of speech in which words are used in such a way
that their intended meaning is different from the actual meaning of the
words).
Data Collection
The present study is limited to describing, investigating, and analysing six
literary texts that have been selected from Hemingway’s ‘’The Old Man and
the Sea’’. These literary texts have been analysed in terms of critical
discourse analysis and four master tropes.
Data Description
The data collected have been analysed in terms of critical discourse analysis
by adopting Norman Fairclough’s three-dimensional model (2001) and
Burke’s four master tropes (1969).
Data Analysis
In analysing the collected data, the researcher will apply the following steps:
1. Select the data that will be discussed after reading the given texts and
find that the texts are suitable for analysis.
2. The researcher then classifies the collected data by applying the model
adopted into CDA and the rhetorical model.
3. The researcher analyses these literary texts according to textual,
discoursal, social, and rhetorical aspects.
Text (1)
The boy said ‘’you are my alarm clock’’
According to Fairclough’s three phases of CDA, the textual analysis of the
current speech shows that Hemingway uses declarative sentences with past
simple tense in the form of direct speech along with active voice
construction. Moreover, he uses subject-complement construction.
Morphologically speaking, he uses simple words. semantically speaking, he
uses the collocation ‘’alarm clock’’.
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جملة كلية الرتبية االساسية
كلية الرتبية االساسية – اجلامعة املشتنصرية
Journal of the College of Basic Education Vol.29 (NO. 119) 2023, pp. 30-44
Phonologically speaking, the text consists of seven words (the boy, said, you,
are, my, alarm, clock) with one syllable and one word with two syllables
‘’alarm’’. By the same token, falling intonation is used to reflect the
statement used by Hemingway.
On the discourse analysis level, the present discourse has pronouns like
‘’you’’ and ‘’my’’. Besides, the present text has the definite article ‘’the’’.
Moreover, the text has a ‘’cataphoric reference’’ where ‘’my’’ about the boy.
On the social analysis level, the text is said by the boy on the occasion when
the old man told the boy that he should wake him up in the morning just to go
fishing in the Gulf stream. So, the boy told him that he was his alarm clock.
The time of text takes place in the 1940s. The dominant setting is the Gulf
stream of the beach of Cuba.
According to Kenneth Burke’s model of four master tropes, Hemingway uses
the rhetorical trope ‘’metaphor’’ ‘’my alarm clock’’ when the boy compares
the old man to an alarm clock since the old man used to wake him up in the
morning to go fishing in the Gulf stream.
Text (2)
‘’There are three things that are brothers: fish and my two hands’’
On the syntactic grounds, the text starts with an expletive construction
‘’there are’’. It contains statements with declarative sentences, and the tense
is simple and present with active voice construction.
On morphological grounds, the text includes free morphemes ‘’there, are,
that, fish, and, my, two’’ and bound morphemes ‘’things, hands, brothers’’.
On semantic grounds, the text is composed of repetition ‘’are’’ and the
number ‘’three, two’’. On phonological grounds, the text consists of many
words with one syllable ‘’there, are, three, fish, and, my, two’’, and two
syllables ‘’brothers’’. It comprises a kind of falling intonation.
On the discourse analysis level, the text has conjunction ‘’and’’ together with
pronouns ‘’my, that’’.
On the social analysis level, the text is said by Santiago. The occasion was
when he describes the fish as his brother and that he compares the fish to his
own hands. According to Burke’s classification, Santiago uses the metaphor
‘’fish and my two hands’’. Santiago states his two hands and the fish are
brothers and that this illustrates the conflict Santiago has over the fish. He
respects and identifies with the fish yet he has the hands of a fisherman meant
to catch fish.
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Journal of the College of Basic Education Vol.29 (NO. 119) 2023, pp. 30-44
Text 3
‘’It had gone eighty-four days, and the old man did not take a fish’’
According to Fairclough’s model, the first layer is the textual analysis level.
The text has a statement mood in the form of a declarative sentence as well as
the past perfect tense is used. On the discourse level, the text includes
coordinator ‘’and’’ and the determiner ‘’the’’ and ‘’a’’. In the social analysis,
Hemingway is talking to the boy the day before he goes out on his big fishing
trip in hopes to end his lucky strike of not catching a fish the last eighty-four
days.
According to Burke’s model, Hemingway uses irony ‘’It had gone eighty-
four days………. did not take a fish’’. The irony Santiago thinks he will
catch a fish during the next few days, but he is a little sceptical about
catching a big fish since he has not caught one in a long time.
Text 4
‘’The first of the two sharks turned and went out of sight under the skiff,
jerking and pulling the fish. The other watched the old man then came in
fast with his half circle of jaws made to hit the fish’’.
The syntactic level of this text involves using simple past tense together with
an intransitive verb as well as a statement mood. Besides, the text includes
active voice construction. On the morphological level, the text has simple,
compound and complex words. on the discourse practice level, the text has
conjunction ‘’and’’ and repetition ‘’the’’ is mentioned and ‘’of’’ three times,
‘’and’’ two times, ‘’fish’’ two times. Besides, the clause ‘’then’’ is used.
