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Fundamentals of Geophysics
Second Edition
This second edition of Fundamentals of Geophysics has been completely revised and
updated, and is the ideal geophysics textbook for undergraduate students of geoscience
with only an introductory level of knowledge in physics and mathematics.
Presenting a comprehensive overview of the fundamental principles of each major
branch of geophysics (gravity, seismology, geochronology, thermodynamics,
geoelectricity, and geomagnetism), this text also considers geophysics within the wider
context of plate tectonics, geodynamics, and planetary science. Basic principles are
explained with the aid of numerous figures, and important geophysical results are
illustrated with examples from scientific literature. Step-by-step mathematical
treatments are given where necessary, allowing students to easily follow the derivations.
Text boxes highlight topics of interest for more advanced students.
Each chapter contains a short historical summary and ends with a reading list that
directs students to a range of simpler, alternative, or more advanced, resources. This
new edition also includes review questions to help evaluate the reader’s understanding
of the topics covered, and quantitative exercises at the end of each chapter. Solutions to
the exercises are available to instructors.

  is Professor Emeritus of Geophysics at the Institute of Geophysics at

the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), Zürich, where he has taught and
carried out research for over 30 years. His research interests include rock magnetism,
magnetostratigraphy, and tectonic applications of paleomagnetic methods.
Fundamentals of Geophysics
Second Edition

WI LLI A M LOWR I E
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zürich
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521859028

© W. Lowrie 2007

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of

relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place
without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published in print format 2007

ISBN-13 978-0-511-35447-2 eBook (EBL)

ISBN-10 0-511-35447-9 eBook (EBL)

ISBN-13 978-0-521-85902-8 hardback

ISBN-10 0-521-85902-6 hardback

ISBN-13 978-0-521-67596-3 paperback

ISBN-10 0-521-67596-0 paperback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls
for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not
guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

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Contents

Preface page vii

Acknowledgements ix

1 The Earth as a planet 1

1.1 The solar system 1
1.2 The dynamic Earth 15
1.3 Suggestions for further reading 40
1.4 Review questions 41
1.5 Exercises 41

2 Gravity, the figure of the Earth and geodynamics 43

2.1 The Earth’s size and shape 43
2.2 Gravitation 45
2.3 The Earth’s rotation 48
2.4 The Earth’s figure and gravity 61
2.5 Gravity anomalies 73
2.6 Interpretation of gravity anomalies 84
2.7 Isostasy 99
2.8 Rheology 105
2.9 Suggestions for further reading 117
2.10 Review questions 118
2.11 Exercises 118

3 Seismology and the internal structure of the Earth 121

3.1 Introduction 121
3.2 Elasticity theory 122
3.3 Seismic waves 130
3.4 The seismograph 140
3.5 Earthquake seismology 148
3.6 Seismic wave propagation 171
3.7 Internal structure of the Earth 186
3.8 Suggestions for further reading 201
3.9 Review questions 202
3.10 Exercises 203

4 Earth’s age, thermal and electrical properties 207

4.1 Geochronology 207
4.2 The Earth’s heat 220
4.3 Geoelectricity 252
4.4 Suggestions for further reading 276
4.5 Review questions 276
4.6 Exercises 277

v
vi Contents

5 Geomagnetism and paleomagnetism 281

5.1 Historical introduction 281
5.2 The physics of magnetism 283
5.3 Rock magnetism 293
5.4 Geomagnetism 305
5.5 Magnetic surveying 320
5.6 Paleomagnetism 334
5.7 Geomagnetic polarity 349
5.8 Suggestions for further reading 359
5.9 Review questions 359
5.10 Exercises 360

Appendix A The three-dimensional wave equations 363

Appendix B Cooling of a semi-infinite half-space 366
Bibliography 368
Index 375
Preface to the second edition

