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Reservoir Formation
Damage
This page intentionally left blank
Reservoir Formation
Damage
Fundamentals, Modeling,
Assessment, and Mitigation

Third Edition

Faruk Civan, PhD

Professor Emeritus of the Mewbourne School of Petroleum
and Geological Engineering, The University of Oklahoma,
Norman, Oklahoma, USA

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON

NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO
SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Gulf Professional Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier
Gulf Professional Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier
225 Wyman Street, Waltham, MA 02451, USA
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB, UK
First edition 2000
Second edition 2007
Copyright r 2016, 2007, 2000 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies
and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency,
can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our
understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any
information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be
mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for
any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any
use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
ISBN: 978-0-12-801898-9

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Civan, Faruk.
Reservoir formation damage: fundamentals, modeling, assessment, and mitigation/Faruk Civan.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-88415-301-0 (alk. paper)
1. Hydrocarbon reservoirs. 2. Petroleum—Geology. I. Title.
TN870.57.C58 2000
6220 .338—dc21 00-027480

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

For Information on all Gulf Professional Publishing

visit our website at http://store.elsevier.com/
 Dedicated to my family
with love and appreciation
This page intentionally left blank
Contents

About the Author............................................................................................................................... xxv

Preface ............................................................................................................................................. xxvii

CHAPTER 1 Overview of Formation Damage..................................................... 1

Summary.............................................................................................................................1
1.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................1
1.2 Common Formation Damage Problems, Factors, and Mechanisms .........................4
1.3 Team for Understanding and Mitigation of Formation Damage...............................4
1.4 Objectives of the Book...............................................................................................5
Exercises.............................................................................................................................6

PART I CHARACTERIZATION OF RESERVOIR ROCK FOR FORMATION

DAMAGE—RESERVOIR FORMATIONS, DESCRIPTION AND
CHARACTERIZATION, DAMAGE POTENTIAL, AND
PETROGRAPHICS
CHAPTER 2 Description and Characterization of Oil and Gas Reservoirs
for Formation Damage Potential.................................................... 9
Summary.............................................................................................................................9
2.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................9
2.2 Origin of Petroleum-Bearing Formations ................................................................10
2.3 Types and Properties of Sedimentary Rocks ...........................................................10
2.4 Operational Classification of the Constituents of Sedimentary Rocks ...................12
2.5 Composition of Petroleum-Bearing Formations ......................................................12
2.6 Classification of Rock Types: Depositional, Petrographic, and Hydraulic.............15
2.7 Flow Units Classification of Rock Types ................................................................17
2.8 Geologic Controls on Hydrocarbon Production.......................................................19
2.9 Formation Evaluation (FE) and Reservoir Characterization (RC) ..........................21
Exercises...........................................................................................................................30

CHAPTER 3 Petrographic Characteristics of Petroleum-Bearing Formations..... 31

Summary...........................................................................................................................31
3.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................31
3.2 Petrographic Characteristics .....................................................................................32
3.2.1 Fabric and Texture..........................................................................................32
3.2.2 Porosity ...........................................................................................................33
3.2.3 Spherical Pore Space Approximation ............................................................34

vii
viii Contents

3.2.4 Area Open for Flow—Areosity......................................................................35

3.2.5 Tortuosity........................................................................................................35
3.2.6 Interconnectivity of Pores—Coordination Number .......................................35
3.2.7 Pore and Pore Throat Size Distributions........................................................38
3.2.8 Textural Parameters........................................................................................41
3.3 Morphology of Dispersed Clays in Sandstones .......................................................42
3.4 Rock Damage Tendency and Formation Damage Index Number ..........................43
Exercises...........................................................................................................................47

