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THE GHANAIAN FACTORY WORKER:
INDUSTRIAL MAN IN AFRICA
AFRICAN STUDIES SERIES
General Editor: D R J . R . GOODY

1 City Politics: A Study of Leopoldville, 1962-63 - j . s. L A F O N T A I N E

2 Studies in Rural Capitalism in West Africa - P O L L Y H I L L
3 Land Policy in Buganda - H. w. WEST
4 The Nigerian Military - A . R. LUCKHAM
5 The Ghanaian Factory Worker: Industrial Man in Africa — MARGARET
PEIL
6 Labour in the South African Gold Mines, 1911-1969- FRANCIS WILSON
THE GHANAIAN FACTORY
WORKER:
INDUSTRIAL MAN IN
AFRICA
by MARGARET PEIL
Centre of West African Studies
University of Birmingham

CAMBRIDGE
ATTHE UNIVERSITY PRESS 1972
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, Sao Paulo, Delhi

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK

Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521082969
© Cambridge University Press 1972

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 1972

This digitally printed version 2008

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number: 73-160091

ISBN 978-0-521-08296-9 hardback
ISBN 978-0-521-10022-9 paperback
CONTENTS

List of tables page vi

List of maps viii
Acknowledgements ix
i Introduction i

2 The factories 2
3
3 Occupations
4 Job satisfaction 81
5 Migration 126

6 Urban living 150

7 Family ties 190

8 Ghanaian factory workers and modernity 218

Appendix: The interview schedule 238

Bibliography 245
Index 251
TABLES

1.1 Population size of the four towns, 1891-1960 page 5

1.2 Sex ratio, homogeneity index and percent foreign born, whole
country and the three cities, i960 11
1.3 Composition of the adult male labour force, whole country and
the three cities, i960 12
1.4 Number of manufacturing firms recorded in 1959 by year
operations commenced 15
1.5 Number of large manufacturing firms and persons engaged, 1958-66 16
2.1 Comparison of worker sample and factory population, Accra
Capital District 24
2.2 Characteristics of the firms 32
2.3 Labour force participation of the local and foreign-born urban
population, selected countries and occupations 37
2.4 School attendance, median age and birthplace of factory workers
and the male population of the cities in which they worked 38
3.1 Background of workers by occupation 44
3.2 Occupational background of workers by occupation 50
3.3 Occupations of brothers by occupation of urban workers 52
3.4 First work after age 15 by education and age at entering the
non-agricultural labour force 53
3.5 Median length of job of male workers in various occupations by
year ended 59
3.6 Median length of job of male workers in various types of work by
major urban occupation 61
3.7 Median length of job (in years) by employment status, type of
work and proportion self-employed, urban male workers 62
3.8 Post-school unemployment and first full-time work by location of
first job, urban male workers 66
3.9 Unemployment before current job by place and occupation 68
3.10 Career unemployment by occupation and education 71
3.11 Median monthly wages by occupation 76
4.1 Job likes and dislikes by occupation 83
4.2 Accra/Tema workers still on the job 15 months after interviewing,
by occupation, sex and region of origin 99
4.3 Job seniority by location of worker, occupation, sex, region of
origin, migration and wage 101
4.4 Planned job stability by location 103
4.5 Preferred work in the firm and for next job by present occupation 105
4.6 Aspirations of urban males for their children by occupation and
education 111

vi
 List of tables
4.7 Suggested occupations for educated and uneducated young men 115
4.8 The ranking of occupations 118
5.1 Origin of workers 128
5.2 Direction of first migration of urban male workers 130
5.3 Direction of second and later moves of urban male workers 132
5.4 Rural-urban and interregional migration of urban male workers 133
5.5 First move of migrant urban male workers by place of origin and
education 136
5.6 Type of first move by year of first migration, urban males
originating in Ghana 137
5.7 Career migration by origin of worker and location of firm, migrant
urban male workers 140
5.8 Career migration by present age and age and year of arrival,
migrant urban males 141
5.9 Prospective migrants' contacts at their destinations 145
6.1 Migrants' positive and negative feelings about the place in which
they are living 151
6.2 Consumer price index for selected towns and rural areas 1965-8 152
6.3 Rural workers' reactions to the possibility of moving to Accra 156
6.4 Host and time spent sharing accommodation on first arrival in town 164
6.5 Housing density, single rooms, size of household and rent 165
6.6 Workers with relatives or townsmen in the same firm 169
6.7 Percent of workers who see workmates away from the firm and
relationship to these mates 172
6.8 Choice of workmates as friends by occupation, urban male workers 174
6.9 Amount of education desired for children 179
6.10 Percent of parents sending school-age children to school 180
6.11 Choice of location for retirement 185
7.1 Marriage by age 191
7.2 Inter-ethnic and polygynous marriage by location and ethnicity 192
7.3 Marriage homogeneity by region and size of place of origin 194
7.4 Mean number of living children of urban males by age and occupation 196
7.5 Guardianship, location and age of children not living with their
fathers 198
7.6 Age and location of children not living with their fathers by
guardian 199
7.7 Household composition by size of household and age and ethnicity
of worker 201
7.8 Visits by relatives 204
7.9 Relatives to whom money was sent and amount sent 208
7.10 Median amount sent and proportion sending money home by
occupation and wage 210
7.11 Frequency of visits home by location of firm and of home, workers
not living in their hometowns 213