In the ten years that have passed since the publication of the first edition of this text-
book exciting advances have taken place in every discipline of geophysics.
Computer-based improvements in technology have led the way, allowing more
sophistication in the acquisition and processing of geophysical data. Advances in
mass spectrometry have made it possible to analyze minute samples of matter in
exquisite detail and have contributed to an improved understanding of the origin of
our planet and the evolution of the solar system. Space research has led to better
knowledge of the other planets in the solar system, and has revealed distant objects
in orbit around the Sun. As a result, the definition of a planet has been changed.
Satellite-based technology has provided more refined measurement of the gravity
and magnetic fields of the Earth, and has enabled direct observation from space of
minute surface changes related to volcanic and tectonic events. The structure, com-
position and dynamic behavior of the deep interior of the Earth have become better
understood owing to refinements in seismic tomography. Fast computers and
sophisticated algorithms have allowed scientists to construct plausible models of
slow geodynamic behavior in the Earth’s mantle and core, and to elucidate the
processes giving rise to the Earth’s magnetic field. The application of advanced
computer analysis in high-resolution seismic reflection and ground-penetrating
radar investigations has made it possible to describe subtle features of environmen-
tal interest in near-surface structures. Rock magnetic techniques applied to sedi-
ments have helped us to understand slow natural processes as well as more rapid
anthropological changes that affect our environment, and to evaluate climates in the
distant geological past. Climatic history in the more recent past can now be deduced
from the analysis of temperature in boreholes.
Although the many advances in geophysical research depend strongly on the aid
of computer science, the fundamental principles of geophysical methods remain the
same; they constitute the foundation on which progress is based. In revising this
textbook, I have heeded the advice of teachers who have used it and who recom-
mended that I change as little as possible and only as much as necessary (to para-
phrase medical advice on the use of medication). The reviews of the first edition, the
feedback from numerous students and teachers, and the advice of friends and col-
leagues helped me greatly in deciding what to do.
The structure of the book has been changed slightly compared to the first
edition. The final chapter on geodynamics has been removed and its contents inte-
grated into the earlier chapters, where they fit better. Text-boxes have been intro-
duced to handle material that merited further explanation, or more extensive
treatment than seemed appropriate for the body of the text. Two appendices have
been added to handle more adequately the three-dimensional wave equation and the
cooling of a half-space, respectively. At the end of each chapter is a list of review
questions that should help students to evaluate their knowledge of what they have
read. Each chapter is also accompanied by a set of exercises. They are intended to
provide practice in handling some of the numerical aspects of the topics discussed

vii
viii Preface

in the chapter. They should help the student to become more familiar with geophys-
ical techniques and to develop a better understanding of the fundamental princi-
ples.
The first edition was mostly free of errata, in large measure because of the
patient, accurate and meticulous proofreading by my wife Marcia, whom I sincerely
thank. Some mistakes still occurred, mostly in the more than 350 equations, and
were spotted and communicated to me by colleagues and students in time to be cor-
rected in the second printing of the first edition. Regarding the students, this did not
improve (or harm) their grades, but I was impressed and pleased that they were
reading the book so carefully. Among the colleagues, I especially thank Bob
Carmichael for painstakingly listing many corrections and Ray Brown for posing
important questions. Constructive criticisms and useful suggestions for additions
and changes to the individual revised chapters in this edition were made by Mark
Bukowinski, Clark Wilson, Doug Christensen, Jim Dewey, Henry Pollack,
Ladislaus Rybach, Chris Heinrich, Hans-Ruedi Maurer and Mike Fuller. I am very
grateful to these colleagues for the time they expended and their unselfish efforts to
help me. If errors persist in this edition, it is not their fault but due to my negligence.
The publisher of this textbook, Cambridge University Press, is a not-for-profit
charitable institution. One of their activities is to promote academic literature in the
“third world.” With my agreement, they decided to publish a separate low-cost
version of the first edition, for sale only in developing countries. This version
accounted for about one-third of the sales of the first edition. As a result, earth
science students in developing countries could be helped in their studies of geo-
physics; several sent me appreciative messages, which I treasure.
The bulk of this edition has been written following my retirement two years ago,
after 30 years as professor of geophysics at ETH Zürich. My new emeritus status
should have provided lots of time for the project, but somehow it took longer than I
expected. My wife Marcia exhibited her usual forbearance and understanding for
my obsession. I thank her for her support, encouragement and practical sugges-
tions, which have been as important for this as for the first edition. This edition is
dedicated to her, as well as to my late parents.

