Paul Bandia
"Translating Africa" underscores the significance of translation within the continent,
examining its contribution to the development of African literature and its role in
bringing oral artistry into the global literary arena. The practice of African literary
translation is intricately linked to the dilemma of language selection in a region
characterized by a multitude of languages, diverse histories, and the conflicting
priorities of both indigenous and colonial languages. This situation is further
complicated by the tension between orality and literacy, as well as by social
hierarchies that sustain inequality. Translation plays a pivotal role in African literary
creation on two fronts: pre-writing (termed "writing-as-translation") and post-writing
translation, encompassing the journey from initial conception to local and global
dissemination.
Central to the discourse on pre-writing translation is the debate between Achebe and
Ngũgĩ. Ngũgĩ dismissed English as a colonial imposition and advocated for the use
of indigenous languages, whereas Achebe recognized the imperial implications of
English but defended its role as a cohesive language that could connect with a
global audience. Achebe aimed to develop an Africanized version of English, one
that is "universal and capable of conveying his unique experiences," while some
critics accused him of catering to colonialist agendas. Other authors, including
Gabriel Okara and Ahmadou Kourouma, have explicitly referred to their literary
endeavors as translations from their native tongues into English or French. The act
of translation is inescapable: writers who use indigenous languages must transcribe
oral traditions into written form and subsequently translate them for broader
audiences, while those writing in European languages must convey orality through
colonial tongues. Consequently, colonialism and orality have collaborated to forge a
persistent "translated essence" at the heart of African literature.
Arundhati Roy enhances this perspective by characterizing her literary creations as
novels "crafted in English yet conceived in multiple languages." She perceives the
act of pre-writing translation as an integral component of the postcolonial author's
responsibility to articulate subaltern narratives. Authors from Africa who write in
European languages are increasingly developing literary forms that are both national
and global, facilitated by the emergence of global English. Conversely, francophone
authors encounter challenges with "global French," remaining marginalized by the
French literary community despite employing similar pre-writing translation
methodologies.
Post-writing translation entails the transference of the culturally specific artistry of
African authors into other languages, representing a "translation of a translation" that
contends with orality, heterolingualism, hybrid languages, and globalization. Initial
translations frequently exoticized African literature to conform to colonial standards,
with publishers like Heinemann and Présence Africaine shaping the reception of
African literary works. As time progressed, the professionalization and globalization
of African literary translation have transformed it into a defining feature of creativity
from the Global South and a significant asset in the international literary
marketplace. Post-postcolonial literature, predominantly authored by individuals born
after the era of independence, explores issues such as neo-colonialism, corruption,
migration, gender, environmental concerns, and displacement. Contemporary
translators, often themselves writers and scholars, approach these texts as
expressions of political and cultural dedication, exemplified by Marjolijn de Jager’s
translations of Calixthe Beyala.
In summary, African literary translation plays a pivotal role in the worldwide
dissemination of African literature. Translation is inherent to African literary creation,
serving as a constructive element of creativity that is deeply connected to
multilingualism, orality, and creolisation. The act of writing in Africa is infused with
translation, and literature emerging from marginalized societies is not merely
supplementary but distinctly innovative in addressing imbalanced power dynamics
within the global literary arena. The relationship between translation and creativity is
mutually beneficial, allowing African literature to establish its presence in the global
community of letters.
Libby Meintjes
Libby Meintjes’s theory presents literary translation as a praxis, a practice that is
goal-oriented and ethically informed, deeply connected to the act of reading. By
drawing on Aristotelian concepts of praxis and Kantian ethical principles, translation
is perceived as an active and reflective endeavour where the translator consistently
assesses the ethical and epistemological consequences of their decisions.
Translation is inherently teleological—seeking to establish a balance and reciprocity
—and fundamentally ethical, necessitating that the translator contemplates the
repercussions of their choices on the text, the author, the readers, and other involved
parties.
