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H
H

Edited by Michael Renov, Faye Ginsburg, and Jane Gaines

Public confidence in the "real" is everywhere in decline. The Visible

Evidence series offers a forum for the in-depth consideration of the
representation of the real, with books that engage issues bearing upon
questions of cultural and historical representation, and that forward the
work of challenging prevailing notions of the "documentary tradition"
and of nonfiction culture more generally.

Volume 10 :: Beverly R. Singer

Wiping the War Paint off the Lens:
Native American Film and Video
Volume 9 :: Alexandra Juhasz, editor
Women of Vision:
Histories in Feminist Film and Video
Volume 8 :: Douglas Kellner and Dan Streible, editors
Emile de Antonio:
A Reader
Volume 7 :: Patricia R. Zimmermann
States of Emergency:
Documentaries, Wars, Democracies
Volume 6 :: Jane M. Gaines and Michael Renov, editors
Collecting Visible Evidence
Volume 5 :: Diane Waldman and Janet Walker, editors
Feminism and Documentary
Volume 4 :: Michelle Citron
Home Movies and Other Necessary Fictions
Volume 3 :: Andrea Liss
Trespassing through Shadows:
Memory, Photography, and the Holocaust
Volume 2 :: Toby Miller
Technologies of Truth:
Cultural Citizenship and the Popular Media
Volume 1 :: Chris Holmlund and Cynthia Fuchs, editors
Between the Sheets, In the Streets:
Queer, Lesbian, Gay Documentary
VISIBLE EVIDENCE, VOLUME 10

Wiping the War Paint

off the Lens

Native American Rim and Video

Beverly R. Singer
\

Foreword by Robert Warrior

University of Minnesota Press

Minneapolis

London
Copyright 2001 by the Regents of the University of Minnesota

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechani-
cal, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of
the publisher.

Published by the University of Minnesota Press

111 Third Avenue South, Suite 290
Minneapolis, MN 55401-2520
http://www.upress.umn.edu

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Singer, Beverly R.
Wiping the war paint off the lens : Native American film and video / Beverly R.
Singer ; foreword by Robert Warrior.
p. cm. — (Visible evidence ; v. 10)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8166-3160-3 (alk. paper) — ISBN 0-8166-3161-1 (pbk.: alk. paper)
1. American Indians in motion pictures. 2. American Indians in the motion
picture industry—United States. I. Title. II. Series
PN1995.9.I 48 S56 2001
791.43'6520397—dc21
2001001939

Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper

The University of Minnesota is an equal-opportunity educator and employer.

12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
 Contents

Foreword ROBERT WARRIOR vii

Prologue in Three Parts xiii

Acknowledgments xv

Introduction: Thinking Indian Thoughts i

1 > Bringing Home Film and Video Making 5

2 js» The War-Painted Years 14

3 J» Toward Independence 2,3

4 > Native Filmmakers, Programs, and Institutions 33

5 > On the Road to Smoke Signals 61

Conclusion: Continuing the Legacy 92

Notes 101

Index 107
This page intentionally left blank
 ROBERT WARRIOR

Foreword

In the summer of 1998,1 sat in a Tempe, Arizona, movie theater packed

with several hundred people from the Native American Journalists Associa-
tion's annual meeting for a sneak preview of Chris Eyre's breakthrough
film Smoke Signals. Most of the people at that screening were American
Indian teenagers. The film was much anticipated among those who have
charted the progress of Native American film, so I watched eagerly.
Though far from being a perfect film, Smoke Signals features impres-
sive direction, some wonderful performances, and masterful use of a small
budget. But I became just as interested in watching the audience watching
the film as I was in the film itself. The young people I saw the film with
were enthralled, seeing reasonable facsimiles of themselves and their lives
on the big screen—most of them, for the first time.
I remember thinking that it was like they were watching Star Wars.
And insofar as that group of American Indian young people was seeing
something on a movie screen they had not seen before, it was. But rather
than special effects and a galaxy far, far away, what those young people in
Tempe and thousands of filmgoers that summer saw was pretty much new
to them: American Indian actors playing American Indian characters, say-
ing words written by American Indian screenwriters, and following direc-
tion from an American Indian director.
Star Wars, of course, was not the first space opera, nor was it the first
really good one. Neither was Smoke Signals the first, or the best, American
Indian foray into film. And that, needless to say, is what Beverly Singer's
Wiping the War Paint off the Lens is about. In the chapters that follow,
Singer tells the story of how American Indian film and video makers have
been taking up the challenges of telling stories to be seen on screen rather
than read on the page or heard within tribal traditions.
The tradition of Native filmmaking that Singer presents here speaks