PART II CHARACTERIZATION OF THE POROUS MEDIA PROCESSES

FOR FORMATION DAMAGE—POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY,
MINERALOGY SENSITIVITY, PETROPHYSICS, RATE
PROCESSES, ROCK-FLUID-PARTICLE INTERACTIONS,
AND ACCOUNTABILITY OF PHASES AND SPECIES
CHAPTER 4 Alteration of the Porosity and Permeability of Geologic
Formations  Basic and Advanced Relationships ........................ 51
Summary...........................................................................................................................51
4.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................51
4.2 Basic Models for Permeability of Rocks .................................................................51
4.2.1 Kozeny-Carman Model for Unconsolidated Packed Grains,
Flow Units Concept, and Reservoir Quality Index (RQI).............................51
4.2.2 Modified Fair-Hatch Equation .......................................................................54
4.2.3 Panda and Lake Modification of the Kozeny-Carman Model
for Consolidated Rocks ..................................................................................55
4.2.4 Civan’s Power-Law Model for Consolidated Rocks .....................................56
4.2.5 Multiparameter Regression Models ...............................................................59
4.2.6 Network Models .............................................................................................59
4.3 Special Effects on Porosity—Permeability Relationships.......................................59
4.3.1 Effect of Clay Morphology ............................................................................59
4.3.2 Effect of Permeability Vanishing Below Threshold Porosity .......................60
4.3.3 Effect of DissolutionPrecipitation and Stress on Porosity
and Permeability .............................................................................................60
4.3.4 Effect of Temperature and Formation Damage .............................................61
4.3.5 Effect of Effective Confining Stress ..............................................................63
4.4 Advanced Permeability Equations ...........................................................................65
4.4.1 Porosity and Permeability Impairment in Porous Media Altered
by Deposition..................................................................................................65
4.4.2 Flow Efficiency Concept................................................................................68
4.4.3 Permeability from the PluggingNonplugging Parallel Pathways Model ...70
Exercises...........................................................................................................................74
 Contents ix

CHAPTER 5 Mineral Sensitivity of PetroleumBearing Formations.................. 77

Summary...........................................................................................................................77
5.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................77
5.2 Mineral Sensitivity of Sedimentary Formations ......................................................78
5.3 Mechanism of Clay Swelling ...................................................................................86
5.4 Modeling of Clay Swelling ......................................................................................93
5.4.1 Osmotic Repulsive Pressure ...........................................................................94
5.4.2 Clay Swelling Coefficient ..............................................................................94
5.4.3 Water Absorption Rate ...................................................................................95
5.4.4 Kinetics of Swelling-Related Properties and Rate Equations .......................97
5.4.5 Basal Spacing of Clay ....................................................................................99
5.4.6 Water Content During Clay Swelling ..........................................................104
5.4.7 Time-Dependent Clay Expansion Coefficient .............................................105
5.4.8 Porosity Reduction by Swelling...................................................................108
5.4.9 Permeability Reduction by Swelling............................................................109
5.5 Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)..........................................................................112
5.6 Physico-Chemical Sensitivity of Clayey Formation and Clay Reactivity
Coefficient (CRC)...................................................................................................118
5.7 Clay Stabilization ...................................................................................................119
5.7.1 Inorganic Cations (IC)..................................................................................119
5.7.2 Cationic Inorganic Polymers ........................................................................120
5.7.3 Cationic Organic Polymers ..........................................................................120
5.7.4 Oligomers......................................................................................................120
5.7.5 pHBuffer Solutions....................................................................................122
5.7.6 Chemical Alteration of Clay with KOH ......................................................122
5.8 Clay and Silt Fines .................................................................................................123
5.9 Intense Heat Treatment ..........................................................................................124
Exercises.........................................................................................................................124

CHAPTER 6 Petrophysical Alterations—Fluid Disposition, Distribution,

and Entrapment, Flow Functions, and Petrophysical
Parameters of Geologic Formations........................................... 127
Summary.........................................................................................................................127
6.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................127
6.2 Dependence of End-Point Saturations to Porosity and Permeability ....................128
6.3 Alteration and Temperature Dependency of the Rock Wettability.......................129
6.4 Alteration of Flow Functions: Capillary Pressure and Relative Permeability ......140
6.4.1 Representing the Capillary Pressure and Relative Permeability .................140
6.4.2 Effect of Morphology of Dispersed Clays on Capillary Pressure
and Relative Permeability in Sandstones.....................................................142
6.5 Mobility of Gas and Water Phases, Entrapment Shock  Critical Phase
Entrapment Condition (CPEC)...............................................................................144
x Contents

6.6 Water-Blockage in Hydraulically Created Fractures and Reservoir

Formation..............................................................................................................149
6.7 Clay Swelling by Water Imbibition .....................................................................150
6.8 Sensitivity of Shale Formations to Water............................................................152
6.9 Description of Shale Behavior .............................................................................155
6.10 Shale Swelling and Stability ................................................................................158
6.11 Simplified Modeling of Processes Affecting Wellbore Stability........................159
6.11.1 Pressure Diffusion ................................................................................... 160
6.11.2 Ion Diffusion............................................................................................ 160
6.11.3 Front Positions ......................................................................................... 161
6.11.4 Near-Wellbore Mud-Filtrate Invasion..................................................... 161
6.12 Remediation Methods...........................................................................................162
6.12.1 Shale Instability Problems....................................................................... 163
6.12.2 Permeability Jail Problems...................................................................... 163
6.12.3 Flowback Aids ......................................................................................... 163
6.12.4 Wettability Alteration and Emulsion and Water Blocks ........................ 164
Exercises.........................................................................................................................164