At the core of Meintjes’s framework lies the essence of literature and the act of
reading. Literary works are distinguished by their emphasis on language,
intertextuality, and their ability to challenge conventions, thereby encouraging active
participation from the reader. In particular, writerly texts demand that the reader
engage with multiple meanings and emotional subtleties, rendering an ethics of
reading crucial. Translators are required to honour the otherness of the text and its
capacity to unsettle preconceived notions, approaching literature with a willingness
to embrace diverse epistemologies and interpretations.
Meintjes places this discourse within the realm of ethical literary criticism, making a
distinction between moral evaluation and ethical reading. While moral criticism
assesses works based on contemporary values, ethical literary criticism examines
the text within its historical and cultural framework, revealing the ethical values and
perspectives it encapsulates. Translators, acting as ethical readers, navigate the
text’s various meanings without imposing their own moral frameworks, thereby
promoting fidelity, reciprocity, and respect for otherness. Schwarz’s five-stage
hermeneutical model—immersion, quest for understanding, self-conscious reflection,
critical analysis, and cognition—demonstrates how translators can progressively
enhance their ethical engagement with a text.
The decolonial moment reinforces these principles by highlighting the importance of
recognizing diverse epistemologies and indigenous knowledges. Decolonial
translation contests the supremacy of Western norms, emphasizes cultural
differences, and resists epistemic erasure, aligning with ethical imperatives to
maintain the plurality and alterity of the text. Illustrative examples include bilingual
and self-translated works, where translation serves as a platform for resistance,
negotiation, and cultural restoration.
In the realm of translation ethics, Meintjes underscores historical discussions
(faithfulness versus freedom, domestication versus foreignization) alongside modern
notions such as loyalty, trust, and fidelity. The ethical practice of literary translation
seeks to harmonize competing allegiances to the author, the text, and the target
audience, with reciprocity serving as a fundamental principle. Translators engage in
context-aware decision-making that honors the meanings of the text, its cultural
nuances, and its aesthetic impact, as demonstrated in the translations of Michiel
Heyns for Marlene van Niekerk and Breyten Breytenbach, where fidelity is
characterized by creative negotiation rather than mere literal reproduction.
In summary, Meintjes introduces a framework for the ethics of literary translation,
highlighting the importance of openness to otherness, reflexivity, and equilibrium.
Ethical literary translation is informed by principles of fidelity, respect, linguistic
hospitality, and decentring, necessitating that the translator adeptly navigates
diverse worlds, epistemologies, and interpretations. The overarching goal is to foster
reciprocity between the text and its translation, ensuring that ethical accountability is
the foundation of every interpretive and translational decision.
Serena Talento
Serena Talento’s research delineates the sociological evolution of literary translation
into Swahili, highlighting the necessity of incorporating peripheral contexts within
translation studies for both data collection and theoretical development.
Translation studies in Africa have historically been insufficiently explored, although
scholars such as Charles Atangana Nama, Paul Bandia, Birgitt Olsen, Maricel Botha,
Enrico Cerulli, Elena Di Giovanni, Riikka Halme-Berneking, and Alamin Mazrui have
made significant contributions to the mapping of African translation histories.
Nevertheless, despite these efforts, Swahili historiography continues to be disjointed,
frequently neglecting precolonial translation, the agency of translators, and the
dynamics of power in cultural production.
Talento employs Bourdieu’s field theory alongside the concepts of world literary
space proposed by Casanova, Heilbron, and Sapiro to link translation with social
causation, habitus, symbolic capital, and global hierarchies. Translation is perceived
as a practice deeply embedded in social contexts, where texts, mediators, and
institutions engage with one another, thereby historically shaping the literary field.
Her methodological approach encompasses four levels: (1) translation archaeology
through a comprehensive catalogue of 362 titles spanning from 1663 to 2020; (2)
macro-periodisation into distinct phases: pre-twentieth century, colonial, early
postcolonial, and contemporary; (3) an examination of translation discourses via
paratexts and extratexts; and (4) mapping the social trajectories of translators and
mediators.
