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Shattered, Cracked, or Firmly Intact?
This page intentionally left blank
Shattered, Cracked, or
Firmly Intact?
Women and the Executive
Glass Ceiling Worldwide

FA R I D A J A L A L Z A I

1
3
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide.

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© Oxford University Press 2013

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

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Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Jalalzai, Farida.
Shattered, cracked or firmly intact?: women and the executive glass ceiling
worldwide / Farida Jalalzai.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978–0–19–994353–1 (hbk. : alk. paper) 1. Women executives.
2. Glass ceiling (Employment discrimination) 3. Sex discrimination. I. Title.
HD6054.3.J35 2013
331.4′81658—dc23
2012034145

ISBN 978–0–19–994353–1

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed in the United States of America
on acid-free paper
For my parents, husband, and son
This page intentionally left blank
 CONTENTS

Acknowledgments ix

1 Introduction 1
2 Women Executives: The Literature 12
3 Women Executives: Positions, Selections, Systems, and Powers 31
4 A More In-Depth Analysis of Executive Positions and Paths 56
5 General Backgrounds of Women Leaders 79
6 Specific Pathways to Power: Political Families and Activism 94
7 A Statistical Analysis of Women’s Rule 115
8 An Overview of Female Presidential Candidacies 135
9 Close but Not Close Enough: The Historic Candidacies
of Hillary Clinton and Ségolène Royal 149
10 Conclusions on Women Executives and Directions for Future
Research 174

Appendix: Biographies of Women Leaders, 1960–2010 185

Notes 239
References 261
Index 293
This page intentionally left blank
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I was first drawn to studying women presidents and prime ministers as an

undergraduate at SUNY College at Brockport. Professor William G. Andrews
of the Political Science Department became my mentor and inspiration for this
body of research. We conversed on numerous occasions about how in Pakistan,
from which my family originally hailed, a woman managed to break the exec-
utive glass ceiling; of course, such an event existed as only a hypothetical in
the United States. Benazir Bhutto’s ascension to the Pakistani prime minister-
ship appeared counterintuitive given Pakistani women’s lower status relative
to men’s. Women’s lack of presidential success in the United States, given their
relatively equitable position, provided a stunning contrast. Professor Andrews,
in essence, encouraged me to pose and solve a two-part puzzle relating wom-
en’s rise to power within varied contexts: First, how do women enter executive
offices in countries that afford women few political, social, and economic oppor-
tunities? Second, why do other countries (such as the United States) boasting
higher percentages of women in the professions, educational institutions, and
various political bodies fail to promote female national leaders?
This research line grew in importance to me over the years while I embarked
on numerous personal and professional visits to Pakistan. My relatives prac-
ticed purdah, a system of sex segregation common to specific Muslim cultures.
As a result, women’s mobility tended to be restricted. Although highly inter-
connected with class status, family dynamics, religious and cultural norms, and
ethnic identities, women’s inequality seemed palpable throughout many regions
of the country. My parents immigrated to the United States in part to provide
their children, particularly their daughters, with educational opportunities. Yet
again, this only underlined the seeming disconnect between women’s general
status and the success of individual women as they aspired to executive offices.
Years after my conversations with Professor Andrews first began, Hillary
Clinton’s run for the 2008 Democratic Party presidential nomination fueled
x Acknowledgments