William Lowrie
Zürich
August, 2006
Acknowledgements

The publishers and individuals listed below are gratefully acknowledged for giving their
permission to use redrawn figures based on illustrations in journals and books for which
they hold the copyright. The original authors of the figures are cited in the figure cap-
tions, and I thank them also for their permissions to use the figures. Every effort has
been made to obtain permission to use copyrighted materials, and sincere apologies are
rendered for any errors or omissions. The publishers would welcome these being brought
to their attention.

Copyright owner Figure number

American Association for the Advancement of Science

Science 1.14, 1.15, 3.20, 4.8, 5.76
American Geophysical Union
Geodynamics Series 1.16
Geophysical Monographs 3.86
Geophysical Research Letters 4.28
Journal of Geophysical Research 1.28, 1.29b, 1.34, 2.25, 2.27, 2.28,
2.60, 2.62, 2.75b, 2.76, 2.77a,
2.79, 3.40, 3.42, 3.87, 3.91, 3.92,
4.24, 4.35b, 5.39, 5.69, 5.77, B5.2
Maurice Ewing Series 3.50
Reviews of Geophysics 4.29, 4.30, 4.31, 5.67
Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 4.22, 4.23
Blackburn Press 2.72a, 2.72b
Blackwell Scientific Publications Ltd. 1.21, 1.22, 1.29a
Geophysical Journal of the Royal
Astronomical Society
and Geophysical Journal International 1.33, 2.59, 2.61, 4.35a
Sedimentology 5.22b
Butler, R. F. 1.30
Cambridge University Press 1.8, 1.26a, 2.41, 2.66, 3.15, 4.51,
4.56a, 4.56b, 5.43, 5.55
Earthquake Research Institute, Tokyo 5.35a
Elsevier
Academic Press 3.26a, 3.26b, 3.27, 3.73, 5.26,
5.34, 5.52
Pergamon Press 4.5
Elsevier Journals
Deep Sea Research 1.13
Earth and Planetary Science Letters 1.25, 1.27, 4.6, 4.11, 5.53
Journal of Geodynamics 4.23
Physics of Earth and Planetary Interiors 4.45
Tectonophysics 2.29, 2.77b, 2.78, 3.75, 5.82
Emiliani, C. 4.27
Geological Society of America 1.23, 5.83
Hodder Education (Edward Arnold Publ.) 2.44

ix
x Acknowledgements

Copyright owner Figure number

Institute of Physics Publishing 3.47, 3.48

John Wiley & Sons Inc. 2.40, 2.46, 2.48, 2.57, 4.33, 4.46,
4.50
Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 4.57
McGraw-Hill Inc. 2.49, 3.68
Natural Science Society in Zürich 3.88, 3.89
Nature Publishing Group
Nature 1.7, 1.18, 1.19, 1.20, 1.24a, 1.24b,
2.69, 4.62, 5.66a, 5.66b, 5.70,
5.71
Oxford University Press 5.31a
Princeton University Press 2.81, 2.82, 2.83, 2.84
Royal Society 1.6, 2.15
Scientific American 2.30
Seismological Society of America 1.10, 3.41, 3.45
Society of Exploration Geophysicists 2.56b, 3.68, 5.44
Springer
Chapman & Hall 2.74
Kluwer Academic Publishers 4.20
Springer-Verlag 5.41
Van Nostrand Reinhold 2.16, 2.31, 2.32, 3.32, 3.33, 3.51,
3.90, B3.3, 5.33, 5.35b
Stacey, F. D. 4.38
Stanford University Press 4.7
Strahler, A. H. 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.17a, 3.22, 5.30
Swiss Geological Society 3.43
Swiss Geophysical Commission 2.58, 2.67
Swiss Mineralogical and Petrological Society 3.43
Taylor and Francis Group 2.85, 4.36, 4.37
Terra Scientific Publishing Co. 5.17, 5.31b, 5.37, 5.38
Turcotte, D. L. 4.33
University of Chicago Press 5.61
W. H. Freeman & Co. 1.33, 3.24, 3.46
1 The Earth as a planet

