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 The Grapevine
from the science to the practice
of growing vines for wine

Patrick I land
Peter D ry
T ony Proffitt
Steve Tyerman

© Patrick Iland Wine Promotions 2017

 The Grapevine
from the science to the practice
of growing vines for wine

i
© Patrick Iland Wine Promotions 2017
 First published in 2011 It is important that users of this book consider the ‘information’
Publisher carefully and use the ‘information’ in a way that is relevant to
Patrick Iland Wine Promotions Pty Ltd their particular situation.
PO Box 131, Campbelltown
Adelaide, South Australia, Australia 5074 Acknowledgements
Telephone: 0412090411 The figures and diagrams in the book are either redrawn or are
+61 412090411 original works by Graeme Lavis. We thank Graeme for his
Email: [email protected] valuable contribution to our book.
www.piwpwinebooks.com.au
The following people have provided valuable input through
Copyright © Text discussion, comments and provision of data for text and figures
Patrick Iland Wine Promotions Pty Ltd 2011 — Paul Boss, Rob Bramley, Cas Collins, Chris Davies, Roberta De
Bei, Everard Edwards, Sigfredo Fuentes, Syd Goodchild, Peter
Copyright © Photographs Hayman, Alan Lakso, Mardi Longbottom, Michael McCarthy,
As indicated in the photographs. Daniel Newson, Amy Richards, Renata Ristic, Simon Robinson,
Luke Rolley, Rob Stevens, Wendy Sullivan, Mark Thomas. We
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or also thank the people who provided photographs.
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any We thank the following organisations for providing information
information storage and retrieval system without prior through proceedings of conferences/seminars, brochures and
permission in writing from the publisher. The Australian promotional material — The Australian Society of Viticulture
Copyright Act 1968 (the Act) allows a maximum of one chapter and Oenology, The Grape and Wine Research and Development
or 10% of this book, whichever is the greater, to be photocopied Corporation, Australia, The Australian Wine Research Institute
by any educational institution for its educational purposes and The Australian Wine Industry Technical Conference Inc.
provided that the educational institution (or body that
administers it) has given a remuneration notice to Copyright We thank the staff of The Australian Wine Research Institute
Agency Ltd (CAL) under the Act. Library for valuable assistance with sourcing literature material.

National Library of Australia

Cataloguing-in-Publication entry: Books by the same authors
Iland, Patrick Viticulture Volume 1 Resources in Australia. (1988) B.G. Coombe
Dry, Peter and P.R. Dry (Eds). (Australian Industrial Publishers: Adelaide,
Proffitt, Tony Australia).
Tyerman, Steve
The Grapevine: from the science to the practice Viticulture Volume 2 Practices. (1992) B.G. Coombe and P.R. Dry
of growing vines for wine (Eds) (Winetitles:Adelaide, Australia).

Includes index Italian Winegrape Varieties in Australia - exploring the potential

E-Version book ISBN:978-0-9946356-0-0 of Barbera, Nebbiolo, Sangiovese, Vernaccia di San Gimignano,
Print version book ISBN: 978-0-9581605-5-1 Dolcetto and Arneis. (1999) A.D. McKay, G.J. Crittenden, P.R. Dry
and W.J. Hardie (Winetitles:Adelaide, Australia).
1. Grapevines, 2. Grapes, 3. Viticulture, 4. Wine, 5. Title
Chemical analysis of grapes and wine: techniques and concepts.
Project co-ordinator: Judith Iland (2004) P. Iland, N. Bruer, G. Edwards, S. Weeks and E. Wilkes
Designer and page layout: Judith Iland (Patrick Iland Wine Promotions:Adelaide, Australia).
Photography: Patrick Iland Wine Promotions (except where
indicated) Monitoring the winemaking process from grapes to wine:
Text Editor: Margaret Cargill, SciWriting: Communicating techniques and concepts. (2004) P. Iland, N. Bruer, A. Ewart,
Science Effectively in English, Adelaide. A. Markides and J. Sitters (Patrick Iland Wine Promotions:
Printer: T K Print, Adelaide, Australia. Adelaide, Australia.
Cover design: Graeme Lavis; photographs: (front) Mark Bottger
and (back) Mardi Longbottom and Steve Tyerman Viticulture Volume 1 Resources, 2nd edition. (2004) P.R. Dry and
Graphic designer: Graeme Lavis, Down South Design. B.G. Coombe (Eds) (Winetitles:Adelaide, Australia).

