It seems you're asking for even more detailed notes on "Pair of Linear Equations in Two Variables" for Class 10

Maths. I can certainly expand on the previous notes by adding more theoretical depth, practical tips, common
pitfalls, and a structured approach to problem-solving.

Here's an enhanced, even more detailed version:

Pair of Linear Equations in Two Variables - Class 10 Maths (Advanced

Detailed Notes)
1. Re-visiting the Basics: What is a Linear Equation?

A linear equation in two variables is an algebraic equation of the first degree involving two variables. It can
always be written in the standard form:

ax+by+c=0

where:

 x and y are the two variables.

 a,b,c are real numbers, which are the coefficients and the constant term, respectively.
 Crucially, a and b cannot both be zero (a2+b2ne0). If a=0 and b=0, the equation becomes c=0, which is
either true (if c=0) or false (if cne0) and doesn't involve variables, hence not a linear equation in two variables.
 The term "linear" comes from the fact that its graph is always a straight line.

What does a "solution" mean?

A solution to a linear equation ax+by+c=0 is an ordered pair of real numbers (x_0,y_0) such that when x is
replaced by x_0 and y by y_0, the equation becomes a true statement (i.e., ax_0+by_0+c=0). A single linear
equation in two variables has infinitely many solutions, as there are infinitely many points on a line.

2. Deep Dive into a Pair of Linear Equations

A pair of linear equations in two variables consists of two such equations considered simultaneously. The
general form is:

1. a_1x+b_1y+c_1=0
2. a_2x+b_2y+c_2=0

Here, a_1,b_1,c_1,a_2,b_2,c_2 are real numbers, and a_12+b_12ne0 and a_22+b_22ne0.

What does a "solution" to a pair of linear equations mean?

A solution to a pair of linear equations is an ordered pair (x_0,y_0) that satisfies both equations simultaneously.
Geometrically, this means the point (x_0,y_0) lies on both lines represented by the equations.

1
3. Comprehensive Graphical Analysis and Consistency

The graphical method provides an intuitive understanding of the nature of solutions. Each equation represents a
line. The solution(s) to the pair of equations correspond to the point(s) of intersection of these lines.

Let the two lines be L_1:a_1x+b_1y+c_1=0 and L_2:a_2x+b_2y+c_2=0.

Case 1: Intersecting Lines

 Description: The two lines cross each other at exactly one unique point.
 Graphical Representation:
 L1
 \
 \ P(x,y)
 \
 +---------- L2
 Number of Solutions: Exactly one unique solution. The coordinates of the intersection point (x,y) form
this unique solution.
 Consistency: The system is consistent. A consistent system is one that has at least one solution.
 Algebraic Condition: The ratios of the coefficients are not equal:

a2a1 =b2b1

o Reasoning: If the slopes of the lines are different, they must intersect at one point. The slope of
ax+by+c=0 is −fracab. So,
−fraca_1b_1ne−fraca_2b_2impliesfraca_1b_1nefraca_2b_2impliesfraca_1a_2nefracb_1b_2.
Case 2: Parallel Lines

 Description: The two lines never meet, no matter how far they are extended. They maintain a constant
distance from each other.
 Graphical Representation:
 ----------- L1
 ----------- L2
 (Lines are parallel and distinct)
 Number of Solutions: No solution. Since the lines never intersect, there is no common point that satisfies
both equations.
 Consistency: The system is inconsistent. An inconsistent system has no solutions.
 Algebraic Condition: The ratios of the coefficients of x and y are equal, but this ratio is different from the
ratio of the constant terms:

a2a1=b2b1 =c2c1

o Reasoning: Equal slopes

(−fraca_1b_1=−fraca_2b_2impliesfraca_1b_2=fraca_2b_1impliesfraca_1a_2=fracb_1b_2) imply that the lines
are either parallel or coincident. If fracc_1c_2 is different, it means they have different y-intercepts (or positions),
preventing them from overlapping.

