PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING unconditioned stimulus (US)until the neutral

AND MOTIVATION stimulus evokes a conditioned response

(CR).
LEARNING ➢​ Includes the following:
➢​ Involves the acquisition of new elements of 1.​ Stimulus Generalization –
knowledge, skills, beliefs, and specific Responding the same way to a
behaviors, which may mean one or more of similar stimulus
the following: gaining knowledge (learning 2.​ Discrimination – Responding
something), the knowledge gained by virtue differently to similar, but not identical
of that act (what is known), the process of stimuli
gaining knowledge (learning how). 3.​ Extinction - A process by which a
➢​ Is a process by which behavior is either conditioned response is lost
modified or wholly changed through
experience or training. Edward Lee Thorndike’s Connectionism
➢​ It is an ongoing process of continued ➢​ Connectionism means learning by selecting
adaptation to our environment, assimilation and connecting
of new information and accommodation of ➢​ It puts emphasis on the organism, not
new input to fit prior knowledge. limiting himself to the association between a
stimulus and a response.
LEARNING THEORIES
➢​ They are sets of conjectures and Three Major Laws of Learning:
hypotheses that explain the process of ➢​ Law of Readiness – States that an
learning or how learning takes place. individual will learn when he is ready to do
so. The learner should be biologically
Principles of Learning prepared.
➢​ Learning by doing is more effective than ➢​ Law of Exercise – States that a connection
just sitting and listening is strengthened or weakened depending on
➢​ Concepts should be presented in varied or the number of times it occurs and in
different ways: through definition, proportion to the average vigor and duration
discrimination, and context of the connection. Practice alone is not
➢​ Learning is aided by formulating and asking enough for improvement.
questions a.​ Law of Use – connections between
➢​ Effort is put forth when tasks are a stimulus and a response are
challenging strengthened as they are used.
➢​ The principle of readiness is related to the b.​ Law of Disuse – connections
learners’ stage of development between a stimulus and a response
are weakened when practice is
Learning Theories discontinued
A.​ Behavioral/Learning Theory ➢​ Law of Effect – States when an organism’s
➢​ It operates on the principle of response is accompanied or followed by a
“stimulus-response” satisfactory state, the strength of the
➢​ Prefers to concentrate on actual or connection is increased. If an annoying
observable behavior state accompanies or follows the response,
the strength of the connection is decreased.
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
➢​ Classical means “in an established manner.”
➢​ The individual learns when a previously
neutral stimulus (NS) is paired with an
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 Burrhus Frederick Skinner’s Operant
Conditioning Models may be classified into:
1.​ Real-life – as exemplified by teachers,
➢​ Stressed the use of pleasant or unpleasant parents, and significant others
consequences in controlling the occurrence 2.​ Symbolic – as presented through
of behavior. oral/written symbols
➢​ Proved that reinforcement is a powerful tool 3.​ Representational – as presented through
in shaping and controlling behavior in and audio-visual means.
out of the classroom. The Social-Cognitive/Observational Learning
Theory stresses the importance of models
Reinforcer – Any consequence that strengthens a because the observer-learner may:
behavior. It may be primary – related to basic a.​ acquire new responses
needs; secondary – value of something is acquired b.​ strengthen or weaken every existing
when associated with a primary reinforcer; positive response
– consequence given to strengthen a behavior; and c.​ cause the reappearance of responses that
negative – release from an unpleasant situation to have apparently been forgotten
strengthen a behavior.
Reinforcements – satisfying consequence may be Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
classified into:
➢​ Verbal - praise, encouragement Involves Four Phases:
➢​ Physical - touches, pats, hugs ➢​ Attention – mere exposure does not ensure
➢​ Non-Verbal - smiles, winks, warm looks acquisition of behaviour. Observer must
➢​ Activity - being allowed to play games, listen attend to and recognize the distinctive
to music, etc. features of the model’s response.
➢​ Token - points, chips, stars ➢​ Retention – reproduction of the desired
➢​ Consumable - cookies, soda, chocolates behaviour implies that the student
symbolically retain that observed behaviour.