Disclaimer Precision Viticulture – a new era in vineyard management and

The information given in this publication is as accurate as wine production. (2006) T. Proffitt, R. Bramley, D. Lamb and
possible at the time of printing. Patrick Iland Wine Promotions E. Winter (Winetitles:Adelaide, Australia).
Pty Ltd makes no warranty, representation or guarantee that the
information in this book is error free or that the information may Microbiological analysis of grapes and wine: techniques and
be relied upon for any reason. Whilst every attempt has been concepts. (2007) P. Iland, P. Grbin, M. Grinberg, L. Schmidtke and
made to exclude errors the publishers shall have no liability for: A. Soden in conjunction with the Interwinery Analysis Group.
1. Any decisions or action taken as a result of the ‘information’ (Patrick Iland Wine Promotions:Adelaide, Australia).
provided therein.
2. Any omissions or inaccuracies in the ‘information’ or its A Taste of the World of Wine. (2009) P.G. Iland, P. Gago,
interpretation. A. Caillard and P.R. Dry (Patrick Iland Wine Promotions:
3. Any loss of injury suffered by any person caused by the Adelaide, Australia).
interpretation of use (either directly or indirectly) of the
‘information’.

ii
© Patrick Iland Wine Promotions 2017
 Authors
Patrick Iland OAM Peter Dry
Dr Patrick Iland (BAppSc, Dr Peter Dry (BAgSc, MAgSc,
MAgSc, PhD) has been PhD) has been a viticultural
involved in wine education scientist for 40 years. He
for over 35 years. He is a started his career in the SA
former Senior Lecturer at The Department of Agriculture in
University of Adelaide, 1970. His academic career
Australia. Patrick has taught commenced at Roseworthy
and researched in the areas of Agricultural College in 1975
wine chemistry, viticulture and continued at The
and sensory evaluation. His University of Adelaide from
research focused on the effects of viticultural practices on 1990. He retired from the University as Associate
grape and wine quality and wine sensory properties. He, Professor in 2008. Since that time, he has been a part-time
along with colleagues, developed the ‘berry colour ’ viticulture consultant at the Australian Wine Research
measure — a measure widely used in the viticulture Institute, where he has been able to continue his passion
industry for determining the colour of black grapes. for the transfer of scientific and technical knowledge to
Although retired, he retains his connection with the the grape and wine industry.
University as a Visiting Research Fellow.
Although his research has been wide-ranging, he is
He is a past winner of the Stephen Hickinbotham perhaps best known for the development of the partial
Memorial Trust Award (for his research on Pinot Noir rootzone drying (PRD) irrigation strategy—in 2001, this
grapes and wines) and the Stephen Cole the Elder Award was named as one of the 100 most-important
for Excellence in Teaching awarded by The University of technological innovations of the 20th century in Australia
Adelaide. In 2007 he was awarded the Order of Australia by the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and
(OAM) for his services to the Australian wine industry. Engineering. This strategy evolved from initial research
Patrick has a strong interest in and commitment to on the water stress physiology of the grapevine. He is the
education. He and his wife Judith conduct a publishing author of many scientific and popular publications on
business specialising in educational wine books. viticulture and wine. This is his sixth book as a co-author.

