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The Making of a Transnational Capitalist Class
Corporate Power in the 21st Century 1st Edition William
K. Carroll Digital Instant Download
Author(s): William K. Carroll
ISBN(s): 9781848134430, 1848134436
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 5.42 MB
Year: 2010
Language: english
About the author
Bill Carroll is a professor of sociology at the Univer-
sity of Victoria, where he directs the Social Justice Studies
Programme. His research interests are in the areas of the
political economy of corporate capitalism, social movements
and ­social justice, and critical social theory and method.
Among his recent books are Remaking Media: The Struggle
to Democratize Public Communication (co-authored with Bob
Hackett), Challenges and Perils: Social Democracy in Neo-Liberal
Times and Critical Strategies for Social Research. He has won
the Canadian Sociological Association’s John Porter Prize
twice, for his books on the structure of corporate power in
Canada. He has held visiting fellowships and appointments
at the University of Amsterdam, Griffith University, Kanazawa
State University, the Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study
in the Humanities and Social Sciences, and the Institute of
Political Economy at Carleton University. He is a research
associate with the Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives, an
associate editor of the journal Socialist Studies, and a member
of Sociologists without Borders.
Praise for The Making of a Transnational Capitalist Class
‘Building on Fennema’s pathbreaking research on corporate networks
in the 1980s, Carroll and his colleagues have produced an impressive
array of evidence to suggest that a transnational capitalist class is in
the making. This book is the most significant recent contribution on
the transnational capitalist class.’ Leslie Sklair, emeritus professor of
sociology, London School of Economics

‘The Making of a Transnational Capitalist Class is a state-of-the art analy-

sis of the global political-economic power structure as it has developed
into the current century. I know of no author in the field who has been
able to combine a mastery of empirical method in analysing corporate
and planning-group interlocks on a world scale, with an incisive
political analysis of the forces occupying the most central locations in
the networks that emerge from this analysis. Combining theoretical
acumen with an unfailing commitment to social justice and fairness,
Carroll brings to this enterprise decades of research experience,
which has only gained in sophistication over the years. Not only do his
findings represent the most up-to-date and detailed information on
the global structures of power. The work equally includes, in a brilliant
concluding chapter, an analysis of the social forces ranged against
the intricate structures of corporate power and a realistic assessment
of the balance of strength in each case. At a time when the capitalist
world economy is in the throes of one of the deepest crises in its exist-
ence, a fine-grained mapping of the personalities, corporations, and
private consultative bodies that actually were running the show to right
before it came crashing down, this book is a bombshell that will help
clear the way for a renovated global political economy.’ Kees van der
Pijl, professor of international relations, University of Sussex

‘William Carroll provides a superb analysis of global corporate power

and the complexities surrounding the issue of transnational capitalist
class formation. Sensitive to the relations between the global, regional
and national, the challenges posed by state capitalism, and the early
impact of the global financial crisis, this will remain the definitive work
on the subject for years to come.’ Professor Stephen McBride, Depart-
ment of Political Science, McMaster University
‘With this exciting book Bill Carroll has written a landmark study on
transnational class formation setting a new standard for years to come.
The longitudinal approach, rigorous empirical research, and great the-
oretical sensitivity and nuance give the book a unique and exemplary
quality. It raises numerous questions for further research and debate
and makes a major contribution to critical social research.’ Henk
Overbeek, professor of international relations, VU University

‘This is a truly excellent book. Carroll and his co-workers take the
debates on global capitalism and the network society to a new level.
Powerful research using techniques of social network analysis shows
that corporate power holders have become increasingly cosmopolitan
and are the key agents of regional and global financial hegemony
within the world economic system. All those interested in this topic
will find the book a fascinating and enjoyable read.’ John Scott,
­professor of sociology, University of Plymouth