Vll
MAPS

1 Ghana page x
2 Greater Accra 158
3 Tema 160
4 Kumasi 161
5 Sekondi/Takoradi 162

Vlll
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

During my early days as a graduate student of sociology, Joseph P.

Fitzpatrick convinced me of the important part industrial workers play in
national development. The works of J. Clyde Mitchell were a prime example
of the possibilities of research in this field in Africa and provided many
insights to guide my work.
This study could not have been carried out without the generosity of the
factory managers in allowing us to conduct the lengthy interviews, the willing
cooperation of the workers, the interest and hard work of the interviewers
and the financial assistance of Grant MH I 1793-01 from the National
Institute of Mental Health in Washington, D.C. Encouragement and
advice in the various stages of the project came from, among others, Jack
Caldwell, Jack Goody, Andre Hauser and Peter Lloyd. As the manuscript
took shape, Nelson Addo, Gi Baldamus, Esther Goody, Peter Mitchell,
Christine Oppong and Douglas Rimmer were kind enough to read various
chapters and suggest improvements. They are not to be held responsible
for the result, of course, since their advice was not always taken.
The task of analyzing the data was facilitated by John Koster's expert
assistance with computer programs and by many conversations with col-
leagues and students at the University of Ghana during the five years I
taught there. These cannot be credited individually, because it is no longer
possible to remember the source of various ideas, but I hope they will be
pleased to see the use to which their ideas have been put. To all of these
and to my colleagues in Birmingham who encouraged me during the long
process of translating the survey into a manuscript, I want to express my
sincere gratitude.
MARGARET PEIL
Centre of West African Studies
University of Birmingham
October 1971

IX
 #
s,.*^*\ y Bawkiy*
N
UPPER REGION

i
s
i
i
\
NORTHERN Yendi
°TAMALE i
R E G I O N
*Damongo

BRONG/AHAFO RE

Agogo
Konongo/, Nkawkaw

N T R A L •Swed

© Cities
• Large towns
• Small towns and villages

i Ghana
After a map drawn by the Survey of Ghana
CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

In 1957, Ghana became the first sub-Saharan African nation to obtain her
independence from colonial rule. She has long been known as the world's
foremost producer of cocoa and exports sizeable quantities of gold, timber,
manganese and industrial diamonds, but, like most new nations, she aspires
to industrialize her economy. Although the country is small by world
standards, its eight million people can support moderately sized industries
producing relatively inexpensive consumer goods. These provide employ-
ment for a gradually increasing number of workers, mostly in urban areas.
Per capita income was £85 in 1961, which is high for tropical Africa. Ghana
is second only to Ivory Coast among the countries in West Africa in the
proportion of the population engaged in wage labour (about thirty-five per
thousand).
According to the i960 Population Census, there were over 2.5 million
persons aged fifteen or above in the labour force. Of these, 62 % were in
agriculture, fishing or lumbering, 14% in commerce, and 6% in services.
Only 9% of the working population (233,947 people) were engaged in
manufacturing. The majority of these are self-employed, small-scale crafts-
men (and women) who provide for local needs as carpenters, tailors,
fitters etc. Many are part-time farmers, practicing their trade in the
dry season or whenever there is a demand for their services. Participation
in manufacturing in the conventional sense is limited to less than a quarter
of the total.
Factory workers are thus a very small proportion of the total population,
but they are important to the future development of the country. In addition,
the study of Ghanaian factory workers provides useful information on the
adaptation to industrial employment of workers in countries at a similar
stage of development. This book is designed to provide a well-rounded view
of the lives of Ghanaian workers on and off the job so that their situation and
responses can be compared with those of workers elsewhere. This chapter
will provide a brief introduction to Ghana for those who are unfamiliar with
it, though broader background reading would help the reader to understand
Introduction
those aspects of the industrial situation which are unique to Ghana (see
Boateng 1966, Caldwell 1967, Fage 1969, Foster 1965).