Tony Proffitt Steve Tyerman

Dr Tony Proffitt (BSc, MSc, Professor Stephen Tyerman
PhD, Post-graduate Dip. in (BSc Hons, PhD, FAA) is a
Viticulture) commenced his leading scientist in the field
career in agricultural science of plant physiology. He was
during the 1980s. He has elected as a Fellow of the
worked in the technical, Australian Academy of
consultancy, extension and Science in 2003. He has won
educational sectors of the many awards for his
Australian wine industry research, including, in 2007,
since 1995. He spent five the prestigious Australian
years with Southcorp Wines (now known as Treasury Research Council Professorial Fellowship. He has
Wine Estates) and then joined AHA Viticulture, a researched nutrition, salinity and water relations in
vineyard management and consultancy company based plants for some 25 years and published in journals such
in the Margaret River region, Western Australia. Tony as Nature, Science and the Proceedings of the National
continues to work as a consultant viticulturist. Academy of Sciences.

He is best known for his work using and promoting the In 2001 Steve was appointed to the Wine Industry Chair
Precision Viticulture suite of tools for vineyard of Viticulture at The University of Adelaide. Since then
management. In 2006 he co-authored the book entitled he has led research on vine and berry water relations and
‘Precision Viticulture – a new era in vineyard vine drought tolerance. He teaches in all levels of
management and wine production’. viticulture education in the School of Agriculture, Food
and Wine at The University of Adelaide.
Tony has a strong interest in education, having been
employed as a lecturer in viticulture at Curtin University, Climate change impacts and adaptation in viticulture are
Western Australia. He is the author of many scientific drivers for his research, and he is currently the
papers and industry articles which have been published programme leader in Water for Primary Industries
in a range of peer-reviewed and popular viticultural, Research Network within the National Climate Change
agricultural and soil science journals. Adaptation Research Facility.

iii
© Patrick Iland Wine Promotions 2017
 Contents
1 T HE GRAPEVINE 5 B UD DORMANCY
1.1 Introduction 1 5.1 Introduction 76
1.2 Taxonomic classification 1-2 5.2 The phases of dormancy 76-77
1.3 Wild vines 2 5.3 The course of dormancy 77-78
1.4 Domestication of the vine 2-4 5.4 Shoot trimming experiments 78
1.5 Spread of vines around the world 4 5.5 Chilling requirement for breaking
1.6 The first/early wines 4-6 of dormancy 78-80
1.7 Modern wines 6 5.6 Control of dormancy 80
1.8 Breeding programmes 6 5.7 Long term bud dormancy 80
1.9 Adaptive and survival mechanisms 7-10 5.8 Practical applications 80-82
1.10 Describing the development of the Chapter summary 82
grape berry 10-11
1.11 The grapevine in the future 11
Chapter summary 11 6 F LOWERING AND FRUITSET
6.1 Flowering 83-84
6.2 Pollination 84
2 G RAPEVINE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 6.3 Fertilisation 84
2.1 Introduction 13 6.4 Fruitset 85
2.2 Nomenclature of the shoot and bud 14 6.5 Types of fruitset 85-86
2.3 The shoot of the current season 15-27 6.6 Regulation of fruitset 86
2.4 Trunk and arms 28 6.7 Types of berries in a bunch
2.5 Roots 29-31 of a seeded variety 86
Chapter summary 31 6.8 ‘Normal’ and ‘Poor Fruitset’ 87
6.9 Quantification of reproductive performance 87-88
6.10 Factors affecting flowering/fruitset 88
3 G RAPEVINE GROWTH 6.11 Practices to improve fruitset 88-89
3.1 Vegetative and reproductive Chapter summary 89
growth cycles 33-35
3.2 Budburst 36-40
3.3 Shoot growth 40-43 7 P HOTOSYNTHESIS
3.4 Leaves 44 7.1 Photosynthesis, photorespiration
3.5 Tendrils 44 and respiration 91-93
3.6 Berry development 44-48 7.2 Measurement of leaf
3.7 Trunk and arms 49 photosynthetic activity 93-94
3.8 Roots 49-52 7.3 Factors affecting leaf photosynthesis 94-106
3.9 Biomass partitioning 52 7.4 Whole-vine photosynthesis 106-107
3.10 Phenology 52-54 Chapter summary 107
3.11 Estimating vineyard yield 55-57
3.12 Forecasting vineyard yield 58
Chapter summary 59 8 B ERRY COMPOSITION
8.1 Introduction 110
8.2 Content and concentration 111-112
4 D EVELOPMENT OF INFLORESCENCE PRIMORDIA 8.3 Water 113
4.1 Introduction 63 8.4 Carbohydrates 114-119
4.2 The process of inflorescence 8.5 Organic acids 120-131
primordium development 63-66 8.6 Phenolic compounds 132-141
4.3 Hormonal regulation of inflorescence 8.7 Volatile aroma compounds 142-149
primordium initiation and development 66-67 8.8 Inorganic cations and anions 150-151
4.4 Environmental factors affecting inflorescence 8.9 Nitrogen compounds 151-152
primordium initiation and development 67-69 8.10 General discussion 152
4.5 Non-environmental factors affecting Chapter summary 153
initiation and development of
inflorescence primordia 69-70
4.6 Some practical notes 70-71 9 M OLECULAR BIOLOGY
4.7 Methods for determining ‘potential 9.1 Introduction 162
bunches’ in buds 71-73 9.2 Genes 162
Chapter summary 73 9.3 Applications to viticulture 162-165
9.4 Plant genomics 165
Chapter summary 165

