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An Introduction
Third Edition

Mohamed A. El-Sharkawi
An Introduction
Third Edition
 POWER ELECT R O N I C S A N D
APPLICATIO N S S E R I E S
Muhammad H. Rashid, Series Editor
University of West Florida

PUBLISHED TITLES

Advanced DC/DC Converters

Fang Lin Luo and Hong Ye
Alternative Energy Systems: Design and Analysis with Induction
Generators, Second Edition
M. Godoy Simões and Felix A. Farret
Complex Behavior of Switching Power Converters
Chi Kong Tse
DSP-Based Electromechanical Motion Control
Hamid A. Toliyat and Steven Campbell
Electric Energy: An Introduction, Third Edition
Mohamed A. El-Sharkawi
Electrical Machine Analysis Using Finite Elements
Nicola Bianchi
Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Fuel Cell Vehicles:
Fundamentals, Theory, and Design
Mehrdad Eshani, Yimin Gao, Sebastien E. Gay, and Ali Emadi
Uninterruptible Power Supplies and Active Filters
Ali Emadi, Abdolhosein Nasiri, and Stoyan B. Bekiarov
An Introduction
Third Edition

Mohamed A. El-Sharkawi

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
CRC Press
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This textbook is dedicated to my wife, Fatma, and my sons, Adam and Tamer.
The book is also dedicated to all engineers, without
whom we would still be living in caves.
A special dedication goes to the founders of our electric
power systems: Nikola Tesla and Thomas Edison.
Contents
Preface.............................................................................................................................................. xv
Author..............................................................................................................................................xix
List of Acronyms.............................................................................................................................xxi

Chapter 1 History of Power Systems.............................................................................................1

1.1 Thomas A. Edison (1847–1931).......................................................................... 5
1.2 Nikola Tesla (1856–1943)...................................................................................7
1.3 Battle of AC versus DC...................................................................................... 8
1.4 Today’s Power Systems..................................................................................... 13
Exercises...................................................................................................................... 14

Chapter 2 Basic Components of Power Systems......................................................................... 17

2.1 Power Plants..................................................................................................... 17
2.1.1 Turbines............................................................................................... 18
2.1.2 Generators...........................................................................................20
2.2 Transformers.....................................................................................................20
2.3 Transmission Lines...........................................................................................20
2.4 Distribution Lines............................................................................................. 22
2.5 Conductors........................................................................................................ 23
2.5.1 Bundled Conductor..............................................................................24
2.5.2 Static (Shield) Wire.............................................................................26
2.6 Substations........................................................................................................26
2.6.1 Potential Transformer..........................................................................28
2.6.2 Current Transformer............................................................................ 29
2.6.3 Circuit Breaker.................................................................................... 31
2.6.4 Disconnecting Switches...................................................................... 33
2.6.5 Surge Arrester.....................................................................................34
2.7 Control Centers................................................................................................. 35
2.8 Worldwide Standards for Household Voltage and Frequency.......................... 37
2.8.1 Voltage Standard................................................................................. 38
2.8.2 Frequency Standard............................................................................. 38
2.8.2.1 Frequency of Generating Plants.......................................... 38
2.8.2.2 Frequency of Power Grids................................................... 39
Exercises...................................................................................................................... 39

Chapter 3 Energy Resources........................................................................................................ 41

3.1 Fossil Fuel.........................................................................................................44
3.1.1 Oil........................................................................................................ 45
3.1.2 Natural Gas......................................................................................... 47
3.1.3 Coal..................................................................................................... 48
3.2 Nuclear Fuel..................................................................................................... 50
Exercises...................................................................................................................... 51

vii
viii Contents

Chapter 4 Power Plants................................................................................................................ 53