2
Case 3: Coincident Lines

 Description: The two lines lie exactly on top of each other. They are essentially the same line.
 Graphical Representation:
 L1 and L2 (overlapping)
 -------------------------
 Number of Solutions: Infinitely many solutions. Every point on the line is a common point, thus a
solution to both equations.
 Consistency: The system is consistent and dependent. "Dependent" implies that one equation can be
derived from the other (they are essentially the same equation multiplied by a constant).
 Algebraic Condition: All three ratios of the coefficients are equal:

a2a1=b2b1=c2c1

o Reasoning: If all ratios are equal, it means one equation is a scalar multiple of the other. For
example, if fraca_1a_2=k, then a_1=ka_2, b_1=kb_2, and c_1=kc_2. This means
a_1x+b_1y+c_1=k(a_2x+b_2y+c_2)=0, so the equations are identical.

4. Algebraic Methods: A Deeper Look

These methods offer precise solutions and are generally preferred over the graphical method for accuracy.

4.1. Substitution Method (Detailed Steps & Tips)

This method involves expressing one variable in terms of the other from one equation and substituting this
expression into the second equation.

Steps:

1. Select an Equation: Choose either of the two equations. Look for an equation where one of the variables
has a coefficient of 1 or -1. This makes isolating the variable simpler and avoids fractions immediately.
o Example: If you have x+2y=5 and 3x−4y=1, choose the first equation, as x is easy to isolate.
2. Isolate a Variable: Solve the chosen equation for one variable in terms of the other. For instance, express
x in terms of y, or y in terms of x.
o Example (cont.): From x+2y=5, isolate x: x=5−2y.
3. Substitute: Substitute this expression into the other equation. This is crucial. If you substitute it back into
the same equation, you'll end up with a trivial identity (e.g., 5=5). The substitution will result in a linear equation
with only one variable.
o Example (cont.): Substitute x=5−2y into 3x−4y=1:

3(5−2y)−4y=1

4. Solve for the First Variable: Solve the resulting single-variable equation.
o Example (cont.):

15−6y−4y=1

15−10y=1

3
−10y=1−15

−10y=−14

y=frac−14−10=frac75

5. Back-Substitute: Substitute the value obtained in Step 4 back into the expression derived in Step 2 (the
isolated variable equation). This is usually the easiest way to find the second variable.
o Example (cont.): Substitute y=frac75 into x=5−2y:

x=5−2(frac75)

x=5−frac145

x=frac25−145=frac115

6. Verify (Optional but Recommended): Substitute both x and y values into both original equations to
ensure they satisfy both.

When to use Substitution:

 When one variable already has a coefficient of 1 or -1.

 When dealing with simple equations.
4.2. Elimination Method (Detailed Steps & Tips)

This method aims to eliminate one variable by making its coefficients equal (or additive inverses) in both
equations and then adding or subtracting the equations.

Steps:

1. Choose a Variable to Eliminate: Decide whether to eliminate x or y. Look for coefficients that are
already the same or easily made the same (by multiplying by small integers).
2. Make Coefficients Equal: Multiply one or both equations by suitable non-zero constants so that the
absolute values of the coefficients of the chosen variable are the same in both equations.
o Example:

2x+3y=7

3x−2y=4

To eliminate y: Multiply the first by 2, second by 3. Coeff of y becomes 6 and -6.

4x+6y=14

9x−6y=12

3. Add or Subtract Equations:

o If the coefficients of the chosen variable have opposite signs (e.g., 3y and −3y), add the equations.
4
o If the coefficients of the chosen variable have the same sign (e.g., 3y and 3y), subtract one
equation from the other.

This step will result in a single linear equation in one variable.

o Example (cont.): Since we have +6y and −6y, we add:

(4x+6y)+(9x−6y)=14+12

13x=26

4. Solve for the First Variable: Solve the resulting single-variable equation.
o Example (cont.): x=frac2613=2.
5. Back-Substitute: Substitute the value obtained in Step 4 into either of the original equations (or the
modified ones, but original is usually safer for avoiding errors).
o Example (cont.): Substitute x=2 into 2x+3y=7:

2(2)+3y=7

4+3y=7

3y=3Rightarrowy=1

6. Verify (Optional but Recommended): Substitute both x and y values into both original equations.

When to use Elimination:

 When coefficients are easily made equal by multiplication.