iv
© Patrick Iland Wine Promotions 2017
 Contents

10 V INES , GRAPES AND WINES 12 C LIMATE AND THE VINE

10.1 Wine style and quality 167 12.1 Introduction 233
10.2 Grape ripeness 167-168 12.2 Macroclimate — differences
10.3 Grape quality 168 between regions 233-235
10.4 Achieving specifications 168 12.3 Mesoclimate — differences between
10.5 Matching vines, grapes and wines 168 sites within a region 235-236
10.6 Predictors of grape and wine 12.4 Microclimate — differences within
style/quality 168-174 canopies 236-239
10.7 A protocol for matching vines, 12.5 Case studies 239-247
grapes and wines 175-177 12.6 Canopy management 247
Chapter summary 177 12.7 Leaf removal in the bunch zone 248-252
Vineyard Assessment Sheet 178 12.8 Shoot thinning/removal 252
Describing grapevine canopies 12.9 Training systems 252
and berry sensory attributes 179-182 12.10 Severe weather conditions 253-254
12.11 Temperature conditions during
11 W ATER , SOIL AND THE VINE berry ripening 254-256
11A Water, soil and the vine — at the vine level Chapter summary 256-257
11A.1 Water movement throughout the vine 184
11A.2 Water potential 184-186
11A.3 Water movement into and out of leaves 186-190 13 S OURCES AND SINKS
11A.4 The role of stomates in water movement 190-195 13.1 Transport of compounds throughout
11A.5 Properties of the xylem 195-197 the vine 262
11A.6 Varietal differences 197-198 13.2 Translocation 262-264
11A.7 Water movement into and 13.3 Concepts and practices 265-277
out of berries 199-200 Chapter summary 278

11B Water, soil and the vine — at the vineyard level

11B.1 Introduction 201 14 T HE VINE AND ITS ENVIRONMENT
11B.2 Evapotranspiration 201 14.1 Introduction 282
11B.3 When does the vine require water? 202 14.2 Climate change 282-285
11B.4 Soil water (moisture) content 202-203 14.3 Terroir 285-288
11B.5 The concept of ‘vine water stress’ 203 14.4 Precision Viticulture (PV) 288-292
11B.6 Irrigation scheduling 203-206 14.5 Organic and biodynamic viticulture 292-293
11B.7 Irrigation studies 207-212 14.6 The vine and its neighbours 294
11B.8 Limiting water availability to 14.7 Material other than grapes (MOG) 295
vine roots 213-214 14.8 Vine diseases 295
11B.9 Conserving water 215 Chapter summary 296
11B.10 Soil salinity 216-217
11B.11 Soil health 217-218
11B.12 Nutrition 218-221 15 P UTTING IT ALL TOGETHER
11B.13 Rootstocks 221 15.1 Putting it all together 300-301