4.1 Hydroelectric Power Plants.............................................................................. 53
4.1.1 Types of Hydroelectric Power Plants.................................................. 53
4.1.2 Impoundment Hydroelectric Power Plants.......................................... 55
4.1.2.1 Impulse Turbine................................................................... 57
4.1.2.2 Reaction Turbine.................................................................. 62
4.1.2.3 Reservoir.............................................................................. 65
4.1.2.4 Penstock...............................................................................66
4.1.2.5 Power Flow.......................................................................... 68
4.2 Fossil Fuel Power Plants................................................................................... 70
4.2.1 Thermal Energy Constant................................................................... 71
4.2.2 Description of Thermal Power Plant................................................... 72
4.3 Nuclear Power Plants........................................................................................ 75
4.3.1 Nuclear Fuel........................................................................................ 75
4.3.2 Uranium Enrichment........................................................................... 76
4.3.3 Fission Process.................................................................................... 76
4.3.4 Fission Control....................................................................................80
4.3.5 Boiling Water Reactor......................................................................... 81
4.3.6 Pressurized Water Reactor.................................................................. 82
4.3.7 CANDU Reactor................................................................................. 82
4.3.8 Safety Features in Nuclear Power Plants............................................84
4.3.9 Disposal of Nuclear Waste.................................................................. 85
4.3.9.1 Wet Storage.......................................................................... 85
4.3.9.2 Dry Storage.......................................................................... 85
4.3.9.3 Permanent Storage............................................................... 85
Exercises...................................................................................................................... 86

Chapter 5 Environmental Impact of Power Plants....................................................................... 89

5.1 Environmental Concerns Related to Fossil Fuel Power Plants........................90
5.1.1 Sulfur Oxides......................................................................................90
5.1.2 Nitrogen Oxides..................................................................................92
5.1.3 Ozone..................................................................................................92
5.1.4 Acid Rain............................................................................................. 93
5.1.5 Carbon Dioxide...................................................................................94
5.1.6 Ashes................................................................................................... 95
5.1.7 Legionnaires’ Disease and Cooling Towers........................................ 95
5.2 Environmental Concerns Related to Hydroelectric Power Plants....................96
5.2.1 Case Study: The Aswan Dam.............................................................96
5.3 Environmental Concerns Related to Nuclear Power Plants.............................97
5.3.1 Radioactive Release During Normal Operation.................................97
5.3.2 Loss of Coolant...................................................................................97
5.3.3 Disposal of Radioactive Waste............................................................ 98
Exercises...................................................................................................................... 98

Chapter 6 Renewable Energy.......................................................................................................99

6.1 Solar Energy.....................................................................................................99
6.1.1 Passive Solar Energy System............................................................ 103
6.1.2 Active Solar Energy System (Photovoltaic)...................................... 104
6.1.2.1 Ideal PV Model.................................................................. 108
Contents ix