 When variables are on one side and constants on the other.
 Often preferred for its systematic nature.
4.3. Cross-Multiplication Method (Detailed Derivation and Application)

This method is essentially a shortcut derived from the elimination method, providing direct formulas for x and y.
It's particularly useful for competitive exams once mastered.

Given:

a_1x+b_1y+c_1=0quadldots(1)

a_2x+b_2y+c_2=0quadldots(2)

Derivation (for understanding, not necessary to memorize):

Multiply (1) by b_2 and (2) by b_1:

a_1b_2x+b_1b_2y+c_1b_2=0quadldots(3)

5
a_2b_1x+b_1b_2y+c_2b_1=0quadldots(4)

Subtract (4) from (3):

(a_1b_2−a_2b_1)x+(b_1b_2−b_1b_2)y+(c_1b_2−c_2b_1)=0

(a_1b_2−a_2b_1)x=−(c_1b_2−c_2b_1)

x=fracb_1c_2−b_2c_1a_1b_2−a_2b_1

Similarly, multiply (1) by a_2 and (2) by a_1 and subtract to eliminate x:

y=fracc_1a_2−c_2a_1a_1b_2−a_2b_1

The Formulaic Representation:

b1c2−b2c1x=c1a2−c2a1y=a1b2−a2b11

Conditions for using Cross-Multiplication:

 The equations must be in the standard form ax+by+c=0. If they are ax+by=c, rewrite them as ax+by−c=0.
 This method is applicable only when there is a unique solution (i.e., a_1b_2−a_2b_1ne0, which is
equivalent to fraca_1a_2nefracb_1b_2). If a_1b_2−a_2b_1=0, the denominator becomes zero, indicating either no
solution or infinitely many solutions.

Mnemonic (Diagrammatic Aid for coefficients):

Write the coefficients in a specific order: b,c,a,b (for b_1,c_1,a_1,b_1 and b_2,c_2,a_2,b_2).

b1 c1 a1 b1
b2 c2 a2 b2

Now, draw arrows connecting terms:

 For x: (b_1timesc_2)−(b_2timesc_1)
 For y: (c_1timesa_2)−(c_2timesa_1)
 For 1: (a_1timesb_2)−(a_2timesb_1)

Steps for Application:

1. Convert to Standard Form: Ensure both equations are in the form a_ix+b_iy+c_i=0.
2. Identify Coefficients: Clearly write down a_1,b_1,c_1,a_2,b_2,c_2. Be careful with signs!
3. Apply Formula: Substitute the values into the cross-multiplication formula.
4. Calculate: Perform the multiplications and subtractions to find x and y.

Example: Solve 2x+y=5 and 3x+2y=8.

 Rewrite in standard form:

6
2x+y−5=0impliesa_1=2,b_1=1,c_1=−5

3x+2y−8=0impliesa_2=3,b_2=2,c_2=−8

 Apply formula:

fracx(1)(−8)−(2)(−5)=fracy(−5)(3)−(−8)(2)=frac1(2)(2)−(3)(1)

fracx−8−(−10)=fracy−15−(−16)=frac14−3

fracx2=fracy1=frac11

 Solve:

fracx2=1impliesx=2

fracy1=1impliesy=1

 Solution: (x,y)=(2,1)

5. Equations Reducible to a Pair of Linear Equations (Advanced Cases)

This section deals with non-linear equations that can be transformed into linear equations using appropriate
substitutions.

General Strategy:

1. Identify Non-Linear Terms: Look for terms like frac1x, frac1y, frac1x+y, frac1x−y, sqrtx, frac1xy, etc.
2. Make Suitable Substitutions: Introduce new variables (e.g., u,v,p,q) to represent these non-linear terms.
3. Form Linear System: The original equations will transform into a pair of linear equations in the new
variables.
4. Solve the Linear System: Use any of the algebraic methods (substitution, elimination, cross-
multiplication) to find the values of the new variables.
5. Back-Substitute and Find Original Variables: Substitute the values of the new variables back into your
initial substitutions to find the values of the original variables (x,y).