Formula for Reinforcement: ➢​ Motor Reproduction Process – after
1. Prompt observation, have students demonstrate as
2. Response soon as possible. Correct behaviour can be
3. Reinforcement reinforced while incorrect ones altered.
➢​ Motivational Process – although observer
B. Cognitive Theories and Metacognition acquires and retains ability to perform the
1.​ Main focus is on memory modelled behaviour, there will be no overt
2.​ Prefer to concentrate on analyzing cognitive performance unless conditions are
processes favourable.
3.​ Believe in non-observable behaviors
David Ausubel’s Meaningful Reception Learning
Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive/ Theory
Observational Learning Theory
➢​ Concerned with how students learn large
➢​ Known for his “Bobo doll” experiment amounts of meaningful material from
➢​ States that people learn through verbal/textual presentations in a school
observation, simulation, or modeling setting.
(watching another, called a model and later ➢​ Meaningful learning results when
imitating the model’s behavior) information is acquired by linking the new
➢​ Concentrates on the power of example
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 information in the learner’s own cognitive ➢​ Bruner’s view of learning is also called
structure. “instrumental conceptualism”.
➢​ Meaningful learning occurs when new
experiences are related to what a learner Jerome Bruner’s Discovery Learning Theory (or
already knows. Inquiry Method)
➢​ A major instructional mechanism proposed
by Ausubel is the use of advance organizers ➢​ Emphasizes that students should learn to
(different from overviews and summaries recognize a problem, characterize what a
which simply emphasize key ideas) that solution would be like, search for relevant
helps link new learning material with information, develop a solution strategy and
existing related ideas​ execute the chosen strategy.
➢​ Believes that “you can’t teach people
Meaningful learning may occur through: everything they need to know.” The best
a.​ Reception thing to do is to position them where they
b.​ Rote learning can find what they need to know when they
c.​ Discovery learning need to know it.

➢​ Reception Learning – is concerned about Wolfgang Kohler’s Insight

the ways by which knowledge to be learned Learning/ProblemSolving Theory
is made available to the learner, like
presenting it in a well-organized fashion ➢​ Insight is the capacity to discern the true
➢​ Discovery Learning – focuses on the ways nature of a situation; the imaginative power
by which the learner incorporates new to see into and understand a situation
information into his existing cognitive immediately
structure, like his identifying the key ideas ➢​ Gaining insight is a gradual process of
and storing this information on his own. exploring, analyzing, and restructuring
perceptions until an appropriate solution is
Jerome Bruner’s Discovery Learning Theory or arrived at
Inquiry Method/Theory of Instruction ➢​ The more intelligent a person and the more
experience he has, the more capable he will
➢​ Posits that learning by discovery is more be for gaining insight
meaningful to learners when they have the ➢​ This theory held that animals and human
opportunity to discover on their own the beings are capable of seeing relationships
relationships among the concepts or to between objects and events and that they
actively search for a solution to a problem act accordingly to achieve their needs. They
➢​ An approach to instruction through which have the power to look into relationships
students interact with their environment by involved in a problem and to come up with a
exploring and manipulating objects, solution.
wrestling with questions and controversies ➢​ Kohler’s studies on apes led him to
or by performing experiments. The idea is conclude that learning is a result of
that students are more likely to remember insightful solutions, and not blind trial and
concepts they discover on their own. error.
➢​ It contends that students should be given a
wide variety of examples of certain facts Richard Atkinson’s and Richard Shiffrin’s
and information and should be encouraged Information Processing Theory
to discover the answer or the underlying
rules or principles. Maintains that the individual learns when the
human mind takes in information (encoding),
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performs operations on it (decoding), stores the ➢​ Information enters slowly, not easily
information (storage), and retrieves it when needed accessible, can be stored in unlimited
(retrieval). amounts, is retained indefinitely, not easily
➢​ Memory – involves the ability to store disrupted.
information so that it can be used at a later
time Cognitive psychologists have identified the
three components of long-term memory:
Stages of Human Memory ➢​ Episodic Memory – associated with our
1.​ Sensory Memory – information store that recall of particular times and places and a
holds an exact copy of the stimulus for a storage place for many personal
very short period of time, like color, shape, experiences.
blowing of horns ➢​ Semantic Memory – knowledge of general
2.​ Short-Term Memory – the information facts, principles and concepts that are not
store that retains the information as we connected to a particular time and place.
consciously work on it, like our friend’s Organized in networks of connected ideas
telephone number or relationships.