1.1 THE SOLAR SYSTEM

to distant star
1.1.1 The discovery and description of the planets
To appreciate how impressive the night sky must have
been to early man it is necessary today to go to a place
remote from the distracting lights and pollution of urban P
centers. Viewed from the wilderness the firmaments
appear to the naked eye as a canopy of shining points,
fixed in space relative to each other. Early observers noted θ 1+θ 2

that the star pattern appeared to move regularly and used

this as a basis for determining the timing of events. More
than 3000 years ago, in about the thirteenth century
p1 p2
BC, the year and month were combined in a working cal-
endar by the Chinese, and about 350 BC the Chinese θ1 θ2
astronomer Shih Shen prepared a catalog of the positions
of 800 stars. The ancient Greeks observed that several
celestial bodies moved back and forth against this fixed
background and called them the planetes, meaning “wan- E' E
2s
derers.” In addition to the Sun and Moon, the naked eye
could discern the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter
and Saturn.
Geometrical ideas were introduced into astronomy by
the Greek philosopher Thales in the sixth century BC. This Fig. 1.1 Illustration of the method of parallax in which two measured
advance enabled the Greeks to develop astronomy to its angles (u1 and u2) are used to compute the distances (p1 and p2) of a
planet from the Earth in terms of the Earth–Sun distance (s).
highest point in the ancient world. Aristotle (384–322 BC)
summarized the Greek work performed prior to his time
and proposed a model of the universe with the Earth at its of wood or metal with the circumference marked off in
center. This geocentric model became imbedded in reli- degrees. At its center was pivoted a movable pointer
gious conviction and remained in authority until late into called the alidade. Angular distances could be deter-
the Middle Ages. It did not go undisputed; Aristarchus of mined by sighting on a body with the alidade and reading
Samos (c.310–c.230 BC) determined the sizes and dis- off its elevation from the graduated scale. The inventor of
tances of the Sun and Moon relative to the Earth and the astrolabe is not known, but it is often ascribed to
proposed a heliocentric (sun-centered) cosmology. The Hipparchus (190–120 BC). It remained an important tool
methods of trigonometry developed by Hipparchus for navigators until the invention of the sextant in the
(190–120 BC) enabled the determination of astronomical eighteenth century.
distances by observation of the angular positions of celes- The angular observations were converted into dis-
tial bodies. Ptolemy, a Greco-Egyptian astronomer in the tances by applying the method of parallax. This is simply
second century AD, applied these methods to the known illustrated by the following example. Consider the planet
planets and was able to predict their motions with remark- P as viewed from the Earth at different positions in the
able accuracy considering the primitiveness of available latter’s orbit around the Sun (Fig. 1.1). For simplicity,
instrumentation. treat planet P as a stationary object (i.e., disregard the
Until the invention of the telescope in the early seven- planet’s orbital motion). The angle between a sighting on
teenth century the main instrument used by astronomers the planet and on a fixed star will appear to change
for determining the positions and distances of heavenly because of the Earth’s orbital motion around the Sun.
bodies was the astrolabe. This device consisted of a disk Let the measured extreme angles be u1 and u2 and the

1
2 The Earth as a planet

distance of the Earth from the Sun be s; the distance

between the extreme positions E and E
of the orbit is v1
then 2s. The distances p1 and p2 of the planet from the Q
b p
Earth are computed in terms of the Earth–Sun distance A1
by applying the trigonometric law of sines: r P (r, θ)
Aphelion a
p1 sin(90  u2 ) cos u2 Perihelion
P' S θ
  A2
2s sin(u1  u2 ) sin(u1  u2 ) Q'
(1.1) v2
p2 cos u1