CHAPTER 7 Phase Equilibria, Solubility, and Precipitation

in Porous Media ...................................................................... 167
Summary.........................................................................................................................167
7.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................167
7.2 Types of Precipitation.............................................................................................167
7.2.1 Inorganic Precipitation .................................................................................167
7.2.2 Organic Precipitation....................................................................................168
7.3 Solid/Liquid Equilibrium and Solubility Equation ................................................169
7.3.1 Solubility Equation for Molecular Solutions ...............................................169
7.3.2 Solubility Equation for Electrolyte Solutions ..............................................169
7.4 Solid/Gas Equilibrium and Solubility Equation ....................................................170
7.5 Crystallization Phenomena .....................................................................................173
7.5.1 Grain Nucleation, Growth, and Dissolution.................................................173
7.5.2 Crystallization Kinetics ................................................................................177
7.5.3 Prediction and Correlation of the Nucleation Time ....................................180
7.5.4 Effect of Hydrodynamic Mixing on Scale Formation
and Inhibition................................................................................................181
7.6 Particle Growth and Dissolution in Solution .........................................................182
7.7 Scale Formation and Dissolution at the Pore Surface ...........................................182
7.8 Crystal Surface Pitting and Displacement by Dissolution.....................................184
Exercises.........................................................................................................................185
 Contents xi

CHAPTER 8 Particulate Processes in Porous Media..................................... 187

Summary.........................................................................................................................187
8.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................187
8.2 Particulate Processes...............................................................................................188
8.2.1 Internal Processes .........................................................................................188
8.2.2 External Processes ........................................................................................190
8.3 Properties Affecting Particles.................................................................................190
8.4 Forces Acting Upon Particles.................................................................................190
8.4.1 Forces Related to Transport Mechanisms....................................................190
8.4.2 Forces Related to Attachment Mechanisms.................................................192
8.4.3 Forces Related to Detachment Mechanisms ................................................193
8.5 Rate Equations for Particulate Processes in Porous Matrix ..................................196
8.5.1 Surface Deposition .......................................................................................197
8.5.2 Pore Filling After Pore-Throat Plugging .....................................................197
8.5.3 Filtration Coefficient ....................................................................................201
8.5.4 Dislodgment and Redeposition of Particles at Pore Throats.......................204
8.5.5 Plugging of Fracture Entrances During Fines Invasion into
Naturally Fractured Formations ...................................................................205
8.5.6 Colloidal Release and Mobilization, Salinity Shock, and Critical
Salt Concentration (CSC) .............................................................................207
8.5.7 Hydraulic Erosion and Mobilization ............................................................208
8.6 Particulate Phenomena in Multiphase Systems .....................................................210
8.6.1 Effect of Wettability on Particle Behavior ..................................................210
8.6.2 Particle Transfer Across Fluid-Fluid Interfaces...........................................212
8.6.3 Delay in Deposition of Dispersed Phases and Precipitates in Porous
Formations ....................................................................................................216
8.7 Temperature Effect on Particulate Processes.........................................................216
Exercises.........................................................................................................................221

CHAPTER 9 Multiphase and Multispecies Transport in Porous Media ........... 223

Summary.........................................................................................................................223
9.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................223
9.2 Multiphase and MultiSpecies Systems in Porous Media.......................................223
9.3 Alternative Expressions of Various Species-Content and Flow for
Systems in Porous Media .......................................................................................224
9.4 Multispecies and Multiphase Macroscopic Transport Equations ..........................228
9.4.1 Mass Balance Equation (Equation of Continuity) .......................................228
9.4.2 Momentum Balance Equation (Equation of Motion) ..................................229
9.4.3 Energy Balance Equation (Equation of Energy) .........................................231
Exercises.........................................................................................................................232
xii Contents

