Socrates (c.
470 – 399 BCE)
Socrates is a towering figure in ancient Greek philosophy, often credited as
the founder of Western moral philosophy. Despite never writing anything
himself, his life, method, and ideas were preserved by his students, primarily
Plato, and have influenced virtually every era of philosophical thought since.
His legacy is defined by his unique approach to wisdom, his ethical concerns,
and his dramatic trial and death.
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Key Aspects of His Life and Thought
1. The Socratic Problem
We have no writings from Socrates himself. Our knowledge of him comes
primarily from three contemporary sources:
· Plato: His most famous student, who wrote numerous dialogues featuring
Socrates as the main character. These are the richest sources but likely
reflect Plato's own philosophy as much as Socrates's.
· Xenophon: A historian and soldier who also wrote memoirs and dialogues
about Socrates, portraying him as a more practical, moral advisor.
· Aristophanes: A playwright who satirized Socrates in his comedy The
Clouds, portraying him as a sophist who taught rhetorical tricks for money.
The challenge of discerning the historical Socrates from the literary character
is known as the "Socratic Problem."
2. The Socratic Method (Elenchus)
Socrates's most enduring contribution is his method of inquiry. Instead of
lecturing, he engaged people in a conversation by asking probing questions.
The process typically followed this pattern:
1. Question: Socrates would ask a question about a fundamental concept,
like "What is justice?" or "What is piety?"
2. Hypothesis: His interlocutor would offer a definition.
3. Examination: Socrates would ask more questions, exposing contradictions,
exceptions, and flaws in the initial definition.
4. Refutation (Elenchus): The initial hypothesis would be shown to be
inadequate.
5. Iteration: The process would restart with a new, refined hypothesis.
The goal was not to win an argument but to collaboratively purge oneself of
false beliefs and move closer to a more robust and defensible understanding
of the truth. It was a method for achieving intellectual humility.
3. Core Philosophical Beliefs
Though we filter them through Plato, several key ideas are central to the
figure of Socrates:
· "The Unexamined Life is Not Worth Living": This statement, from Plato's
Apology, is Socrates's mantra. He believed that a life dedicated to self-
reflection and questioning one's own beliefs was the only life of true value.
· "I Know That I Know Nothing": Socrates's famous declaration of wisdom was
his recognition of his own ignorance. The Oracle at Delphi supposedly said no
man was wiser than Socrates because he alone was aware of how much he
did not know.
· Virtue is Knowledge (Moral Intellectualism): Socrates tightly linked
knowledge and ethics. He believed that no one knowingly does evil. If a
person truly understands what is good, they will inevitably do it. Therefore,
evil or wrong action is simply a form of ignorance. This implies that all virtue
is a kind of knowledge that can be taught.
· The Care of the Soul: For Socrates, the most important task in life was not
the pursuit of wealth, power, or fame, but the care of one's soul (psyche).
This meant living a life of virtue, reason, and self-examination.
4. Trial and Death
In 399 BCE, at the age of 70, Socrates was put on trial in Athens on two
charges:
· Impiety (not believing in the gods of the state)
· Corrupting the youth of Athens
These charges were likely politically motivated. Athens had recently lost the
Peloponnesian War to Sparta, and its democracy had been briefly overthrown
by a brutal oligarchy led by Critias, who was one of Socrates's former
associates. A fragile democracy had been restored, and Socrates, with his
habit of questioning everything, was seen as a dangerous and subversive
influence.
· The Apology: Plato's account of Socrates's defense speech at his trial. True
to form, he did not beg for mercy but explained his philosophical mission to
the jury.
· Conviction: He was found guilty by a narrow margin.
· The Proposal: When asked to propose a penalty, Socrates ironically
suggested he should be given free meals for life as a public benefactor. This
offended the jury.
· The Sentence: The jury sentenced him to death by drinking a concoction of
poison hemlock.
· The Death: As described in Plato's Phaedo, Socrates spent his final hours
calmly discussing the immortality of the soul with his friends before willingly
accepting his sentence. He refused offers to help him escape, arguing that to
defy the state (even an unjust one) would be to violate the Laws that had
raised him, thus committing a greater evil.
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Legacy and Influence
Socrates's death made him a martyr for philosophy and free thought. His
method of questioning became the foundation of the Western philosophical
tradition. By shifting the focus of philosophy from the natural world
(cosmology) to human ethics and epistemology, he set the stage for:
· Plato, who developed his own vast philosophical system based on Socratic
inquiry.
· Aristotle, who was a student of Plato and went on to found his own school.
· The Stoics, Cynics, and Skeptics, who all saw Socrates as a model for how
to live.
· Countless philosophers through the ages, from the Renaissance to the
modern day, who have used his method of critical questioning to seek truth.
In essence, Socrates represents the relentless pursuit of truth through
reason, the primacy of ethical living, and the courage to stand by one's
principles, even in the face of death.