6.1.2.2 Effect of Irradiance and Temperature on Solar Cells........ 117

6.1.2.3 PV Module......................................................................... 119
6.1.2.4 Real Model of PV.............................................................. 124
6.1.2.5 Daily Power Profile of PV Array....................................... 127
6.1.2.6 Photovoltaic System Integration........................................ 128
6.1.2.7 Evaluation of PV Systems.................................................. 131
6.2 Wind Energy................................................................................................... 133
6.2.1 Kinetic Energy of Wind.................................................................... 133
6.2.2 Wind Turbine..................................................................................... 136
6.2.3 Aerodynamic Force........................................................................... 137
6.2.4 Angle-of-Attack................................................................................. 139
6.2.5 Pitch Angle........................................................................................ 141
6.2.6 Coefficient of Performance and Turbine Efficiency.......................... 142
6.2.7 Operating Range of Wind Turbine.................................................... 143
6.2.8 Tip Speed Ratio................................................................................. 143
6.2.9 Feathering.......................................................................................... 147
6.2.10 Classifications of Wind Turbines...................................................... 147
6.2.10.1 Alignment of Rotating Axis.............................................. 147
6.2.10.2 Types of Generators........................................................... 149
6.2.10.3 Speed of Rotation.............................................................. 150
6.2.11 Types of Wind Turbine...................................................................... 150
6.2.11.1 Type 1 Wind Turbine......................................................... 151
6.2.11.2 Type 2 Wind Turbine......................................................... 151
6.2.11.3 Type 3 Wind Turbine......................................................... 152
6.2.11.4 Type 4 Wind Turbine......................................................... 152
6.2.12 Wind Farm Performance................................................................... 153
6.2.13 Evaluation of Wind Energy............................................................... 154
6.3 Hydrokinetic Systems..................................................................................... 158
6.3.1 Small Hydro Systems........................................................................ 158
6.3.1.1 Main Components of Small Hydro System....................... 158
6.3.1.2 Effective Head................................................................... 160
6.3.1.3 System Efficiency.............................................................. 162
6.3.1.4 Site Calculations................................................................ 163
6.3.1.5 Evaluation of Small Hydro Systems.................................. 165
6.3.2 Tidal and Stream Energy System...................................................... 165
6.3.2.1 Barrage System.................................................................. 165
6.3.2.2 Water Stream Energy......................................................... 169
6.3.2.3 Evaluation of Tidal and Stream Energy............................ 172
6.3.3 Wave Energy System......................................................................... 173
6.3.3.1 Buoyant Moored System.................................................... 174
6.3.3.2 Hinged Contour System..................................................... 175
6.3.3.3 Oscillating Water Column System.................................... 176
6.3.3.4 Evaluation of Wave Energy............................................... 178
6.4 Geothermal Energy........................................................................................ 178
6.4.1 Heat Pump......................................................................................... 181
6.4.2 Geothermal Electricity...................................................................... 181
6.4.2.1 Geothermal Reservoir....................................................... 181
6.4.2.2 Hot Dry Rock..................................................................... 182
6.4.3 Geothermal Power Plants.................................................................. 182
6.4.3.1 Evaluation of Geothermal Energy..................................... 185
6.5 Biomass Energy.............................................................................................. 186
x Contents

6.6 Fuel Cell......................................................................................................... 187

6.6.1 Hydrogen Fuel................................................................................... 188
6.6.2 Types of Fuel Cells............................................................................ 189
6.6.2.1 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell.............................. 189
6.6.2.2 Alkaline Fuel Cell............................................................. 191
6.6.2.3 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell................................................. 192
6.6.2.4 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell........................................................ 193
6.6.2.5 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell............................................... 193
6.6.2.6 Direct Methanol Fuel Cell................................................. 194
6.6.3 Hydrogen Economy........................................................................... 195
6.6.4 Modeling of Ideal Fuel Cells............................................................. 197
6.6.4.1 Thermal Process of Fuel Cells........................................... 197
6.6.4.2 Electrical Process of Fuel Cells......................................... 198
6.6.5 Modeling of Actual Fuel Cells.......................................................... 199
6.6.5.1 Polarization Characteristics of Fuel Cells......................... 199
6.6.6 Evaluation of Fuel Cells.................................................................... 201
6.6.7 Fuel Cells and the Environment........................................................202
6.6.7.1 Generation of Hydrogen....................................................202
6.6.7.2 Safety of Hydrogen............................................................202
6.7 Intermittency of Renewable Systems............................................................. 203
6.8 Energy Storage Systems.................................................................................204
6.8.1 Pumped Hydro Storage.....................................................................204
6.8.2 Compressed Air Energy Storage.......................................................205
6.8.3 Batteries.............................................................................................207
6.8.4 Flywheels..........................................................................................208
Exercises....................................................................................................................209

Chapter 7 Alternating Current Circuits..................................................................................... 213