11C Water use efficiency

11C.1 Physiological water use efficiency 222 I NDEX 302-310
11C.2 Economic water use efficiency 222
11C.3 Components of the ‘vine water use’
equation 222-223
Chapter summary 224-225
In the text the symbol ? indicates a question
and the symbol a practical consideration.

v
© Patrick Iland Wine Promotions 2017
 Preface

The Grapevine
from the science to the practice
of growing vines for wine

The objective of this book is to provide a link between scientific principles and the
practice of viticulture. It is concerned with providing knowledge, asking questions and
stimulating thought and discussion about the growing of grapes for the making of wine.
‘The Grapevine: from the science to the practice of growing vines for wine’ aims to
promote sound and creative thinking, to stimulate the reader to seek more knowledge and
to imagine what it means. It is primarily intended to be a text for undergraduate and
postgraduate students. However, it will also be of great interest to anyone involved in
grape and wine production because it covers the basic principles of the molecular,
physiological, biochemical and practical aspects of growing vines for wine.

Our aim is to link principles with practical applications and outcomes. Extensive
literature reviews provide a snapshot of current knowledge. New developments, in both
research and practice, are discussed. Many diagrams and photographs are included. The
material is based on research studies, field trials and the opinions of the authors and
industry personnel. We include this mix of knowledge as we believe that it promotes
consideration of the most useful ways to link science and practice. We encourage readers
to refer to the original papers (and references therein) to gain a sound understanding of
the topics of interest to them.

The criterion for selection of the case studies was that each study should provide an
example of an application of knowledge that links some aspect of vine growth or berry
composition with wine composition or wine sensory properties.

Many factors — including climatic conditions, soil properties and management practices
— influence grapevine growth and function. As a consequence, general principles should
be evaluated with a regional or site focus. We call this approach ‘thinking about the sense
of place of a piece of knowledge’.

We acknowledge the many scientists, technical personnel and students who have studied
the vine in order to investigate its molecular, physiological and biochemical functions and
the connection of its grapes with a wine. ‘The Grapevine: from the science to the practice
of growing vines for wine’ represents a selection of their work.

Be conscious of the past,

thoughtful of the present and
imaginative for the future.

We dedicate this book to Dr Bryan Coombe (AM, MAgSc, PhD), former

Reader in Horticultural Science, The University of Adelaide and one of
the world’s leading viticultural scientists. His research focused on the
growth and development of the grapevine, especially the grape berry. His
work has been an inspiration to many viticultural scientists world-wide,
including the authors of this book.