3.​ Long-Term Memory – information store ➢​ Procedural Memory – refers to “knowing
that is relatively permanent how” as opposed to “knowing that.”

Short-Term Memory Forgetting – is the temporary or long-term loss of a

➢​ Consists of what is in our consciousness at material that has been previously learned
any given time. Constitutes the raw material
needed for thinking which is referred to as Theories of Forgetting
“working memory.” ➢​ Decay of Memory Traces – information
➢​ New information is retained only for about stored in LTM gradually fades when it is not
20 seconds or so. Limited not only in the used.
length of time it can hold information but ➢​ Retrieval – forgetting is due to lack or
also in capacity – 5 to 9 new items of absence of retrieval cues
information. ➢​ Interference Effects – forgetting is caused
➢​ Chunking (grouping of separate bits of by what occurs before, during, or after
information in a meaningful way) improves learning
capacity for short-term memory. ➢​ Distortion of Memory Traces – forgetting
➢​ Without continued rehearsal and use, this is due to inaccuracies in the acquisition and
information is generally lost from memory in storage of information
about 20 seconds. ➢​ Motivated Forgetting – forgetting takes
➢​ The value of short-term memory is that it place as a result of the individual’s
enables us to store information long enough motivation to forget, whether consciously or
to make sense of the words and data we unconsciously.
are dealing with at a certain moment.
➢​ When we have rehearsed and transformed Teaching for Transfer (Gagne)
input into meaningful information, it then has ➢​ Transfer – to convey or cause to pass from
a chance of being encoded in the long-term one place, person or thing to another; to
memory. direct (a person) elsewhere for help or
information.
Long-Term Memory ➢​ Retention – the ability to recall or recognize
➢​ Passive, unconscious process as what has been learned or experienced.
differentiated from ShortTerm Memory, ➢​ Interference – an act or instance of
which is active, dynamic, conscious. hindering, distracting, or impeding.
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 ➢​ Forgetting – the apparent loss of ​
information already encoded and stored in Nine Events of Instruction
an individual’s long-term memory. 1.​ Gain attention
2.​ Inform learner of objective/s
3.​ Recall prior knowledge
Transfer of Learning (Types) 4.​ Present material
➢​ Lateral – occurs when the individual is able 5.​ Provide guided learning
to perform a new task at about the same 6.​ Elicit performance
level 7.​ Provide feedback
➢​ Vertical – occurs when the individual is able 8.​ Assess performance
to learn more advanced or complex skills 9.​ Enhance retention and transfer
➢​ Specific – when a certain skill, fact or rule
is applied to a similar situation Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory
➢​ General – when previously learned
principles are applied to dissimilar situations According to Gardner, there are nine (9) types
➢​ Positive – when learning in one situation of intelligence, each of which is developed to
facilitates learning in another similar different degrees in every person:
situation 1.​ Linguistic intelligence is one of the most
➢​ Negative – when learning in one situation studied human competencies. In addition, it
makes it difficult to learn, impedes or is one of the two basic competencies
obstructs learning in another situation broken down into subcomponents icluding
syntax, semantics, and pragmatics, as well
Robert Gagne’s Cumulative Learning as more schooloriented skills such a written
or oral expressions and understanding.
➢​ Maintains that any task or skill can be 2.​ Logical-Mathematical intelligence has the
broken down into simpler skills which can following subcomponents: deductive
still be further broken down to much simpler reasoning, inductive reasoning,
tasks or skills computation, and the like.
3.​ Spatial intelligence entails the capacity to
Hierarchy of Learning represent and manipulate spatial
➢​ Signal Learning – responding to a signal configurations. The architect, engineer,
➢​ Stimulus-Response (SR) Learning – mechanic, navigator, sculptor, and chess
voluntary responses are learned player all depend on spatial intelligence in
➢​ Motor Chaining – two or more separate the work they undertake.
motor/verbal responses may be combined 4.​ Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence refers to
or chained for a more complex response the ability to use all or part of one’s body
➢​ Verbal Association – verbal connections (e.g., one’s hands or one’s mouth) to
are used to create associations perform a task or fashion a product
➢​ Discrimination Learning – learner selects 5.​ Musical intelligence includes pitch
or distinguishes a response which applies to discrimination, the ability to hear themes in
a specific stimulus music, sensitivity to rhythm, texture, and
➢​ Concept Learning – giving common timbre, and the production of music through
responses to an entire class of stimuli performance or composition.