2s sin(u1  u2 )

Further trigonometric calculations give the distances

Fig. 1.2 Kepler’s first two laws of planetary motion: (1) each planetary
of the planets from the Sun. The principle of parallax
orbit is an ellipse with the Sun at one focus, and (2) the radius to a
was also used to determine relative distances in the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time.
Aristotelian geocentric system, according to which the
fixed stars, Sun, Moon and planets are considered to be in
motion about the Earth. Kepler’s three laws are purely empirical, derived from
In 1543, the year of his death, the Polish astronomer accurate observations. In fact they are expressions of
Nicolas Copernicus published a revolutionary work in more fundamental physical laws. The elliptical shapes of
which he asserted that the Earth was not the center of the planetary orbits (Box 1.1) described by the first law are a
universe. According to his model the Earth rotated about consequence of the conservation of energy of a planet
its own axis, and it and the other planets revolved about orbiting the Sun under the effect of a central attraction
the Sun. Copernicus calculated the sidereal period of each that varies as the inverse square of distance. The second
planet about the Sun; this is the time required for a planet law describing the rate of motion of the planet around its
to make one revolution and return to the same angular orbit follows directly from the conservation of angular
position relative to a fixed star. He also determined the momentum of the planet. The third law results from the
radii of their orbits about the Sun in terms of the balance between the force of gravitation attracting the
Earth–Sun distance. The mean radius of the Earth’s orbit planet towards the Sun and the centrifugal force away
about the Sun is called an astronomical unit; it equals from the Sun due to its orbital speed. The third law is
149,597,871 km. Accurate values of these parameters easily proved for circular orbits (see Section 2.3.2.3).
were calculated from observations compiled during an Kepler’s laws were developed for the solar system but
interval of 20 years by the Danish astronomer Tycho are applicable to any closed planetary system. They govern
Brahe (1546–1601). On his death the records passed to his the motion of any natural or artificial satellite about a
assistant, Johannes Kepler (1571–1630). Kepler suc- parent body. Kepler’s third law relates the period (T) and
ceeded in fitting the observations into a heliocentric model the semi-major axis (a) of the orbit of the satellite to the
for the system of known planets. The three laws in which mass (M) of the parent body through the equation
Kepler summarized his deductions were later to prove 42 3
GM  a (1.2)
vital to Isaac Newton for verifying the law of Universal T2
Gravitation. It is remarkable that the database used by
where G is the gravitational constant. This relationship
Kepler was founded on observations that were unaided by
was extremely important for determining the masses of
the telescope, which was not invented until early in the sev-
those planets that have natural satellites. It can now be
enteenth century.
applied to determine the masses of planets using the
orbits of artificial satellites.
1.1.2 Kepler’s laws of planetary motion Special terms are used in describing elliptical orbits.
The nearest and furthest points of a planetary orbit
Kepler took many years to fit the observations of Tycho
around the Sun are called perihelion and aphelion, respec-
Brahe into three laws of planetary motion. The first and
tively. The terms perigee and apogee refer to the corre-
second laws (Fig. 1.2) were published in 1609 and the
sponding nearest and furthest points of the orbit of the
third law appeared in 1619. The laws may be formulated
Moon or a satellite about the Earth.
as follows:
(1) the orbit of each planet is an ellipse with the Sun at
1.1.3 Characteristics of the planets
one focus;
(2) the orbital radius of a planet sweeps out equal areas Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) is often regarded as a founder
in equal intervals of time; of modern science. He made fundamental discoveries in
(3) the ratio of the square of a planet’s period (T2) to the astronomy and physics, including the formulation of the
cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit (a3) is a con- laws of motion. He was one of the first scientists to use
stant for all the planets, including the Earth. the telescope to acquire more detailed information about
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