In the pre-twentieth century, Swahili literature amalgamated narratives from Arabic,
Persian, Indian, and Turkish origins through oral traditions and poetic renditions,
frequently associated with notions of prestige and elite identity. Works such as
Utendi wa Tambuka (1728) and Hamziyya (1749) exemplified a "default translational
pattern" that obscured authorship while reinforcing symbolic authority.
Throughout the colonial era (1867–1960), translations by missionaries and colonial
authorities existed concurrently but were ultimately overshadowed by British
educational initiatives. The Inter-Territorial Language Committee advocated for the
translation of English literary classics into Swahili to standardize the language and
transition literature from a pedagogical focus to one of entertainment. This shift
marginalized poetry, thereby diminishing the symbolic capital of Swahili. Talento
characterizes this phenomenon as "translation as deconsecration," wherein
translation served to undermine rather than elevate literary prestige.
The early postcolonial period (1960–1982) witnessed translation as a component of
nation-building, particularly in Tanzania. Three significant trends emerged: the
translation of canonical Western authors (often by political figures such as Julius
Nyerere), the translation of African literature (predominantly in Kenya), and the
translation of works from Russia and China (reflecting geopolitical alliances). In this
context, translation served to reconsecrate Swahili, affirming its status as a language
of high culture, while simultaneously integrating local and global influences through
innovative techniques such as blank verse.
In modern East Africa (1982–2020), the influence of state policies on translations
has diminished, giving way to factors such as commercialisation, self-publishing,
academia, and initiatives from the diaspora.
Publishing continues to be limited by the demand for textbooks; however,
translations are increasingly sourced from a variety of geographies, reaching beyond
traditional hubs to include peripheral Swahili-speaking areas.
Talento posits that Swahili, regarded as a "less translated language," underscores
the significance of peripheries within the global literary landscape. Its historical
context challenges Eurocentric narratives by showcasing multilingual, transnational,
and non-linear interactions. The Swahili example also reinterprets notions such as
consecration, directionality, and innovation, illustrating that translation can
simultaneously lose and regain its symbolic significance based on historical
circumstances.
In conclusion, her sociological literary history emphasizes the necessity of expanding
the scope of translation studies. By incorporating peripheral contexts, scholars can
reassess prevailing assumptions regarding global literary circulation, contest centre–
periphery dynamics, and enhance theoretical frameworks beyond Eurocentric
viewpoints.
Judith Inggs
Judith Inggs’s research investigates the translation of South African young adult (YA)
fiction into French and German, emphasizing the significance of paratexts in
influencing the reception of these literary works.
YA fiction serves as both a mirror of adolescent issues and a marker of societal
transformation, especially in post-apartheid South Africa, where literature frequently
engages with themes of transition, reconstruction, and identity. In the realm of
translation, these texts take on an educational role, acting as insights into various
historical and socio-political landscapes.
Inggs positions her examination within the framework of critical discourse analysis
(CDA), underscoring the relationship between ideology, power, and language, and
expands this to include multimodal CDA to scrutinize images, lexical selections, and
transitivity. The foundation of her study is based on Gérard Genette’s notion of
paratexts—encompassing both peritexts and epitexts—adapted for translation
studies, where translations are viewed as autonomous texts with deliberately
constructed paratexts (Batchelor 2018). The research explores how publishers and
translators present texts, the ideologies expressed through paratexts, and the
implications these have on reception within target cultures.
The analysis includes two case studies: Michael Williams’s Crocodile Burning
(1998), which was translated into French as Le ventre du crocodile (2004) by Valérie
Morlot, and Kagiso Lesego Molope’s The Mending Season (2005a), translated into
German as Im Schatten des Zitronenbaums (2012) by Salah Naoura. While both
novels tackle the effects of social and political change on young characters, their
translations reveal contrasting publishing environments.