vii
 volumes about the larger context of American Indians in the history of
American film. The relationship of American Indians to movies and movie
making is deep and long and rarely positive. From its early days, the movie
industry has capitalized on American Indian characters and stories. One of
Thomas Alva Edison's first moving pictures was called Sioux Ghost Dance
(1894) and played into America's fascination with the American Indian re-
ligious movement of the same name that a few years previously had swept
the West, ending in tragedy with the massacre at Wounded Knee in 1890.
That massacre itself later became the subject of a feature film when
William "Buffalo Bill" Cody traveled to the Dakotas to re-create what
happened at Wounded Knee. Buffalo Bill gathered Sioux men and women,
many of them survivors of the massacre, and captured the staged event in
a film that has unfortunately—or perhaps fortunately, given the macabre
nature of the project—been lost to history. Other Hollywood films, most
notably Nanook of the North (1922) and The Silent Enemy (1930), at-
tempted faithful recreations of nonmilitary American Indian life.
But such attempts at realism have been the exception rather than the
rule. Instead, directors from D. W. Griffith to Kevin Costner have banked
on a mix of romanticized images of American Indians as noble, stoic,
bloodthirsty, and defiant. As Comanche writer Paul Chaat Smith argues,
"The movies loom so large for Indians because they have defined our self-
image as well as told the entire planet how we live, look, scream, and kill."
And, until recently, the main contribution American Indians could make to
the production of these images has been in playing bit parts and being ex-
tras. Yet, at the same time, Smith says, "If it's true that Indians have been
deeply involved in the movie business, it's also true that those films aren't
really about Indians in the first place."1
The standard American Indian reaction to this situation over the
past three decades has been to complain about the lack of sensitivity of
filmmakers to the true story of American Indians on this continent. When
Sasheen Little Feather took the stage at the Academy Awards in 1973 to
reject Marlon Brando's Oscar for Last Tango in Paris (1973), it was to
protest the entire history of how Indians had fared in Hollywood. Such
complaints have been followed up with demands for more opportunities
for American Indian screenwriters, directors, and producers. Singer covers
the same ground as these earlier critiques, taking us from the days when
American Indian actors worked as exploited extras and bit players to more
recent times when accomplished players like Graham Greene and Tantoo
Cardinal have played important roles in major films. But rather than rail
against the unwillingness of those within the film industry to change their
attitudes toward American Indians, Singer sets off in another direction.

viii FOREWORD
 However marvelous American Indian performers have been and are,
Singer reminds us that control of the images coming out of films rests with
writers, directors, and producers. Singer, thus, is interested in those mo-
ments when Native filmmakers have managed to gain control of the camera
and the rest of the filmmaking process. Her major focus is on the past three
decades, when a discernible body of film and video, with titles numbering
in the thousands, directed and produced by American Indian people, has
emerged.
Throughout, she demonstrates that American Indian control of the
camera and the process is crucial if American Indian people are to be more
than the objects captured and emulsified on film. Singer, as someone who
has been a participant in this exciting history, offers a unique blend of
knowledge and insights as she shows the strides American Indian directors
have made in learning the craft of filmmaking over the past two decades.
Those strides in American Indian film and video making have covered
the ground from the handful of short feature student projects by American
Indians who have gone through the American Film Institute or New York
University to the more ambitious attempts at full-length features and experi-
mental films. The story as she presents it is far from over—indeed, it seems
to be only now coming into its own.
American Indian film and video making, though, not only have hap-
pened in the broader context of American film, but also are interwoven
within the larger context of American Indian life. If the nineteenth century
casts its shadow across American Indian history through war and disease,
this past century has been one in which American Indian people have had
to learn how to both adapt and survive at the same time. Lagging behind
in every socioeconomic category from educational attainment to per capita
income, Indian people have lived on the margins of American conscious-
ness, typically neglected while others are attended to, normally forgotten in
the litany of America's successes and failures.
In the midst of invisibility, though, the twentieth century also saw
a remarkable resilience among American Indian people. Asserting their
humanity in the face of a world blinded to the problems modernity has
brought to the Indian world, and asserting a continued belief in Native
sovereignty as the best way of bringing American Indian solutions to
American Indian problems, Indian people have managed to come into
this new century and millennium having defeated the notion of the idea of
their inevitable vanishing. Along the way, those who have become doctors,
lawyers, novelists, astronauts, Olympic athletes, and other sorts of profes-
sionals have overcome stereotypes and lack of opportunity to pave the way
for new possibilities.