Common Types of Reducible Equations:

Type 1: Variables in the Denominator

Example:

fracax+fracby=C_1

fracdx+fracey=C_2

 Substitution: Let u=frac1x and v=frac1y.

 New Linear System:

7
au+bv=C_1

du+ev=C_2

Type 2: Variables in Denominator as Sums/Differences

Example:

fracax+y+fracbx−y=C_1

fracdx+y+fracex−y=C_2

 Substitution: Let u=frac1x+y and v=frac1x−y.

 New Linear System:

au+bv=C_1

du+ev=C_2

 Important Note: After finding u and v, you'll have two new linear equations:

x+y=frac1u

x−y=frac1v

You'll need to solve this new pair of linear equations for x and y. This means it's a two-stage solution process.

Type 3: Mix of Variable Types (Less common in Class 10, but possible)

Example:

2x+3y=7

frac4x+frac9y=15

 This is not a straightforward reducible type. The first equation is already linear. The second is not. You
might solve the first for x or y and substitute into the second, leading to a quadratic equation, or recognize the
pattern.
 Alternative strategy for this specific example: From the first equation, y=7−2x. Substitute this into the
second equation:

frac4x+frac97−2x=15

This requires solving a rational equation, which can lead to a quadratic. This is usually beyond the scope of
"reducible to linear" problems in Class 10 which aim to transform into purely linear systems. The typical
reducible problems focus on expressions like frac1x and frac1y.

Crucial Point: Always remember to back-substitute to find the values of the original variables (x and y) after
solving for the new variables (u and v).
8
6. Problem-Solving Strategy for Word Problems

Linear equations are extensively used to model real-world scenarios.

Steps to Solve Word Problems:

1. Read and Understand: Read the problem carefully, identifying what is given and what needs to be
found.
2. Define Variables: Assign variables (e.g., x,y) to the unknown quantities. Clearly state what each variable
represents.
3. Formulate Equations: Translate the verbal statements into mathematical equations. Look for keywords
that indicate relationships (e.g., "sum," "difference," "twice," "more than," "less than," "product," "ratio").
o Tip: Break down complex sentences into smaller, manageable parts.
4. Solve the System: Use any of the algebraic methods (substitution, elimination, or cross-multiplication) to
solve the pair of linear equations.
5. Check and Interpret:
o Check if the solution satisfies both original equations.
o Check if the solution makes sense in the context of the problem (e.g., can a length be negative?
Can the number of people be a fraction?).
o Write the answer in the context of the problem statement, including units if applicable.

Common Types of Word Problems:

 Age Problems: Involving ages of two people at different points in time.

 Number Problems: Finding unknown numbers based on given conditions.
 Money Problems: Related to coins, currency notes, cost of items.
 Time, Speed, Distance Problems: Using the formula Distance=SpeedtimesTime. (Often involves
upstream/downstream for boats).
 Work Problems: Less common in Class 10, but usually involving fractions of work done.
 Geometry Problems: Involving perimeter, area of rectangles, triangles, etc.
 Mixture Problems: Combining quantities with different concentrations or prices.

7. Important Considerations & Common Pitfalls

 Sign Errors: The most frequent mistake! Be extremely careful with positive and negative signs,
especially during substitution, elimination, and cross-multiplication.
 Arithmetic Errors: Double-check your calculations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division).
 Incorrect Substitution: When using the substitution method, ensure you substitute the expression into the
other equation, not the one you derived it from.
 Forgetting Back-Substitution: In reducible equations, remember to find the original variables (x,y) after
finding the substituted variables (u,v).
 Not Checking Solutions: Always verify your solution by plugging the values back into the original
equations. This catches many errors.
 Understanding Consistency: Clearly distinguish between consistent (unique or infinite solutions) and
inconsistent (no solution) systems.
 Standard Form for Cross-Multiplication: Remember to convert equations to ax+by+c=0 before
applying the cross-multiplication formula.

9
 Word Problem Setup: The most challenging part can be setting up the correct equations. Practice this
extensively. Break down complex sentences.