‘This lucid, illuminating and much-needed analysis reveals the

underlying structure of the global community of big business at the
beginning of the twenty-first century. It provides valuable answers to
important questions, including a measured analysis of the degree of
unity and division among the most powerful corporations in the world
and a vivid portrait of the role transnational policy groups in linking
together the world’s largest firms. The Making of the Transnational
Capitalist Class provides the essential empirical base for the emerging
field of global power structure research.’ Michael Schwartz, professor of
sociology, Stony Brook University
The making of a transnational capitalist class
Corporate power in the twenty-first century

William K. Carroll

with Colin Carson, Meindert Fennema,

Eelke Heemskerk and J. P. Sapinski

Zed Books
london | new york
The making of a transnational capitalist class: Corporate power in the twenty-
first century was first published in 2010 by Zed Books Ltd, 7 Cynthia Street,
London n1 9jf, uk and Room 400, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, ny 10010,
usa
www.zedbooks.co.uk
Copyright © William K. Carroll 2010
The right of William K. Carroll to be identified as the author of this work has
been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents
Act, 1988
Set in OurType Arnhem and Gill Sans Heavy by Ewan Smith, London
Index: [email protected]
Cover designed by www.thisistransmission.com
Printed and bound in Great Britain by MPG Books Group, Bodmin and
King’s Lynn
Distributed in the usa exclusively by Palgrave Macmillan, a division of
St Martin’s Press, llc, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, ny 10010, usa
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored
in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior permission of Zed
Books Ltd.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data available
isbn 978 1 84813 443 0 pb
isbn 978 1 84813 442 3 hb
isbn 978 1 84813 444 7 eb
 Contents

Tables and figures | viii Acronyms | xi

Acknowledgements | xiii

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

PART ONE The formation of a transnational corporate community

1 Is there a transnational corporate community? . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2 Forging a new hegemony: the transnational corporate-policy
network, 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3 Global cities in the global corporate network . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

PART TWO Into the twenty-first century: the changing organization

of corporate power
4 Transnational accumulation and global networking . . . . . . . . 83
5 Transnationalists and national networkers . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6 Billionaires and networkers: wealth, position and corporate
power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

PART THREE A transnational historic bloc?

7 Constituting corporate Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
8 Consolidating the transnational corporate-policy network,
1996–2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
9 Hegemony and counter-hegemony in a global field . . . . . . . . 203

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

Notes | 237
Bibliography | 251
Index | 266
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 Mathematics - Student Handbook
Summer 2022 - Department

Prepared by: Prof. Garcia

Date: July 28, 2025

Lesson 1: Current trends and future directions

Learning Objective 1: Historical development and evolution
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 1: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 2: Ethical considerations and implications
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 3: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 4: Practical applications and examples
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 5: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 6: Research findings and conclusions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Exercise 2: Historical development and evolution
Practice Problem 10: Literature review and discussion
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 11: Practical applications and examples
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 13: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 15: Best practices and recommendations
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 18: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 20: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Unit 3: Case studies and real-world applications
Practice Problem 20: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 21: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 26: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 26: Historical development and evolution
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 27: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 28: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 28: Best practices and recommendations
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 29: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 29: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 30: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Section 4: Historical development and evolution
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 34: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 35: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 35: Research findings and conclusions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 38: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 39: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 39: Literature review and discussion
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Abstract 5: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Practice Problem 40: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 42: Study tips and learning strategies
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 47: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Lesson 6: Theoretical framework and methodology
Practice Problem 50: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 53: Current trends and future directions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 55: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 59: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 60: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Exercise 7: Ethical considerations and implications
Practice Problem 60: Current trends and future directions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 61: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 62: Experimental procedures and results
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 63: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 67: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 68: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Part 8: Case studies and real-world applications
Example 70: Ethical considerations and implications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 73: Experimental procedures and results
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 79: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Discussion 9: Learning outcomes and objectives
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 81: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 83: Experimental procedures and results
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 88: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 89: Ethical considerations and implications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Discussion 10: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 92: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 95: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 96: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 97: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
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