➢​ Principle or Rule Learning – involves 6.​ Intrapersonal intelligence refers to a
combining and relating concepts person’s understanding of self. It includes
➢​ Problem-Solving – considered the most knowledge and understanding of one’s own
complex condition that leads cognitive strengths, intelligence, styles as
well as his feelings and range of emotion.
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7.​ Interpersonal intelligence entails the Urie Brofenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory
ability to understand other individuals—their ➢​ Microsystem
actions and their movements. It also a.​ The setting in which an individual
includes the ability to act productively based lives – family, peers, school,
on that knowledge. neighborhood
8.​ Naturalistic intelligence refers to the b.​ Has the most direct interactions with
ability to appreciate nature and to agents
interconnect oneself with God’s creations. c.​ The individual is not passive and
9.​ Existential intelligence which is in the helps construct settings
process of active study, is indicative of the ➢​ Mesosystem
individual’s sensitivity and capacity to tackle ➢​ Involves relations between
deep questions about human existence, microsystems, connections between
such as the meaning of life, why do we die, contexts relation of family
and how we got here. experiences to school experiences,
school to church, family to peers
Kurt Lewin’s Field Theory ➢​ Examples: A child who experiences
parental rejection may have difficulty
➢​ This view is focused on the psychological with school; certain peer influences
field or the life space of an individual may cause family turmoil
➢​ The life space of an individual consists of ➢​ Exosystem
everything one needs to know about a a.​ Consists of experiences in a social
person in order to understand his behavior setting in which an individual does
in a specific psychological environment at a not have an active role, but which
specific time. nevertheless influence experience in
➢​ Life space concept- it is not always possible an immediate context
to draw accurate conclusions simply by b.​ Example: a parent's job experiences
observing overt behaviors. To understand will affect family life which, in turn,
behavior, it is often essential to be will affect children—travel
“subjective” in the sense that the observer requirements, job stress, amount of
must see things from the subject’s point of pay
view at a given moment. ➢​ Macrosystem
a.​ Includes the overall culture in which
Urie Brofenbrenner’s Ecological Systems an individual associates with and
Theory lives within.
b.​ Involves attitudes/ideologies of the
➢​ Bronfenbrenner is recognized in his field as culture in which individuals live
the first person to propose that child c.​ Examples: Judeo-Christian ethic,
development be observed through the lens democracy, ethnicity
of a multidisciplinary approach which ➢​ Chronosystem
includes education and the social sciences. a.​ Implies the patterning of
➢​ He hypothesized that there are five spheres environmental events and transitions
that influence a child’s development, over the life course; effects created
behavior, and personality and these he by time or critical periods in
identified as the Microsystem, Mesosystem, development
Exosystem, Macrosystem, and b.​ Example: disruptive effects of
Chronosystem. divorce peak one year after the
divorce, with effects more negative

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 for sons than for daughters unemotional, since they prefer to deal with
(Hetherington, 1989) things rather than with people.
c.​ Includes sociohistorical conditions ➢​ Assimilators – rely most on abstract
generalizing and reflective observation.
Lev Semanovich Vygotsky’s Social Interested in theoretical concerns than in
Constructivism/Sociohistoric Theory applications.