This extended version covers the fundamental concepts in greater detail, provides more nuances for each
algebraic method, elaborates on reducible equations, and offers structured advice for tackling word problems. By
understanding these points thoroughly and practicing regularly, you'll gain a strong mastery of "Pair of Linear
Equations in Two Variables."

You're looking for an even more exhaustive explanation of Quadratic Equations! Excellent. Let's delve deeper
into every nuance, including subtle theoretical points, extended examples, common student queries, and even
graphical interpretations beyond just x-intercepts.

Here's an even more comprehensive and detailed set of notes on Quadratic Equations for Class 10 Maths:

Quadratic Equations - Class 10 Maths (The Ultimate Detailed Notes)

1. The Genesis: What Defines a Quadratic Equation?

At its core, a quadratic equation is a type of polynomial equation. Specifically, it's a polynomial equation of
degree two, meaning the highest power of the variable present in the equation is 2.

The standard form of a quadratic equation in a single variable, typically x, is:

ax2+bx+c=0

Let's dissect each component of this standard form:

 x: This represents the unknown variable for which we are trying to find a value.
 a: This is the quadratic coefficient. It's the numerical factor multiplying the x2 term.
o Crucial Condition: a must not be zero (a 0). If a were 0, the ax2 term would vanish, reducing
the equation to bx+c=0, which is a linear equation (degree one), not a quadratic one.
 b: This is the linear coefficient. It's the numerical factor multiplying the x term.
o b can be zero. If b=0, the equation becomes ax2+c=0. This is a "pure quadratic" equation.
Example: x2−9=0.
 c: This is the constant term. It's the numerical term without any variable.
o c can also be zero. If c=0, the equation becomes ax2+bx=0. Example: 2x2+5x=0.
 a,b,c are real numbers: In Class 10, we exclusively deal with quadratic equations whose coefficients are
real numbers. This influences the nature of the roots we discuss.

Examples of Valid Quadratic Equations and their Coefficients:

1. 5x2−3x+2=0⟹a=5,b=−3,c=2
2. x2+2x−1=0⟹a=1,b=2,c=−1
10
3. y2−16=0⟹a=1,b=0,c=−16 (Variable is y)
4. 4p2+7p=0⟹a=4,b=7,c=0 (Variable is p)
5. (x−2)(x+3)=0⟹x2+x−6=0⟹a=1,b=1,c=−6 (Needs to be expanded to standard form)
6. 2x2+3x=1⟹3x2+2x=6⟹3x2+2x−6=0⟹a=3,b=2,c=−6 (Needs to be cleared of fractions)

How to check if an equation is quadratic:

Always bring the equation to the standard form ax2+bx+c=0 by performing all necessary algebraic operations
(expanding products, clearing denominators, combining like terms, moving all terms to one side) and then verify
if the coefficient of the x2 term (a) is non-zero.

2. Roots of a Quadratic Equation: The Heart of the Matter

The roots (also known as solutions or zeros) of a quadratic equation ax2+bx+c=0 are the specific values of x
that, when substituted into the equation, make the statement true (i.e., LHS = RHS = 0).

 A key property of polynomial equations: A polynomial equation of degree 'n' can have at most 'n' roots.
Therefore, a quadratic equation (degree 2) can have at most two roots.
 Graphical Interpretation of Roots:

When we graph the quadratic function y=ax2+bx+c, the graph is a symmetrical curve called a parabola.

o If a>0, the parabola opens upwards (U-shaped).

o If a<0, the parabola opens downwards (inverted U-shaped).

The roots of the equation ax2+bx+c=0 correspond precisely to the x-intercepts of the parabola, i.e., the points
where the parabola crosses or touches the x-axis. At these points, y=0.

3. Methods for Solving Quadratic Equations: A Toolkit

Finding the roots of a quadratic equation is a fundamental skill. We have three powerful methods:

3.1. Factorization Method (Middle Term Splitting)

This method transforms the quadratic expression into a product of two linear factors, leveraging the Zero
Product Property (If P×Q=0, then either P=0 or Q=0 or both are zero).