FOREWORD ix
 Filmmakers have done the same as they have taken up the task of
demonstrating their ability to do excellent work at the highest level of a
complex, modern art. Yet, like contemporary American Indian novelists
and poets, they can also do much more. That is, contemporary American
Indian filmmakers regularly present their audiences with some of the deep-
est existential questions that modern indigenous people face, questions that
often have to do with how it is that history, tradition, culture, and identity
move forward into the American Indian world as it changes.
Shelly Niro's Honey Moccasin (1998) does just that sort of thing in its
exploration of how a Native community can continue in the face of the theft
of the clothing and other objects it uses in its dances. Victor Masayesva's
work, which includes extensive use of narrative in the Hopi language and
experimental film techniques, brings to the fore issues of where Native
aesthetics fit into larger questions of film and its meanings. Even Arlene
Bowman's disturbing Navajo Talking Picture (1986), an example Singer
discusses at length, in which a Navajo filmmaker attempts to capture her
extremely reluctant grandmother on film, highlights central issues of iden-
tity and cultural change.
These films and others represent much more profound attempts at ex-
ploring the parameters of these issues than anything Hollywood has pro-
duced. Characters in American Indian films and videos do not participate
in the cliche of "walking in two worlds" (unless the filmmaker wants to be
ironic). The moving image's three dimensions lend itself instead to a more
complex version of these and other critical questions.
Programs such as the Sundance Institute have actively supported
American Indian filmmaking, and the number of scripts in various stages
of development is growing by leaps and bounds. The pool of acting talent
is becoming deeper, as is the pool of Native people who can work behind
the camera as assistant producers, dolly grips, best boys, and boom opera-
tors. The advent of digital technology will open the world of filmmaking
even more.
Singer, then, offers us a serious look at American Indian filmmaking
midstream. The discussion she frames has much to tell us about both gen-
eral and specific issues in film studies and in American Indian studies. And
what makes her discussion especially valuable is that she takes us beyond
the topic of all those images that Smith points out are not really about
American Indians anyway. Wiping the War Paint off the Lens cuts to the
all-important set of questions about what American Indian people, who
have lived through such a dramatic period of change over the past two
centuries, have to say about themselves through the medium of film. More
than that, she lets us know that American Indian filmmaking has a vital

x FOREWORD
history made by an impressive array of film professionals who have paved
the way for what is happening today and what can happen in the future.
Clearly, American Indian filmmakers work at their craft because they
love it and because they love the potential it holds for bringing new aspects
of what it has meant and means to be Indian in America to life. As with
any serious enterprise, these filmmakers need serious, informed audiences
who can join in the discussion. Beverly Singer, both as one of those com-
mitted filmmakers and as a student and scholar of the overall field, has
taken important steps toward leading that discussion.

FOREWORD xi
This page intentionally left blank
 Prologue in Three Parts

Tsikumu is a special mountain to the people from Santa Clara Pueblo, my

community of origin. It sits among the Jemez Mountains, which are part
of the Rocky Mountains, in north central New Mexico. I remember annual
hikes to Tsikumu peak in my youth with my parents and four younger
siblings. We hiked there to thank the Spirits for our well-being and to peti-
tion for rain to bless our community. Our prayers were always answered.
Tsikumu is a divine presence in my memory as old as Creation.

A memorable leader from Santo Domingo Pueblo named Mateo Aragon

passed to the spirit world in 1968. He advocated on behalf of Indian youth
so that they would receive greater benefit from education. At one particu-
lar conference concerning a curriculum on Southwest history, he remarked:
"You teach our Indian students history, but everything is about the white
man." 1 1 am guided by Aragon's courage and thank his spirit of advocacy
that came from his heart.

Watching Smoke Signals (1998) at a West Hollywood theater in the sum-

mer of 1998 was a new movie-going experience for me. I went to see the
film because it was written by Sherman Alexie (Spokane/Coeur d'Alene)
and directed by Chris Eyre (Cheyenne/Arapaho). I am ready to see more
films made by my people. I hope another century won't go by before we
get to enjoy at a local theater another film made by Native people.

xiii
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