➢​ Divergers – rely on general experience and
➢​ Vygotsky is a Russian psychologist who active participation. They generate ideas
highly stressed the importance of the social and enjoy working with people.
environment to development ➢​ Accommodators – rely on concrete
➢​ Social interaction is the way in which experience and active experimentation.
children develop increasingly more complex They are risk-taking, action-oriented and
thinking. Children gain knowledge and skills adaptable in new situations.
through “shared experiences” between
themselves and adults or older peers Types of Learners
➢​ Cognitive development is viewed as ➢​ Auditory – prefer to learn by listening (use
dependent on social mediation. The child is of lectures, singing, recitation)
socially dependent at the beginning of his ➢​ Visual – prefer printed materials (use of
cognitive life and becomes increasingly reading/responding to visual cues like
independent on his thinking through many chalkboards or transparencies, powerpoint
experiences in which adults or older peers presentations, textbooks and pictures)
help ➢​ Tactile – like to manipulate objects (use of
➢​ The child acquires new skills and laboratory method or hands-on activities,
information with the zone of proximal tracing, cutting, touching objects)
development (ZPD), the level at which the ➢​ Kinesthetic or Whole-Body – like to learn
child finds a task too difficult to complete through experiential activities (use of
alone, but which he can accomplish with the simulations, role-playing, exploratory
assistance or support of an adult or older activities and problem-solving approach
peer
➢​ This theory suggests that, in addition to PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
providing a stimulating environment, early
childhood educators need to promote Types of Motivation
discovery, explaining and providing ●​ If students perceive themselves as
suggestions to suit each child’s zone of completing assignment solely to attain
proximal development rewards, they may develop a “piecework
➢​ Scaffolding – competent assistance or mentality” or “minimum strategy” in
support through mediation of the which they concentrate on maximizing
environment (significant or knowledgeable rewards by meeting minimum standards
others) in which cognitive, socio-emotional rather than by doing an excellent job as its
and behavioral development can occur own reward.
●​ Intrinsic Motivation – when students study
David Kolb’s Learning Styles because they enjoy the subject and desire
to learn it, irrespective of the praise won or
Learning Styles – are tools utilized by learners to grades earned, the reason for learning
cope with and adjust to the learning environment resides primarily inside or upon
➢​ Convergers – rely on experimenting. They themselves.
like to find specific, concrete answers and
move quickly to solution; they are
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Types of Motivation goal while self-esteem relates to a
●​ Is fuelled by one’s own goal or ambitions. person’s sense of self-worth.
●​ Self-starting, self-perpetuating and requires ●​ Self-efficacy affects people’s
only an inward interest to keep the behaviour including their:
motivational machinery going. ➢​ choice of activities
●​ The use of rewards as extrinsic motivation ➢​ Goals
has sometimes been found to increase ➢​ efforts and persistence
intrinsic motivation, something that is likely ➢​ learning and achievement
to happen when the rewards are contingent
on the quality of performances as opposed Factors in the Development of Self-Efficacy
to simply participating in an activity. ●​ Previous successes and failures
●​ Messages from others
Principles of Motivation ●​ Successes and failures of others
●​ The environment can be used to focus the ●​ Successes and failures of the group as a
student’s attention to what needs to be whole
learned. 3.​ Self-Determination (E. Deci)
●​ Incentives motivate learning. ●​ Self-Determination - comes from the
●​ Internal motivation is longer lasting and sense of autonomy that a person
more self-directed than is external has when it comes to things that he
motivation, which must be repeatedly does and the choices he makes.
reinforced by praise or concrete rewards. ●​ To task for a long period of time
●​ Listening is most effective when an ●​ To think meaningfully and creatively
individual is ready to learn, that is, when about those tasks
one wants to know something. ●​ To experience pleasure in one’s
●​ Motivation is enhanced by the way in which activities
the instructional material is organized. ●​ To achieve at a higher level
●​ We have the capacity to take risks or
Theories of Motivation challenges that can enrich our lives
1.​ Drive Theory (Clark Hull) and develop ourselves more.
●​ Drive is a condition of arousal or
tension that motivates behaviour. There are several variables that influence people’s
●​ Drives most typically have been sense of self determination one way or the other
considered to involve physiological ●​ Choices
survival needs: hunger, thirst, sleep, ●​ Threats and deadlines
pain, sex. ●​ Controlling statements
●​ A drive results from the activation of ●​ Extrinsic reward
a need. ●​ Surveillance and evaluation
●​ Need – a physiological deficiency 4.​ Expectancies and Values (Atkinson)
that creates a condition of Motivation to perform is affected by two
disequilibrium in the body. variables:
2.​ Self-Efficacy (Albert Bandura) A.​ Expectancy – people must believe that
●​ Self-efficacy – It is the belief that one they can accomplish a task, that is, they
has the capabilities to execute the should have expectancy about what they
courses of action required to want to achieve.
manage prospective situations. B.​ Value – they should place an importance or
●​ Self-efficacy relates to a person’s value in what they are doing
perception of his ability to reach a

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Several factors affecting expectancy: inspires and appeals to emotional
●​ Previous triumphs and failures well-being.