Detailed Steps with Rationale:

1. Ensure Standard Form: Start with ax2+bx+c=0. This is crucial for correctly identifying a,b,c.
2. Calculate Product (ac) and Sum (b):
o The goal is to rewrite the middle term (bx) as a sum of two terms (px+qx).
o Why ac? When you expand (kx+m)(jx+n), the constant term is mn and the x2 term is kjx2. The
middle term is knx+mjx. This hints at the relationship between the coefficients.
o We need two numbers, p and q, such that:
 p×q=ac (Their product equals the product of the first and last coefficients)
 p+q=b (Their sum equals the middle coefficient)
o Finding p and q: This is often the most challenging step.
 List all pairs of factors of ∣ac∣.
11
 Consider the signs. If ac is positive, p and q have the same sign (both positive if b is
positive, both negative if b is negative). If ac is negative, p and q have opposite signs.
 Test which pair sums to b.
3. Split the Middle Term: Replace bx with px+qx.

ax2+px+qx+c=0

4. Factor by Grouping: Group the first two terms and the last two terms. Factor out the Greatest Common
Factor (GCF) from each pair.

(ax2+px)+(qx+c)=0

x(ax+p)+CF(ax+p)=0 (The binomial term in the parentheses must be identical.)

5. Factor Out Common Binomial: If step 4 was successful, you'll have a common binomial factor. Factor it
out.

(ax+p)(something else)=0

6. Apply Zero Product Property: Set each linear factor equal to zero and solve for x.

ax+p=0⟹x=−p/a

something else=0⟹x=…

Example: Solve 6x2+11x−10=0

1. Standard form: Yes. (a=6,b=11,c=−10)

2. ac=6×(−10)=−60. b=11.

We need two numbers that multiply to -60 and add to 11.

Factors of 60: (1,60), (2,30), (3,20), (4,15), (5,12), (6,10).

Since ac is negative, one number is positive, one is negative. Since b is positive, the larger absolute value number
is positive.

Consider (4,15). If we use 15 and -4: 15×(−4)=−60, and 15+(−4)=11. These are our numbers!

3. Split middle term: 6x2+15x−4x−10=0

4. Factor by grouping:

(6x2+15x)+(−4x−10)=0

3x(2x+5)−2(2x+5)=0 (Notice the common (2x+5))

5. Factor out common binomial: (2x+5)(3x−2)=0

6. Set factors to zero:

12
2x+5=0⟹2x=−5⟹x=−25

3x−2=0⟹3x=2⟹x=32

The roots are x=−25 and x=32.

Limitations of Factorization:

 It's not always straightforward to find p and q, especially for larger numbers or if they don't involve
obvious integer factors.
 It cannot be used easily if the roots are irrational (e.g., 5) or complex. It only works elegantly when the
quadratic expression can be factored into linear terms with rational coefficients.
3.2. Completing the Square Method

This method is more systematic and forms the basis for deriving the quadratic formula. The core idea is to
manipulate the quadratic expression into the form (x+k)2=D or (x−k)2=D, allowing us to solve by taking square
roots.

Detailed Steps with Rationale:

1. Standard Form: ax2+bx+c=0.

2. his simplifies the x2 term, making
the perfect square formula easier to apply.

x2+abx+ac=0

3. Isolate x terms: Move the constant term to the right-hand side.

x2+abx=−ac

Rationale: We want to create a perfect square trinomial on the LHS, which is always of the form
(A+B)2=A2+2AB+B2 or (A−B)2=A2−2AB+B2. Here, A=x.

4. Complete the Square:

o The missing term to complete the square is always (2coefficient of x)2.
o In our case, the coefficient of x is ab.
o Half of it is 21⋅ab=2ab.
o Square it: (2ab)2=4a2b2.
o Add this value to both sides of the equation. This maintains the equality.

x2+abx+(2ab)2=−ac+(2ab)2

5. Factor the Perfect Square (LHS): The left side is now a perfect square.

(x+2ab)2=−ac+4a2b2

6. Simplify the RHS: Find a common denominator and combine the terms on the right.

13
(x+2ab)2=4a2b2−4ac

7. Take Square Root of Both Sides:

x+2ab=±4a2b2−4ac

x+2ab=4a2±b2−4ac

x+2ab=∣2a∣±b2−4ac (Usually written as 2a without absolute value in the formula, implying a>0 or simply
convention for simplicity, as x will cover both cases with ±)

8. Isolate x: Move the constant term from the LHS to the RHS.

x=−2ab±2ab2−4ac

x=2a−b±b2−4ac (This is the Quadratic Formula!)