7.1 Alternating Current Waveform....................................................................... 213
7.2 Root Mean Square.......................................................................................... 214
7.3 Phase Shift...................................................................................................... 216
7.4 Concept of Phasors......................................................................................... 218
7.5 Complex Number Analysis............................................................................. 219
7.6 Complex Impedance....................................................................................... 222
7.6.1 Series Impedance.............................................................................. 223
7.6.2 Parallel Impedance............................................................................ 225
7.7 Electric Power................................................................................................. 227
7.7.1 Real Power......................................................................................... 230
7.7.2 Reactive Power.................................................................................. 230
7.7.3 Complex Power................................................................................. 231
7.7.4 Summary of AC Phasors................................................................... 232
7.7.5 Power Factor...................................................................................... 233
7.7.6 Problems Related to Reactive Power................................................. 233
7.7.7 Power Factor Correction.................................................................... 238
7.8 Electric Energy............................................................................................... 242
Exercises....................................................................................................................244

Chapter 8 Three-Phase Systems................................................................................................ 247

8.1 Generation of Three-Phase Voltages.............................................................. 247
Contents xi

8.2 Connections of Three-Phase Circuits............................................................. 250

8.2.1 Wye-Connected Balanced Source..................................................... 251
8.2.2 Delta-Connected Balanced Source................................................... 255
8.2.3 Wye-Connected Balanced Load....................................................... 256
8.2.4 Delta-Connected Balanced Load...................................................... 259
8.2.5 Circuits with Mixed Connections..................................................... 262
8.2.6 Wye-Delta Transformation................................................................ 265
8.3 Power Calculations of Balanced Three-Phase Circuits.................................. 268
8.3.1 Three-Phase Power of Balanced Wye Loads.................................... 269
8.3.2 Three-Phase Power of Balanced Delta Loads................................... 269
Exercises.................................................................................................................... 271

Chapter 9 Electric Safety........................................................................................................... 273

9.1 Electric Shock................................................................................................. 273
9.1.1 Current Limits of Electric Shocks.................................................... 274
9.1.2 Factors Determining the Severity of Electric Shocks....................... 275
9.1.2.1 Effect of Voltage................................................................ 275
9.1.2.2 Effect of Current................................................................ 276
9.1.2.3 Effect of Body Resistance................................................. 276
9.1.2.4 Effect of Current Pathway................................................. 277
9.1.2.5 Effect of Shock Duration................................................... 277
9.1.2.6 Effect of Frequency........................................................... 277
9.1.2.7 Effect of Ground Resistance.............................................. 278
9.2 Ground Resistance..........................................................................................280
9.2.1 Ground Resistance of Objects...........................................................280
9.2.2 Measuring Ground Resistance of Objects.........................................284
9.2.3 Ground Resistance of People............................................................284
9.3 Touch and Step Potentials............................................................................... 286
9.3.1 Touch Potential.................................................................................. 286
9.3.2 Step Potential..................................................................................... 290
9.4 Electric Safety at Home.................................................................................. 293
9.4.1 Neutral versus Ground...................................................................... 294
9.4.1.1 Grounding Chassis............................................................. 295
9.4.1.2 Bonding Chassis to Neutral............................................... 297
9.4.1.3 Grounding Chassis and Bonding Ground to Neutral........ 299
9.4.2 Dwelling Distribution Circuits..........................................................302
9.4.3 Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter.......................................................304
9.4.4 Neutral Integrity................................................................................306
9.4.5 World’s Residential Grounding Practices..........................................309
9.5 Low Frequency Magnetic Field and Its Health Effects.................................. 310
9.5.1 Low-Frequency Magnetic Fields....................................................... 311
9.5.2 Biological Effects of Magnetic Field................................................. 312
9.5.3 Standards for Magnetic Field............................................................ 313
Exercises.................................................................................................................... 314

Chapter 10 Power Electronics...................................................................................................... 317

10.1 Power Electronic Devices............................................................................... 318
10.1.1 Solid-State Diodes............................................................................. 318
10.1.2 Transistors......................................................................................... 319
xii Contents