●​ Perceived difficulty of a task ●​ Motivation by enticement – Giving some
●​ One’s general work habits sort of external rewards, such as good or
●​ Environmental resources better grades, bonus for overtime work,
●​ Quality of instruction public recognition, more money, etc. may
●​ Anticipated effort necessary to succeed build enthusiasm to some extent.
5. Attribution Theory (B. Weiner)
●​ People’s various explanations for success General Ways of Motivating People
and failure – their beliefs about what causes ●​ Motivation by force – To get workers,
attributions. players, students, etc. to follow their leader,
●​ Dimensions underlying people’s attributions. the use of force or threat of force may be
People can explain events in many different unavoidable. It must be used wisely and
ways. For example, a tennis player may discreetly in a democratic society.
attribute his wins and successes in matches ●​ Motivation by identification or
to things like – luck, health, effort, mood, ego-involvement – The best way to motivate
strengths and weaknesses of his people is to bring them to work or to study
opponents, climate, his fans, etc. or to make them contribute to group
●​ Attributions of people are affected by three objectives not because they have to, but
dimensions: because they want to. When they identify
➢​ Locus: (Place) Internal vs. External themselves with the goals of the group to
➢​ Internal – factors within ourselves which they belong, it contributes to their
➢​ External – factors beyond our control self-respect or self-esteem and gain the
confidence of others upon them.
Attribution Theory (B. Weiner)
●​ Temporal Stability: Stable vs. Unstable Techniques in Motivating Learners
●​ Stable – things that probably won’t change ●​ Challenge them. Offer students
much in the near future opportunities to undertake real challenges.
●​ Unstable – things that can change from time ●​ Encourage them to take intellectual risks.
to time ●​ Build on strengths first. Seize opportunity to
●​ Controllability: Controllable vs. use their talents to achieve success.
Uncontrollable ●​ Offer choices. Offering choices develop
●​ Controllable – things we can influence and ownership. When a child makes decisions
change he is more likely to accept ownership and
●​ Uncontrollable – things over which we have control of the results.
no influence ●​ Provide a secure environment. Permit
children to fail without penalty. Learning how
General Ways of Motivating People to deal with failure is critical for developing
●​ Motivation by goal-setting – Helping people motivation and successful learning.
to dream, envision and set reasonable goals ●​ Teach them how to make their tasks more
and break down longterm goals into shorter manageable.
increments is helpful. ●​ Narrowing the topic to a challenging but
●​ Motivation by focus – Many may feel manageable size is very important for
inspired by focusing on a symbol of developing motivation.
success, such as a happy family, a dream ●​ Teach students to evaluate themselves.
house, a stable job. Self-evaluation needs to address the
●​ Motivation by music – Music may have the questions: “What was done well?” and “How
power to motivate people since it moves or can it be improved?”
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 ●​ Competition – can enhance or reduce experience different, and more often higher,
motivation depending on how it is used. It is amounts of cognitive load.
good for some, but it may result in a few
winners and many losers. Using it for some The fundamental tenet of cognitive load theory is
purpose may be beneficial, but the focus that the quality of instructional design will be raised
should not always be on outperforming the if greater consideration is given to the role and
competitor/s limitations of working memory. With increased
distractions, particularly from cell phone use,
THE COGNITIVE LOAD THEORY students are more prone to experiencing high
cognitive load which can reduce academic success.