LAND AND PEOPLE

Ghana is administratively divided into eight regions and the Accra Capital
District (CD.) (see map 1, p. x). On the basis of geography, culture
and level of development, these regions can be conveniently grouped to
divide the country into five areas: the north includes Northern and Upper
Regions, which were known as the Northern Territories in colonial days;
the centre combines Brong/Ahafo Region with Ashanti, from which it was
split after independence; the southwest also recombines two recently
separated regions, Central and Western; the Accra C D . is in many ways
part of Eastern Region though they are administratively separate; and
lastly, the Volta Region, which became British Mandated Territory after
the First World War and whose people voted to join Ghana at independence.
Parts of the coast have been in contact with Europe since the Portuguese
landed at Elmina in the fifteenth century; there were over 200 forts along the
coast during the centuries of slave trading which followed. British 'protec-
tion' had been extended to the present northern border by 1898. Differences
between the north and the rest of the country are greater than differences
between central and southern areas; a north-south dichotomy will be used
frequently in subsequent discussion.
The north has always been relatively neglected; most of its people are
subsistence farmers whose chief source of money income is the remittances
of family members working in the south. Many northerners prefer to live in
family compounds scattered across the savannah and surrounded by their
farms of millet and yams. Southerners prefer to live in villages from which
they walk out to their farms in the heavily forested 'bush'. Experience of
village life helps southerners adjust to cities, as does their greater participa-
tion in the money economy through cash crop farming and widespread
trading. Schooling is still rare in the north because of the dispersal of
children, poverty, and the opposition of parents who see education as wean-
ing children from traditional ways. Since education is common in the south,
most skilled and clerical jobs go to southerners, while northern migrants
become labourers on the cocoa farms, mines, harbours etc. Northerners are
beginning to demand more development funds and their position in the
society will change as education becomes more widespread, but the disparity
is marked at present.
Of the southern half of the country, Eastern Region profited from the
 Land and people
early introduction of education and cocoa farming. Disease has killed the
cocoa in the areas of early cultivation, but farmers have moved west and
north, sending back money to provide amenities (especially schools) in their
home villages. There are many small and medium-sized towns in Eastern
and Central Regions which serve mainly as trading centres; many of the
coastal towns were formerly ports. Gold and manganese mining and most of
the timber industries are located in Western and Ashanti Regions; diamonds
are mined in Eastern Region. Cocoa farming is prominent in the central
area; recent expansion has been in Brong/Ahafo. Development of the centre
was delayed by the ability of the Asante to keep out European traders and
missionaries, but it has largely caught up with the south in recent years;
education in Ashanti Region is more widespread than in rural areas of the
southwest.
The north is ethnically divided into many groups, of which the main ones
are the Dagombas, the Gonjas and the Mamprusis. Several kingdoms
flourished in pre-colonial times, often preying on interstitial acephalous
societies. Peoples of central and southern Ghana mostly belong to the Akan
cluster, of which the Fanti and Asante are the largest groups. The Fanti are
fishermen and farmers along the coast in Central and Western Regions.
Their contact with European trade and education gave them a head start in
development and they hold a notable proportion of clerical and administra-
tive posts. The Asante kingdom was one of the great kingdoms of pre-
colonial West Africa; the Asantehene (the paramount chief), who lives in
Kumasi, continues to be an important figure in contemporary Ghana. The
Ga-Adangme people are concentrated in the Accra C D . Although many
are still fishermen or farmers, large numbers have taken advantage of the
opportunities of 'their' town to obtain an education and well-paying jobs
in the modern economy.
The Ewe homeland is in the southern and central Volta Region and the
contiguous areas of Togo, but outmigration is high (as in the north) because
of the poverty of the home area. Ewe fishermen are found along the coast as
far as Sierra Leone, up the Volta River and even in Mali, where they dry
Niger River fish for shipment to Ghana. Farmland is crowded and not
suitable for cocoa in the south, but both cocoa and coffee are grown in
central Volta Region. Mineral resources are also lacking in the area, though
there is some hope that oil will be found off the coast. Volta Region's chief
resource is its people. Early missionaries brought education and training in
skills, both of which have been very popular. Manual work is looked on as a
good way to get ahead, if one can get training. There is some tribal feeling
against the Ewes by the predominant Akan, chiefly based on competition for
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