Moreover, the determiner ‘’the’’ is used.
On the social analysis level, the text is said by Hemingway. The occasion was
that when Santiago caught the fish, the two sharks captured the marlin and
the fish is destroyed by the sharks. The rhetorical device which is used by
Hemingway is irony when the old man catches the fish but the two sharks
have hit the fish.
Text 5
‘’There was no cast net and the boy remembered when they had sold it’’
On the syntactic level, the text starts with ‘’expletive there’’. It contains a
statement with the negative declarative sentence and the tense together with
active voice construction. On the morphological ground, the text includes
(13) free morphemes and (1) bound morphemes. On semantic grounds, the
text is a collocation ‘’cast net’’. On the phonological grounds, it consists of
many words with one syllable such as ‘’there, was, not, cast, net, and, the
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Journal of the College of Basic Education Vol.29 (NO. 119) 2023, pp. 30-44
boy, when, they, had sold, it’’ and one word with three syllables
‘’remembered’’.
On the discourse level, the text has the conjunction ‘’and’’, and adverb of
negation ‘’no’’. Besides, it involves the determiner ‘’the’’ and the cataphoric
reference ‘’it’’ together with the pronoun ‘’they’’. On the social analysis
level, the text is said by Hemingway. The occasion was that the old man had
no cast net to go fishing. So, the boy reminded him that they have sold it
because the old man has no money. According to Burke’s classification of
four rhetoric tropes, Hemingway uses metonymy in which the ‘’cast net’’
stands for Santiago poverty, bad luck, and destitution.
Text 6
‘’On the eighty-fifth day of his unlucky streak, Santiago takes his skiff
into the Gulf stream’’.
As far as the textual level is concerned, the text has started with subjectless,
the text involves statement mood along with a declarative sentence and
simple present tense with active voice construction. On a morphological
level, the text includes simple and compound words together. On the
discourse level, the text has pronouns ‘’his’’ and repetition of ‘’his, the’’ and
determiner ‘’the’’.
On the social analysis level, the text is said by Hemingway. The occasion was
that the old man did not catch any fish during the period of 85 days.
Hemingway uses synecdoche in which he uses the word ‘’skiff’’ as a
description of his boat which represents his entire world and uses ‘’Gulf
stream’’ to refer to Cuba.
To summarise the data analysis of Hemingway’s literary texts of The Old
Man and the Sea, the following tables show the distribution of these literary
texts in terms of textual, discoursal, and social devices:
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جملة كلية الرتبية االساسية
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Journal of the College of Basic Education Vol.29 (NO. 119) 2023, pp. 30-44
Table (1) Distribution of textual devices
Text Syntax Morphology Phonology Semantics
No.
1 Statement Simple word Seven words with Collocation
declarative Free morpheme one syllable
sentence One word with
Past simple two syllables
tense Falling intonation
Direct speech
Active voice
construction
Subject
complement
2 Expletive (there Free morphemes Seven words with Repetition
are) Bound morphemes one syllable Word denoting
Statement Simple words One word with number
declarative two syllables
sentence Falling intonation
Simply perfect
Active voice
construction
3 Statement Free morphemes Fourteen words The old man is the
declarative Simple words with one syllable experience
sentence One word with The fish is patient
Intransitive two syllables
verb Falling intonation
Past perfect
tense
Active voice
construction
4 Statement Simple compound 34 words with Synonymy
declarative complex words one syllable Words denoting
Simple past 4 words with two sea animals
tense -ed inflexion syllables Agent patient
Active voice instrument source
construction
Intransitive
verb
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Table (2) Distribution of discoursal devices in Hemingway’s literary texts
Speech Types of discoursal devices
No.
1 Pronouns (you, my)
The definite article (the)
Cataphoric reference (my)
2 Conjunction (and)
Pronouns (my, that)
3 Conjunction (and)
The determiner (the, a)
4 Conjunction (and)
Repetition (and, of)
Time clause (then)
Determiner (the, a)
5 Conjunction (and)
Determiner (the, a)
Pronoun (they)
Adverb of negation (no)
Cataphoric reference (it)
6 Pronoun (his)
Repetition (his, the)
determiner (the, a)
5 Expletive (there)
Statement negative declarative sentence
Simple past tense
Active voice construction
12 free morphemes
One bound morpheme
12 simple words
One compound word
12 words with one word
One word with three syllables
Rising intonation
Collocation experiencer
6 Subjectless
Statement declarative sentence
Simple present tense
Active voice construction
14 simple words
3 compound words
14 words with one syllable
Two words with two syllables
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One word with three syllables
Words denoting sea, patient, source, instrument, source
7 Expletive (there are)
Statement declarative sentence
Simple present
Active voice construction
Free morphemes
Bound morphemes
Simple words
Seven words with one syllable
One word with two syllables
Falling intonation
Repetition
Word denoting number
8 Statement declarative sentence
Intransitive verb
Past perfect tense
Active voice construction
Simple words
Free morpheme
Fourteen words with one syllable
One word with two syllables
Falling intonation
The old man is the experience
The fish is patient
9 Statement declarative
Simple past tense
Active voice construction
Intransitive verb
Simple compound complex words
-ed inflexion
34 words with one syllable
4 words with two syllables
Synonymy
Words denoting sea animals
Agent patient instrument source
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Table (3) Distribution of social devices in Hemingway’s literary texts
Speech Setting (Events)
No.