Éditions Dapper, the publisher of Le ventre du crocodile, is dedicated to promoting
the artistic heritage of both Africa and the Caribbean. The packaging of Williams’s
novel categorizes it as adult literature, highlighting universal themes such as
corruption, inequality, and racism. The darker cover design, along with explanatory
footnotes, emphasizes otherness while assuming shared understandings with
French readers. Morlot’s translation maintains hybrid linguistic elements, frequently
elucidating Afrikaans or township terminology through footnotes, thereby imparting a
distinctly foreign essence to the text.
In contrast, Baobab Books, a Swiss charitable publisher committed to cultural
diversity and pedagogy, presents The Mending Season with a wealth of
supplementary materials. The German edition features footnotes, author
commentary, and even a historical overview of apartheid by Sonja Matheson. These
paratexts serve to explicitly contextualize South Africa’s history for German readers,
aligning the novel with educational aims and universal ethical discussions. The
German cover, showcasing a smiling protagonist and vibrant colours, stands in stark
contrast to the more socio-political imagery of the original, emphasizing accessibility
and relatability.
Through Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), Inggs discerns patterns in lexical
selection (for instance, contrasting violent material processes with positive
reconciliatory terminology), modality, and presuppositions that expose ideological
stances. The French edition presents the novel as a form of adult-oriented cultural
heritage, whereas the German version emphasizes its educational purpose and
universal significance.
In summary, the research indicates that the translation and paratextual framing of
South African Young Adult (YA) fiction play a crucial role in shaping the perception of
South African literature within target cultures. French and German publishers offer
distinct portrayals of the works—one focusing on heritage and cultural
distinctiveness, while the other prioritizes education and universality. These
dynamics may lead to the homogenization of the rich diversity found in South African
narratives, yet they also illuminate the intentions of the stakeholders involved in the
transcontinental transfer of YA literature. The case studies serve as a
methodological framework for extensive inquiries into the mediation, packaging, and
international reception of African YA literature.
Amechi N. Akwanya
Amechi N. Akwanya investigates the translation of proverbs in the novels of Chinua
Achebe, emphasizing not the translation of Achebe’s texts but rather the adaptation
and elaboration of Igbo proverbs as a means of text creation. Achebe’s literary
works, composed in English, incorporate Igbo proverbs and idioms through lexical
substitution. While certain scholars refer to this process as transliteration, Akwanya
highlights that Achebe alters English to align with Igbo cultural values, allowing
proverbs to enliven the narratives. By employing Riffaterre’s theory of narrative
matrices, expansions, and conversions, Akwanya illustrates how the static proverbial
discourse in Igbo evolves into the structural framework of Achebe’s stories.
In Things Fall Apart, the foundational proverb is “when a man says yes his chi says
yes also.” Okonkwo’s achievements reflect this adage, as both his chi and clan
validate his assertions. However, his banishment following Ezeudu’s funeral signifies
a downfall: he becomes one “whose chi said nay despite his own affirmation.” This
predicament results in a profound disorientation, destabilizing his lifeworld and
culminating in disastrous miscalculations.
In Arrow of God, the figures of the wrestler and chi are pivotal. Ezeulu’s conflicts—
political, spiritual, and personal—broaden the folktale of a wrestler who is
vanquished by his chi. His decision to abstain from consuming the sacred yams
places him in opposition to his community, illustrating the reality that “no man
however great was greater than his people.” His tragic fate exemplifies a man
compelled to fulfill his obligations, even at the cost of his own destruction.
In A Man of the People, the narrative framework is encapsulated in the proverb iwe
ka onyenwenu ga-ama, which translates to "a thief taking enough for the owner to
notice." Josiah’s act of theft validates this saying; however, subsequent
transformations—such as Odili’s retribution against Nanga—uncover the hypocrisies
and shortcomings of the moral framework. Odili’s struggle against corruption
ultimately devolves into deceit and duplicity, and even the military coup fails to
reinstate ethical equilibrium.