10.1.2.1 Bipolar Junction Transistor................................................ 320

10.1.2.2 Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor......... 324
10.1.3 Thyristors.......................................................................................... 325
10.1.3.1 Silicon-Controlled Rectifier............................................... 325
10.1.3.2 Silicon Diode for Alternating Current............................... 326
10.1.4 Hybrid Power Electronic Devices..................................................... 327
10.1.4.1 Darlington Transistor......................................................... 327
10.1.4.2 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor...................................... 328
10.2 Solid-State Switching Circuits....................................................................... 328
10.2.1 AC/DC Converters............................................................................ 328
10.2.1.1 Rectifier Circuits................................................................ 330
10.2.1.2 Voltage-Controlled Circuits............................................... 333
10.2.1.3 Constant-Current Circuits.................................................. 336
10.2.1.4 Three-Phase Circuits......................................................... 339
10.2.2 DC/DC Converters............................................................................344
10.2.2.1 Buck Converter..................................................................344
10.2.2.2 Boost Converter................................................................. 345
10.2.2.3 Buck–Boost Converter....................................................... 348
10.2.3 DC/AC Converters............................................................................. 351
10.2.3.1 Single-Phase DC/AC Converter......................................... 351
10.2.3.2 Three-Phase DC/AC Converter......................................... 352
10.2.3.3 Pulse Width Modulation.................................................... 356
10.2.4 AC/AC Converters............................................................................. 358
Exercises....................................................................................................................360

Chapter 11 Transformers............................................................................................................. 363

11.1 Theory of Operation....................................................................................... 363
11.1.1 Voltage Ratio..................................................................................... 365
11.1.2 Current Ratio..................................................................................... 367
11.1.3 Reflected Load Impedance................................................................ 367
11.1.4 Transformer Ratings.......................................................................... 369
11.2 Multi-Winding Transformer........................................................................... 370
11.3 Autotransformer............................................................................................. 372
11.4 Three-Phase Transformer............................................................................... 375
11.4.1 Three-Phase Transformer Ratings.................................................... 375
11.4.1.1 Wye–Wye Transformer...................................................... 376
11.4.1.2 Delta–Delta Transformer................................................... 378
11.4.1.3 Wye–Delta Transformer.................................................... 380
11.4.2 Transformer Bank............................................................................. 382
11.5 Actual Transformer........................................................................................ 383
11.5.1 Analysis of Actual Transformer........................................................ 386
11.5.2 Transformer Efficiency...................................................................... 390
11.5.3 Voltage Regulation............................................................................ 391
Exercises.................................................................................................................... 392

Chapter 12 Electric Machines...................................................................................................... 395

12.1 Rotating Magnetic Field................................................................................. 395
12.2 Rotating Induction Motor............................................................................... 399
12.2.1 Rotation of Induction Motor.............................................................. 401
Contents xiii

12.2.2 Equivalent Circuit of Induction Motor..............................................403

12.2.3 Power Analysis..................................................................................407
12.2.4 Speed–Torque Relationship............................................................... 410
12.2.5 Starting Torque and Starting Current............................................... 413
12.2.6 Maximum Torque.............................................................................. 414
12.2.7 Starting Methods............................................................................... 415
12.2.7.1 Voltage Reduction.............................................................. 416
12.2.7.2 Insertion of Resistance...................................................... 417
12.3 Linear Induction Motor.................................................................................. 419
12.3.1 Wheeled Linear Induction Motor...................................................... 420
12.3.2 Magnetically Levitated Induction Motor.......................................... 426
12.4 Induction Generator........................................................................................ 427
12.5 Synchronous Generator.................................................................................. 432
12.5.1 Synchronous Generator Connected to Infinite Bus........................... 439
12.5.1.1 Power of Synchronous Generator......................................440
12.5.2 Synchronous Generator Connected to Infinite Bus
through a Transmission Line.............................................................444
12.5.3 Increase Transmission Capacity........................................................448
12.5.3.1 Increasing Transmission Capacity by
Using Series Capacitor.......................................................448
12.5.3.2 Increasing Transmission Capacity by
Using Parallel Lines...........................................................449
12.6 Synchronous Motor........................................................................................ 451
12.6.1 Power of Synchronous Motor............................................................ 454
12.6.2 Reactive Power Control and Synchronous Condenser...................... 454
12.6.3 Motor Torque..................................................................................... 456
12.7 Direct Current Motor...................................................................................... 457
12.7.1 Theory of Operation of DC Motor.................................................... 459
12.7.2 Starting of DC Motor........................................................................ 461
12.7.3 Speed Control of DC Motor.............................................................. 462
12.8 Stepper Motor.................................................................................................464
12.8.1 Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor..................................................465
12.8.2 Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor.................................................... 467
12.8.3 Hybrid Stepper Motor.......................................................................468
12.8.4 Holding State of Stepper Motor........................................................468
12.8.5 Rotating Stepper Motor..................................................................... 471
12.9 Single-Phase Motors....................................................................................... 472
12.9.1 Split-Phase Motors............................................................................ 472
12.9.2 Capacitor Starting Motors................................................................. 475
12.9.3 Shaded-Pole Motors.......................................................................... 476
Exercises.................................................................................................................... 476