PART III FORMATION DAMAGE BY PARTICULATE PROCESSES—

SINGLE- AND MULTI-PHASE FINES MIGRATION, CLAY
SWELLING, FILTRATE AND PARTICULATE INVASION, FILTER
CAKE, STRESS SENSITIVITY, AND SANDING
CHAPTER 10 Single-Phase Formation Damage by Fines Migration
and Clay Swelling.................................................................... 235
Summary.........................................................................................................................235
10.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................235
10.2 Algebraic Core Impairment Model ......................................................................236
10.2.1 Bundle of Capillary Tubes Model........................................................... 236
10.2.2 Permeability Impairment Model ............................................................. 236
10.2.3 Damage Mechanisms............................................................................... 237
10.2.4 Coupling Formation Damage and Flow Through Capillary Tubes........ 240
10.2.5 Diagnostic Equations for Typical Cases ................................................. 241
10.3 Simple Partial Differential Core Impairment Model...........................................244
10.4 Partial Differential Core Impairment Model Considering the Clayey
Formation Swelling and Both the Indigenous and External Particles ................247
10.5 PluggingNonplugging Parallel Pathways Partial Differential Core
Impairment Model ................................................................................................251
10.6 Model-Assisted Analysis of Experimental Data..................................................255
10.6.1 Applications of the Wojtanowicz et al. Model ....................................... 255
10.6.2 Applications of the Čerňanský and Široký Model.................................. 260
10.6.3 Applications of the Gruesbeck and Collins Model................................. 265
Exercises.........................................................................................................................274

CHAPTER 11 Multiphase Formation Damage by Fines Migration ..................... 277

Summary.........................................................................................................................277
11.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................277
11.2 Formulation of a Multiphase Formation Damage Model....................................278
11.2.1 Fluid and Species Transport.................................................................... 279
11.2.2 Determination of Fluid Saturations and Pressures.................................. 281
11.2.3 Determination of Species Concentrations in Various Phases................. 283
11.2.4 Wettability Transformation and Interface Transfer of Particles ............ 283
11.2.5 Particle Retention in Porous Media ........................................................ 284
11.2.6 Porosity and Permeability Variation ....................................................... 286
11.2.7 Filter Cake Formation at the Injection Face ........................................... 286
11.3 Model-Assisted Analysis of Experimental Data..................................................287
11.3.1 Damage by Formation Fines Migration .................................................. 287
11.3.2 Damage by Particle Invasion .................................................................. 289
11.3.3 Damage by Mud Filtration ...................................................................... 291
Exercises.........................................................................................................................294
 Contents xiii

CHAPTER 12 Cake Filtration: Mechanism, Parameters and Modeling .............. 295

Summary.........................................................................................................................295
12.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................295
12.2 Incompressive Cake Filtration Without Fines Intrusion .....................................297
12.2.1 Linear Filter Cake.................................................................................... 297
12.2.2 Radial Filter Cake.................................................................................... 305
12.2.3 Determination of Model Parameters and Diagnostic Charts.................. 308
12.2.4 Applications ............................................................................................. 312
12.2.5 Comments on Models for Incompressible Cakes Without
Fine Particle Intrusion ............................................................................. 318
12.3 Compressive Cake Filtration Including Fines Invasion ......................................319
12.3.1 Radial Filtration Formulation.................................................................. 320
12.3.2 Linear Filtration Formulation.................................................................. 322
12.3.3 PressureFlow Relationships.................................................................. 323
12.3.4 Particle Deposition Rates ........................................................................ 325
12.3.5 Porosity and Permeability Relationship .................................................. 327
12.3.6 Cake-Thickness-Averaged Fluid Pressure and Cake Porosity ............... 328
12.3.7 Applications ............................................................................................. 329
12.3.8 Comments on Models for Compressible Cakes Involving
Fine Particle Intrusion ............................................................................. 337
Exercises.........................................................................................................................340

CHAPTER 13 Injectivity of the Water-flooding Wells...................................... 343

Summary.........................................................................................................................343
13.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................343
13.2 Injectivity of Wells...............................................................................................344
13.2.1 Injectivity Ratio ....................................................................................... 344
13.2.2 Flow Resistance ....................................................................................... 345
13.2.3 Half-Life of an Injector ........................................................................... 346
13.3 Water Quality Ratio .............................................................................................347
13.4 Single-Phase Filtration Processes.........................................................................352
13.4.1 Transition Time ....................................................................................... 352
13.4.2 Internal Deep-bed Filtration .................................................................... 353
13.4.3 External Filtration Model ........................................................................ 360
13.5 Diagnostic-Type Curves for Water Injectivity Tests...........................................361
13.6 Injection Rate Decline Function ..........................................................................363
13.7 Field Applications ................................................................................................363
13.7.1 Variable Rate Injectivity Decline in Wells............................................. 363
13.7.2 Single-phase Filtration Processes ............................................................ 366
13.7.3 Two-Phase Filtration Processes............................................................... 366
13.7.4 Injectivity of Water-Flooding Wells Undergoing Hydraulic
Fracturing................................................................................................. 366
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