a related question: Is the United States ready for a woman president? While
coming very close to being the first female major party nominee, Clinton ulti-
mately failed at what many other women around the world have accomplished:
becoming executive of her country. While a female president of the United
States still remains only a theoretical scenario, more women around the world
are occupying presidential and prime ministerial offices in diverse settings.
Thus, the original question that arose in dialogues with my mentor appears just
as relevant today, maybe even more so.
This book attempts to answer the two-part puzzle posed two decades ago,
providing explanations as to why the executive glass ceiling has been cracked in
some countries (as in Pakistan), has been shattered in others (such as Finland),
and remains firmly intact almost everywhere else (including the United States).
It explores how women’s ascensions to executive office, or lack thereof, con-
nect to political institutions, societal structures, historical forces, and global
statures of countries. My concentration on women world leaders later extended
to graduate study at SUNY Buffalo and subsequently informed my current aca-
demic career as an associate professor of political science at the University of
Missouri–Saint Louis. Deliberating the democratic consequences of represen-
tation, my research agenda analyzes political minorities. Striving to fill vari-
ous gaps in our knowledge regarding women national leaders, I connect their
potential representational impacts to powers and paths. In the spirit of schol-
arly discourse, this work answers many essential questions but raises still more
along the way.
This book would not have been possible without the help of scores of people,
including my family, mentors, and colleagues. I thank Professor William G.
Andrews and the Ronald E. McNair Program at SUNY College at Brockport
for nurturing my love for research and enabling me to conduct the fieldwork in
Pakistan that served as the inspiration for this book many years later.
I am also thankful to the faculty at SUNY Buffalo, Professors Claude E. Welch
Jr., D. Munroe Eagles, and Franco Mattei, who formed the committee for my
dissertation, “Women Leaders in Comparative Perspective.” While this book
bears little resemblance to the dissertation, the research and writing experience
proved critical to future theoretical and empirical developments contained in
this current work. I owe a special debt of gratitude to Karen Beckwith, Flora
Stone Mather Professor of Political Science at Case Western Reserve University,
who served as my external dissertation reader and continues to provide com-
ments on other projects, including this one. I am especially appreciative to
Karen for encouraging me to pursue the highest-quality university press as I
sought publication.
I am grateful to the Department of Political Science at the University of
Missouri–Saint Louis, under the leadership of E. Terry Jones, for providing me
Acknowledgments xi

support as I pursued this research. Particularly, I thank my colleague and friend

Joyce M. Mushaben for advising me to concentrate on publishing articles rather
than immediately pursuing a book-length work as I navigated the tenure pro-
cess. Years later, Joyce helps me deliberate research strategies over cups of tea
and Wednesday soup on the ninth floor of Tower.
Many centers, colleges, and programs at the University of Missouri–Saint
Louis support my research. I express appreciation to the Gender Studies
Program (formally the Institute for Women’s and Gender Studies) for providing
academic, financial, and emotional support. I also wish to thank Joel Glassman,
director of International Studies and Programs, and Ron Yasbin, dean of the
College of Arts of Sciences, for offering me resources over the years for projects
related to women leaders. I am also grateful to the dean of the Pierre Laclede
Honors College, Bob Bliss, who promotes scores of the campus events on wom-
en’s leadership that I coordinate.
I remain very thankful to the network of great gender specialists in Saint
Louis, connecting the University of Missouri–Saint Louis, Washington
University in Saint Louis, and Saint Louis University. I am fortunate to host
these scholars at various colloquia and participate with them at numerous com-
munity and university events. We also spend many dinners at great restaurants
talking about the field of gender and politics, navigating the profession of polit-
ical science, and balancing work and family. Among these colleagues is Mona
Lena Krook, formerly of Washington University in Saint Louis. While I am
saddened she is leaving, I am thrilled for the new opportunities awaiting her at
Rutgers University. Thanks also to Nadia Brown at Saint Louis University for
her support. I also express gratitude to Leslie Schwindt-Bayer at the University
of Missouri–Columbia for her participation in several Saint Louis gender and
politics events. I look forward to expanding the local research network even
further in the future.
I am indebted to all of the local organizations that invite me to share my
work on women leaders, including but not limited to the American Association
for University Women–Ballwin Branch, the Ethical Society of Saint Louis,
the Wednesday Club, and the Saint Louis Chapter of the National Women’s
Political Caucus. These talks continually remind me of the larger relevance of
my research and the practical application of findings. I am always impressed
by the enthusiasm and expertise of these audiences. Such organizations do
remarkable work to advance the status of women at all levels of society. I count
myself very fortunate for this support.
Dayna Stock is an excellent example of the benefits mentorship offers for
both faculty and graduate students. Now “Dr. Stock,” she remains an impor-
tant colleague through her management of the Sue Shear Institute for Women
in Public Life, a nonpartisan organization dedicated to promoting women to
xii Acknowledgments