Chapter 13 Power Quality............................................................................................................ 481

13.1 Voltage Problems............................................................................................ 481
13.1.1 Voltage Flickers.................................................................................484
13.1.2 Voltage Sag........................................................................................ 488
13.2 Harmonic Problems........................................................................................ 496
13.2.1 Harmonic Distortion of Electric Loads............................................. 499
13.2.2 Resonance due to Harmonics............................................................504
13.2.3 Effect of Harmonics on Transmission Lines and Cables.................. 507
xiv Contents

13.2.4 Effect of Harmonics on Capacitor Banks......................................... 507

13.2.5 Effect of Harmonics on Electric Machines....................................... 508
13.2.6 Effect of Harmonics on Electric Power.............................................509
13.2.7 Effect of Harmonics on Communications......................................... 512
Exercises.................................................................................................................... 512

Chapter 14 Power Grid and Blackouts......................................................................................... 515

14.1 Topology of Power Systems............................................................................ 517
14.1.1 Enhancing Power System Reliability by
Adding Transmission Lines.............................................................. 518
14.1.2 Enhancing Power System Reliability by Adding Generation........... 518
14.2 Analysis of Power Networks.......................................................................... 519
14.3 Electric Energy Demand................................................................................ 523
14.4 Trading Electric Energy................................................................................. 526
14.5 World Wide Web of Power............................................................................. 528
14.6 Anatomy of Blackouts.................................................................................... 529
14.6.1 Balance of Electric Power................................................................. 530
14.6.2 Balance of Electrical and Mechanical Powers.................................. 531
14.6.2.1 Control Actions for Decreased Demand............................ 534
14.6.2.2 Control Actions for Increased Demand............................. 534
14.7 Blackout Scenarios......................................................................................... 536
14.7.1 Great Northeast Blackout of 1965..................................................... 537
14.7.2 Great Blackout of 1977...................................................................... 537
14.7.3 Great Blackout of 2003..................................................................... 538
Exercises.................................................................................................................... 539

Chapter 15 Future Power Systems............................................................................................... 541

15.1 Smart Grid...................................................................................................... 541
15.1.1 Intelligent Monitoring....................................................................... 545
15.1.2 Smart House...................................................................................... 548
15.1.3 Self-Diagnosis and Self-Healing....................................................... 549
15.2 Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles............................................................ 550
15.3 Alternative Resources..................................................................................... 553
15.4 Less Polluting Power Plants........................................................................... 553
15.5 Distributed Generation................................................................................... 554
15.6 Power Electronics........................................................................................... 554
15.7 Enhanced Reliability...................................................................................... 555
15.8 Intelligent Operation, Maintenance, and Training......................................... 555
15.9 Space Power Plants......................................................................................... 555
Exercises.................................................................................................................... 557
Appendix A: Units and Symbols.................................................................................................. 559
Appendix B: Conversions............................................................................................................. 561
Appendix C: Key Parameters...................................................................................................... 563
Appendix D: Inductors................................................................................................................. 565
Appendix E: Key Integrals........................................................................................................... 567
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