In No Longer at Ease, the protagonist Obi Okonkwo’s name, Obiajulu, meaning "the
mind at last at rest," serves as a thematic foundation. Rather than achieving
tranquility, Obi instigates distress—through unsuccessful relationships, corruption,
and the disillusionment of those around him. The inversion of the meaning of his
name influences the entire narrative.
In Anthills of the Savannah, the saying "sleepwalking into the spikes of the cactus
fence" acts as the narrative matrix. The male characters exemplify this lack of
awareness, while Beatrice uniquely maintains a clear perspective, mediates
conflicts, and endures to derive meaning from turmoil.
Akwanya concludes that Achebe’s novels are structured works grounded in
proverbial discourse, each supported by a core that evolves into a comprehensive
narrative. Proverbs thus function both as the "palm-oil with which Achebe’s words
are eaten" and as the organizing principles of the plot. In this context, translation
signifies not merely the transfer between languages but also the conveyance of
meaning from proverb to narrative. Akwanya posits that Achebe’s oeuvre illustrates
how African literature can fully engage with contemporary literary theory.
Monica Rius-Pinies
The connection between language, literature, and national identity is profoundly
embedded in the nationalism of the nineteenth century, where a singular language
was deemed crucial for national cohesion. This belief system resulted in literary
divisions, exemplified by the differentiation between 'French' and 'francophone'
literature, even though writers such as Camus and Djebar shared both their place of
origin and the language in which they wrote. In postcolonial settings, the challenge of
associating one language with a singular nation has given rise to fresh viewpoints,
including 'literature in English' or 'Arabic literature in English.'
In the Maghreb region, colonial regulations compelled authors to write in French or
English due to insufficient training in Arabic. Malek Haddad observed that Algerians
wrote 'the French' instead of 'in French.' Following independence, linguistic
fragmentation continued, with writers educated in French, British, or American
educational systems frequently composing in European languages. Authors like
Fouad Laroui have pointed out the absurdities associated with 'second languages,'
while the diaspora has further complicated the selection of language. Notable figures
such as Abdallah Taia, Khalil Gibran, Adonis, and Hoda Barakat illustrate how exile
and multilingualism influence Arabic literature. The choice of language can also carry
ideological weight: Rachid Boudjedra transitioned from French to Arabic as a means
to sever colonial connections, while Yasmina Khadra's manipulation of identity
reflects both personal and institutional factors.
The diaspora and linguistic hybridity have a profound impact on the field of
translation. Maghrebi authors, who blend French, Arabic, dialects, and slang (for
instance, verlan in France, or Amara Lakhous’s endeavor to integrate Arabic and
Italian), present challenges for translators. In Spain, writers such as Najat El Hachmi
compose in Catalan prior to their translations into Spanish. Additionally, works
produced in Arabic exhibit variations between standard and dialect forms, as
illustrated by Mohamed Choukri’s For Bread Alone, which achieved readership
through translations during a period when Arabic publication faced restrictions.
The process of translating from Arabic is inconsistent throughout Europe. A
significant number of works are translated via English or French, resulting in a
scarcity of direct Arabic-Spanish translations. Research indicates that there are
fewer translations from Arabic in comparison to those from English or French,
although female authors are gradually becoming more recognized. Institutional
efforts, such as A mapping of translation in the Euro-Mediterranean region and
literary awards like the International Prize for Arabic Fiction, seek to address these
disparities; however, the overall figures remain limited.
Spain's situation is distinctive due to its historical connections with Al-Andalus,
colonial relationships with Morocco, and ongoing conflicts regarding Ceuta and
Melilla. The translation of Arabic literature, which was initially on the periphery,
began to flourish in the mid-twentieth century, supported by institutions like the
Hispano-Arabic Institute for Culture and publishing houses in Madrid and Barcelona.
Furthermore, independent publishers and EU initiatives such as Memorias del
Mediterráneo have contributed to the expansion of translation, although political and
cultural considerations have influenced the selection of works for translation.