political office. I also thank her for being a great friend and, along with Sudarsan
Kant, for providing a tasty collection of topics to devour at “Mediterranean
Sundays.”
I give thanks to my graduate assistants, including Jennifer Edwards and Janet
Drake, who helped collect data at earlier stages of this project and aided in the
writing of many of the biographies of women leaders contained in the appen-
dix. I offer special gratitude to Young-Im Lee, whose enthusiasm for this topic
and gift for detail helped me navigate my final revisions.
Beyond my local colleagues and supporters, I am privileged to interact with
a superb domestic and international network of scholars. Current or former
editors of journals offering excellent feedback on various articles on women
national leaders include Heidi Hartmann, Carol Hardy-Fanta, and Karen
O’Connor of the Journal of Women, Politics & and Policy (formerly Women &
Politics); Karen Beckwith, Kathleen Dolan, and Ailie Mari Tripp of Politics &
Gender; and Yvonne Galligan of the International Political Science Review.
Many scholars encouraged me to apply lessons I derived from my global anal-
ysis of women leaders to country or regional case studies. Too often, area spe-
cialists and academics engaging in broad cross-national studies view each other
with suspicion. I am obliged to colleagues who support my passion for integrat-
ing case studies with large-N analysis and combining quantitative and qualita-
tive techniques. Multimethod approaches provide the most complete pictures
of very complex phenomena. In this spirit I thank Louise Davidson-Schmich
of the University of Miami, who included me within her network of gender
scholars studying Germany and Chancellor Angela Merkel, resulting in the
publication of a special edition of German Politics (2011, Volume 20:2), as well
as Gretchen Bauer of the University of Delaware and Manon Tremblay of the
University of Ottawa, editors of Women in Executive Power (Routledge 2011),
who approached me to coauthor a chapter on women in North American cabi-
nets. I also thank Michael Genovese of Loyola Marymount University, editor of
Women World Leaders, who offered me an opportunity to write on President
Ellen Johnson Sirleaf of Liberia (Routledge forthcoming).
Other scholars to whom I am indebted include Mary Anne Borrelli of
Connecticut College, Francine D’Amico at the Maxwell School at Syracuse
University, Michelle Taylor-Robinson and Maria Escobar-Lemmon of Texas
A&M University, Rainbow Murray of Queen Mary University, Jennifer Piscopo
of Salem College, Robert Boherer of Gettysburg College, and Steven J. Jurek
of SUNY College at Brockport. Of course, this list is hardly comprehensive; it
recognizes scholars who continually field my questions about their great work,
read over my manuscripts, offer invitations to speak at their campuses, or assist
in organizing research panels to promote the study of women and gender in
positions of national leadership.
Acknowledgments xiii

I give special recognition to Angela Chnapko, the editor with whom I worked
most closely at Oxford University Press. She showed great commitment to this
project at the outset and provided enduring support throughout the revision
and publication processes. I greatly thank the anonymous reviewers whose
insights and recommendations significantly strengthened the final product.
I cannot thank my family enough. It is only through my parents’ self-sacrifice
that my siblings and I realized our full potentials. I am fortunate to have five
caring siblings—four sisters and a brother. Among my sisters, I credit Zubeda
with first instilling in me the desire to pursue academia. I also thank her for
taking time out of her busy life as a mother of three and professor of English
at Rhode Island College to edit drafts of this manuscript. For Sajida, I echo
the sentiment she has expressed to me over the years, “You would so be my
friend even if you were not my sister,” and I wish her luck as she now completes
her dissertation. I am continually impressed by Abida, who combines exhaust-
ing schedules of work, schooling, and parenting. I am always delighted by my
“little” sister Medina, and look forward to seeing her future unfold. To my only
brother, Waheed—the only “real” doctor among my siblings—I wish all the best
to his beautiful family. All of my family members have expressed a great deal
of interest and support through countless stages of this research, keeping me
motivated throughout the process.
Lastly, I thank my husband, Chad Alan Hankinson, for all of his love and
support over these many years. He is not only a wonderful husband but a col-
league and coauthor. He continually helps me think through research ideas and
problems. Above all, he is an amazing father to our darling son, Elam Jalalzai
Hankinson. Elam proves to be the child I always desired. He is well behaved but
never provides us a dull moment. More than anything, I appreciate his sense of
humor and beautiful heart. And thanks to our cat Willoughby, who sat on my
lap over the course of countless days as I worked through revision after revi-
sion. I would not be where I am today if not for my family; I dedicate this work
to them.
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