1 The boy told the old man that he was his alarm clock when the old
man told the boy he should wake him up in the morning to go
fishing.
2 Santiago describes the fish as his brother
3 Santiago is talking to the boy the day before he goes out on his big
fishing trip.
4 Santiago caught a fish and the two sharks captured the marlin.
5 The old man had no cast to go fishing so the boy reminded him they
sold it.
6 The old man did not catch any fish for a period of 85 days.
Table (4) Distribution of Burke’s four master tropes model
Speech Types of rhetorical devices
No.
1 Metaphor (my alarm clock)
2 Metaphor (fish and my two hands)
3 Irony (eighty-four days did not take a fish)
4 Irony (two sharks… hit the fish)
5 Metonymy (cast net)
6 Synecdoche (skiff)
Conclusion
The present paper attempts to analyse the selected literary texts to explore the
linguistic and rhetorical devices of Hemingway’s The Old Man and the Sea.
The approaches which have been adopted in this study are Norman
Fairclough’s three-dimensional model (2001) and Burke’s four master tropes.
Having analysed the six literary texts, the study has reached the following
points:
1. Hemingway employs more informal and simple vocabulary; his
language is simple and natural.
2. Hemingway’s style can be described as having clarity directness and
freshness.
3. He uses concrete, specific, commonly used words to convince his
readers.
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4. The linguistic analysis shows that vocabulary items include synonymy,
metaphor, collocation, synecdoche, and metonymy to reinforce his
language and persuasion.
5. The present discourse practice has the use of third singular and plural
pronoun and conjunction ‘’and’’.
6. The current social analysis has different social occasions including
Santiago, the boy, the fish, and the sharks.
7. The present rhetorical devices that have been used are irony, metaphor,
synecdoche, and metonymy.
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Chang, Y. (2003). A survey of American literature. Nakal University press.
Fairclough, N. (1995) Critical discourse analysis. London: Longman.
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جملة كلية الرتبية االساسية
كلية الرتبية االساسية – اجلامعة املشتنصرية
Journal of the College of Basic Education Vol.29 (NO. 119) 2023, pp. 30-44
تحليل الخطابت النقدي في بعض النصوص المختارة من روايت الكاتب األمريكي
هيمنغواي الشيخ والبحر
مستخلض البحث<
ٌسعى ترحلٍل الخطاب الٌقذي لرحلٍل الخطاتاخ فً وسائل االعالم والخطة السٍاسٍح ومزلل
ٌوني اى ٌخضع الٌض االدتً الى الرحلٍل الٌقىدي وعلى هسرىٌاخ هخرلفح هصل الشواٌح والوسشحٍح
وعلٍح فاى الثحس الزي تٍي أٌذٌٌا ٌهذف الى الرشمٍز على ذىظٍف ذلٍل الخطاب الٌقذي فً النشف عي
الىسائل اللغىٌح والثالغٍح فً سواٌح الناذة األهشٌنً هٍوغىاي الشٍخ والثحش .واى الهذف األساسً
ه ي الذساسح الحالٍح هى ذلٍل الٌظىص األدتٍح والرً ذن اخرٍاسها هي سواٌح الشٍخ والثحش واسرخشاض
الخىاص اللغىٌح والثالغٍح هٌها واعروذ الناذة فً عولٍح الرحلٍل ًوىرض فٍش مالف رو االتعاد الصالز(
)1002وًوىرض تٍشك رو العٌاطش الثالغٍح األستعح()2191وقذ ذىطلد الذساسح الى اى الناذة
هٍوٌغىاي اسرخذم هفشداخ غٍش سسوٍح تسٍطح إضافح الى ملواخ هادٌح واقعٍح فضال عي اًح اسرخذم
العذٌذ هي أدواخ الشتط والضوائش .واسرخذم أهامي وسٍاقاخ وهٌاسثاخ هرعذدج ومزلل اسرخذم شالز
شخظٍاخ هشمزٌح فً الشواٌح وهن الشٍخ ,الظثً والسونح.
الكلماث افتتاحيت <ذحلٍل الخطاب الٌقذي ,وسائل لغىٌح ,وسائل تالغٍح ً,وىرض فٍشمالف و تٍشك.
حزيران )June (4245 جملة كلية الرتبية االساسية
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