Gender introduces additional layers of complexity. Women authors such as Latifa al-
Zayyat and Fatema Mernissi have received extensive translations, albeit frequently
through an orientalist lens in their titles and cover designs. Although Moroccan
women’s literature is becoming more prominent, it faces the risk of being exoticized
or simplified into stereotypes. Nonetheless, modern transcultural writers like Leila
Slimani and Laila Lalami, who compose in French or English, have achieved global
acclaim, underscoring the significant influence of language, diaspora, and gender in
the reception of Maghrebi literature.
In summary, while the translation of Moroccan literature into Spanish has expanded
since the 1970s, it still suffers from limitations in scope, distribution, and overall
impact. To prevent exoticization and stereotyping, translations should be regarded
as essential components of world literature, necessitating enhanced institutional
support across the various languages of Spain and a more nuanced focus on
women’s narratives.
Christopher Fotheringham
This chapter offers a narrative reflection instead of a conventional empirical study,
positioned within Educational Design Research, a methodology that progressively
develops practical solutions to intricate educational challenges while simultaneously
generating theoretical insights. The emphasis is placed on the development of a
curriculum for a Master’s module in literary translation at a South African university.
This curriculum confronts the difficulties posed by multilingual and postcolonial
African contexts, appreciating students’ indigenous language assets while taking into
account the insufficiently explored economic and publishing limitations that impact
African-language translations. By promoting a creative and reflective application of
theory to students’ unique language combinations, the curriculum aspires to nurture
home-grown scholarship in the field of indigenous-language literary translation.
The course design is fundamentally based on constructive alignment, directed by
intended learning outcomes that are informed by European frameworks, such as
Petra-e’s guidelines for literary translation education, which delineate eight
competencies, along with adaptations of Showalter’s literary studies outcomes as
articulated by Washbourne. Collaborative workshops and anthologies are integral
pedagogical strategies, although modifications are essential for multilingual
classroom settings. Threshold concepts, as suggested by Meyer and Land, function
as heuristic instruments to facilitate transformative changes in students’
comprehension, promoting higher-order thinking and the integration of theory into
practical application.
The first threshold concept, "Literature Should Challenge the Reader," prioritizes the
aesthetic aspects of literary works over their utilitarian purposes. The theoretical
foundation is established through readings in aesthetic theory, formalism, reception
aesthetics, and hermeneutics, while practical exercises in both oral and written
poetry celebrate African verbal art and phonoaesthetics. Evaluations consist of
theoretical essays and translation assignments accompanied by commentary,
promoting critical engagement and the application of multilingual skills.
The second concept, "Translating Literature is a Political Act with Ethical
Consequences," delves into the postcolonial, cultural, and ethical facets of
translation. Students investigate the ramifications of conveying the authorial voice,
taking into account orality, literary identity, and ethical obligations, and participate in
comparative stylistic analysis to assess existing translations.
The third concept, "Literary Translation is governed by the Literary System,"
underscores the influence of translational culture, market dynamics, and publishing
limitations on translation methodologies. Polysystem theory, norm theory, and
research on translation ethics offer valuable perspectives on the contingencies of the
target system. Students explore the potential for translation to foster literacy,
contribute to canon formation, and enhance African-language literature. Practical
applications encompass investigations into indigenous language book markets, the
translation of literature for children and young adults, and the innovative application
of technology, including e-books and audiobooks, to broaden access and celebrate
oral traditions.
The chapter concludes by connecting the curriculum to the Pedagogical Turn in
humanities research, highlighting the importance of student empowerment, active
interpretation, and learning that is socially contextualized. It demonstrates the dual
benefits of Educational Design Research: disseminating insights to a broader
community while simultaneously enhancing pedagogical practices. The work
promotes innovative, African-centric strategies for literary translation that utilize
multilingualism, address socio-cultural and economic contexts, and encourage
reading and writing in African languages, ultimately enriching the linguistic and
literary landscapes of these languages.