vi
© Patrick Iland Wine Promotions 2017
 1. The grapevine
1.1 I NTRODUCTION The genus Vitis is distinguished from most of the other
Studies of fossilised leaves suggest that ancestors of the genera of the Vitaceae family by having petals which
grapevine were present during the Jurassic period, 181 remain joined at the top and detach from the base to fall
million years ago (Thomas and van Heeswijck 2004). At together as a ‘calyptra’ or ‘cap’ (Thomas and van
that time dinosaurs roamed the land. Much has changed Heeswijck 2004).
since then. Humans now dominate the earth, and in many The 14 genera contain about 700 species worldwide,
countries around the world people cultivate the vine and although Thomas and van Heeswijck (2004) suggest that
use its fruit to make an alcoholic drink called wine. this is a conservative estimate. There are up to 70 species
in the genus Vitis, including Vitis vinifera (the wine
1.2 T AXONOMIC CLASSIFICATION grape), Vitis labrusca, Vitis aestivalis, Vitis riparia, Vitis
Scientists classify plants and animals into groupings rupestris, Vitis cinerea and Vitis champinii. More strictly
according to the similarities of their characteristics. The ‘speaking’ they are ecospecies, since there are no genetic
system for the grapevine is shown in Figure 1.1. barriers within the genus and the species are inter-fertile.
The grapevine belongs to the order of Rhamnales. Each species represents the outcome of adaption to
There are three families in the order of Rhamnales — specific environmental conditions.
Vitaceae, Rhamnaceae and Leeaceae. Vitaceae are The system for naming a species is to name the genus
characterised by the presence of tendrils and first, followed by the name of the species, e.g. Vitis
inflorescences opposed to the leaves. vinifera. This is often shortened to V. vinifera. When
There are up to 14 genera in the Vitaceae family accuracy is required, it is written as Vitis vinifera L.,
(depending on which classification is used). The genera where the letter refers to the name of the person after
include Vitis, Cissus (the largest) and Muscadinia. whom the species is named. In this case the L. refers to
the botanist Linnaeus, who first studied the vinifera
The grapevine belongs to the order of Rhamnales species in 1735 (Robinson 2006).
and the family Vitaceae . The majority of the varieties used for fruit, juice or
wine derive from wild forms. The word cultivar or
cultivated variety is used when the variety has been
domesticated by humans. In this book we use the term
‘variety’ when referring to the cultivated varieties used
THE GRAPEVINE FAMILY TREE in modern viticulture.

ORDER Rhamnales

FAMILY Vitaceae Rhamnaceae Leeaceae

GENUS Vitis Cissus Muscadinia

There are up to 70 species

in the genus Vitis.

SPECIES Vitis vinifera Vitis labrusca Vitis riparia Vitis rupestris

VARIETY / CULTIVAR Pinot Noir Chardonnay Pinot Grigio Cabernet Sauvignon

There are thousands of

different varieties in the
CLONES 777 MV6 species Vitis vinifera.

Figure 1.1 The botanical classification of the grapevine showing some examples of species, varieties and clones.