In cognitive psychology, cognitive load is the effort
being used in the working memory. According to Theory
work conducted in the field of instructional design ●​ In the late 1980s, John Sweller developed
and pedagogy, broadly, there are three types of cognitive load theory out of a study of
cognitive load: problem solving, in order "to provide
●​ Intrinsic cognitive load is the effort guidelines intended to assist in the
associated with a specific topic. presentation of information in a manner that
●​ Germane cognitive load refers to the work encourages learner activities that optimize
put into creating a permanent store of intellectual performance". Sweller's theory
knowledge (a schema). employs aspects of information processing
●​ Extraneous cognitive load refers to the way theory to emphasize the inherent limitations
information or tasks are presented to a of concurrent working memory load on
learner. learning during instruction. It makes use of
the schema as primary unit of analysis for
However, over the years, the additivity of these the design of instructional materials.
types of cognitive load has been investigated and
questioned. Now it is believed that they circularly History
influence each other. Cognitive load theory was ●​ The history of cognitive load theory can be
developed in the late 1980s out of a study of traced to the beginning of cognitive science
problem solving by John Sweller, who argued that in the 1950s and the work of G.A. Miller. In
instructional design can be used to reduce his classic paper, Miller was perhaps the
cognitive load in learners. Much later, other first to suggest that our working memory
researchers developed a way to measure capacity has inherent limits. His
perceived mental effort which is indicative of experimental results suggested that humans
cognitive load. Task-invoked pupillary response is a are generally able to hold only seven plus or
reliable and sensitive measurement of cognitive minus two units of information in short-term
load that is directly related to working memory. memory.
●​ In 1973 Simon and Chase were the first to
Information may only be stored in long term use the term "chunk" to describe how
memory after first being attended to, and processed people might organize information in
by, working memory. Working memory, however, is short-term memory. This chunking of
extremely limited in both capacity and duration. memory components has also been
These limitations will, under some conditions, described as schema construction.
impede learning. Heavy cognitive load can have ●​ In the late 1980s John Sweller developed
negative effects on task completion, and the cognitive load theory (CLT) while studying
experience of cognitive load is not the same in problem solving. Studying learners as they
everyone. The elderly, students, and children solved problems, he and his associates
found that learners often use a problem
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 solving strategy called means-ends splits and temporally when time distances
analysis. two pieces of information that should be
●​ He suggests problem solving by connected; worked-example effect, which
means-ends analysis requiring a relatively utilizes a strategy that helps students
large amount of cognitive processing acquire new knowledge with as little mental
capacity, which may not be devoted to effort as possible based on the “borrowing
schema construction. Sweller suggested and re-organizing principle”—an inherent
that instructional designers should prevent way of processing information.
this unnecessary cognitive load by ●​ This worked-example approach helps
designing instructional materials which do students borrow new information from their
not involve problem solving. teacher, and re-organize it with any prior
●​ Examples of alternative instructional knowledge before moving it into their
materials include what are known as long-term memory ; and expertise reversal
worked-examples and goal-free problems, effect, which refers to how novices and
which are open-ended problems that allow experts learn. When novices are learning
students to explore and discover different they do not have a mental framework or
solutions. They are also aligned with the schema about the subject.
national curriculum, so that teachers can be ●​ In other words, they do not understand how
sure that they are relevant to what their everything fits together and relates to each
students are learning. other, or how to critically think about the
●​ In the 1990s, cognitive load theory was topic. Experts on the other hand do. The
applied in several contexts. The empirical expertise reversal effect comes from
results from these studies led to the research which shows that novices need
demonstration of several learning effects: step by step instruction, teachers, and
the completionproblem effect in the load simple learning tasks with little variability
cognitive theory refers to the phenomenon until they know how to think about the topic.
where the difficulty of a task increases when Experts on the other hand learn best from
there is a mismatch between the information having little teaching/instruction and
presented and the information needed to learning tasks that are much more variable.
complete the task; the modality effect where In other words, they reverse the normal
modality is the perceptual mode used to learning processes.
present information.
●​ The modality effect occurs when information
presented in a supplementary visual and
audio presentation results in greater
learning than when it is presented using a
single modality, either visually alone, or
auditory alone.; splitattention effect, which is
a learning effect inherent within some poorly
designed instructional materials.
●​ It is apparent when the same modality (e.g.
visual) is used for various types of
information within the same display. Users
must split their attention between the
materials, for example, an image and text,
to understand the information being
conveyed. The splitattention effect can
occur physically through visual and auditory
CALEBCUTIE