1
© Patrick Iland Wine Promotions 2017
The grapevine
Most of the world’s wine 1.3 W ILD VINES
is made from grapes The progenitors of Vitis vinifera are thought to have been
of the species Vitis vinifera . a bushy form that grew in open habitats. They had small
bunches with small red or purple/black coloured berries.
More than 800 varieties of Vitis vinifera are regularly Wild vines grew in many countries. Some regions were
used to make wine. Amongst the best known varieties are named because of the wild vines growing there, e.g. the
Cabernet Sauvignon, Shiraz, Grenache, Chardonnay and first Greek settlers in southern Italy called this area
Riesling. These varieties, plus some others, are grown in Oenotria — the land of (staked) vines — and when the
many countries around the world and are often referred Viking adventurers visited the east coast of North
to as ‘international’ varieties. Some grapevines are less America they called the area Vineland.
known outside their homeland and exist in local regions, When a berry, with a mature seed inside, fell to the
e.g. Viognier in the Rhône, France; Fiano in Campania, ground, under favourable conditions the seed would
Italy; Grüner Veltliner in the Wachau and Kamptal germinate and grow into a seedling. Grapevines do not
regions of Austria; Tempranillo in Spain; and Saperavi in breed true from seeds and therefore when seedlings
Georgia. They are often referred to as ‘traditional’ or grow, sometimes the new vine is similar to the parent
‘local’ varieties. Recently, wine consumers around the vine, but more often it is distinctly different, so much so
world have shown an interest in the wines of traditional that a new variety is formed. In the wild, new varieties
varieties and many are now being planted outside their would have arisen as a result of chance crossings (see
homeland. With time these will join the ranks of the so- below). Over time, many new varieties evolved. In
called ‘international’ group — some, it could be argued, modern viticulture, because of the unpredictability of the
have already reached this status. types of vines that result from cross-pollination and
For many years all species grew on the same continent, germination of seedlings, grapevines are not normally
but the breaking of the intercontinental bridge, about 60 propagated in this way. To obtain a vine that is identical
million years ago, and the formation of the Eurasian and to the mother vine the vine must be propagated
American continents, gave rise to the evolution of two vegetatively, e.g. a section of a shoot (a cutting) is taken,
distinct races of Vitis. Only one species, Vitis vinifera, grown in a nursery to develop roots and then planted in
evolved in Eurasia, in the area known today as the the vineyard.
Middle East. Several species, including Vitis labrusca,
Vitis riparia and Vitis rupestris, evolved in North 1.4 D OMESTICATION OF THE VINE
America. It is thought that the cultivation of the grapevine began
Varieties are further divided into clones. Clones are during the Neolithic period (7000 to 5000 BC) in the
sub-types within a variety. If, over time, a mutation region of Asia Minor between the Black and Caspian
occurs in the cell of a bud on a shoot on a vine, and this Seas. Prehistoric people would have gathered berries
shoot is taken as a cutting for planting in a new vineyard, from wild vines in the forests. At some time or other they
the vine that arises from that cutting will be slightly would have established permanent villages and planted a
different to all the other vines. A new clone of that collection of wild vines close to their villages to make it
variety has been formed. Varieties which have been more convenient to collect the berries. These plantings
cultivated for many years are likely to have more clones formed the first vineyards. Vineyards are now found in
than those cultivated for less time, because there has most countries around the world.
been a greater opportunity for mutations to occur in the In the wild, all species of Vitis are normally dioecious,
vineyards of the older varieties. Pinot Noir, Shiraz/Syrah i.e. they have separate male and female plants. The vines
and Riesling are varieties with many clones. Within a with flowers with only male parts cannot bear fruit. The
variety some clones are more favoured than others as vines with flowers with only female parts can only bear
they are regarded as being more suitable for the fruit if the female flower is fertilised by pollen from a
production of quality wines with distinctive characters, nearby male vine. Chance cross-fertilisations would have
e.g. clone 777 is one of the favoured Pinot Noir clones in occurred from time to time (giving rise to new varieties).
Burgundy and elsewhere around the world. There were, however, some vines which had perfect
The traditional scheme of classification places varieties flowers (hermaphrodites — where female and male parts
into groups (proles), based on the similarities of vine exist on the same flower) and these vines were able to
characteristics found in particular regions. There are bear fruit without any interaction with a nearby vine. It
three proles. Proles pontica comprises varieties found in is likely that these were the types of vines that the
the countries around the Aegean and Black Seas, Proles Neolithic people selected to plant near their villages, as
occidentalis are those found in Western Europe and Proles these vines would have been more reliable in producing
orientalis are those found in the Middle East, Iran, fruit than other vines.
Afghanistan and nearby areas. Today, genetic studies are
used to determine groupings, e.g. Aradhya et al. (2003) Figure 1.2 (Opposite page) Vines in the La Chapelle vineyard of Paul
analysed the genetic diversity of 222 cultivated (Vitis Jaboulet Aîné, Hermitage, France. The wine from the vineyard is named

vinifera) and 22 wild (V. vinifera spp. sylvestris) grape

after the small chapel at the summit of the hill. It was built in 1235 by a
knight, Chevalier Gaspard de Stérimberg. The knight had been wounded
accessions — multivariant relationships revealed 16 in 1224 during the Albigeois’ crusade, and sought permission from Queen
genetic groups structured into three clusters. Blanche de Castille to establish a hermitage on this slope. The site is
planted exclusively to Syrah. The site and its wine ‘La Chapelle’ provide
a memory of the knight (photograph P.G. Iland).

2
© Patrick Iland Wine Promotions 2017
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3
© Patrick Iland Wine Promotions 2017
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