Example: Solve 3x2−10x+8=0 by completing the square.

1. 3x2−10x+8=0
2. Divide by a=3: x2−310x+38=0
3. Move constant: x2−310x=−38
4. Half of coeff of x is 21×(−310)=−35. Square it: (−35)2=925.

Add to both sides: x2−310x+925=−38+925

5. Factor LHS: (x−35)2=−924+925

6. Simplify RHS: (x−35)2=91
7. Take square root: x−35=±91

x−35=±31

8. Isolate x: x=35±31

x1=35+31=36=2

x2=35−31=34

The roots are x=2 and x=34.

3.3. Quadratic Formula Method

This is the most general and widely used method because it works for any quadratic equation, regardless of
whether it's easily factorable. It directly provides the roots using the coefficients.

The Formula:

x=2a−b±b2−4ac

14
Detailed Steps:

1. Standard Form: Ensure ax2+bx+c=0.

2. Identify a,b,c: Carefully extract the numerical values of the coefficients, including their signs.
3. Calculate the Discriminant (Δ or D): It's highly recommended to calculate b2−4ac first. This value
determines the nature of the roots and helps avoid calculation errors within the larger formula.
4. Substitute and Solve: Plug the values of a,b,c (and Δ) into the quadratic formula and simplify. This will
give you two roots (one for '+' and one for '-').

Example: Solve x2−6x+9=0 using the quadratic formula.

1. Standard form: Yes.

2. a=1,b=−6,c=9
3. Calculate Discriminant: Δ=b2−4ac=(−6)2−4(1)(9)=36−36=0.
o Since Δ=0, we expect two equal real roots.
4. Substitute into formula:

x=2(1)−(−6)±0

x=26±0

x1=26+0=3

x2=26−0=3

The roots are x=3 and x=3 (equal roots).

4. The Discriminant (Δ or D): Unveiling the Nature of Roots

The expression Δ=b2−4ac is called the discriminant because it discriminates (tells apart) the nature of the roots
without actually calculating them.

1. Case 1: Δ>0 (Positive Discriminant)

o Nature of Roots: The equation has two distinct real roots. "Distinct" means different from each
other. "Real" means they are numbers that can be plotted on the number line.
o Graphical Interpretation: The parabola y=ax2+bx+c intersects the x-axis at two different
points.
o Sub-case: Perfect Square Discriminant (b2−4ac is a perfect square, e.g., 4, 9, 16...)
 The roots will be rational (can be expressed as a fraction p/q). This implies the quadratic
equation could have been factored using the middle term splitting method.
o Sub-case: Non-Perfect Square Discriminant (b2−4ac is not a perfect square, e.g., 2, 5, 7...)
 The roots will be irrational (involving square roots, e.g., 1+2). These equations cannot be
easily factored using rational numbers.
2. Case 2: Δ=0 (Zero Discriminant)
o Nature of Roots: The equation has two equal real roots (also sometimes referred to as one real
root with multiplicity 2). The roots are x=2a−b.
o Graphical Interpretation: The parabola y=ax2+bx+c just touches the x-axis at exactly one point
(its vertex lies on the x-axis).

15
3. Case 3: Δ<0 (Negative Discriminant)
o Nature of Roots: The equation has no real roots. (It has two distinct complex/imaginary roots,
which involve i=−1, covered in higher mathematics courses like Class 11/12).
o Graphical Interpretation: The parabola y=ax2+bx+c does not intersect or touch the x-axis at
all. It lies entirely above the x-axis (if a>0) or entirely below the x-axis (if a<0).

Why is Δ so important?

 It's a quick way to determine if a quadratic equation has real solutions.

 It helps in solving word problems where certain conditions (like having real solutions) are implicitly
required.
 It's fundamental for understanding the nature of parabolic graphs.

5. Relationship Between Roots and Coefficients

For a quadratic equation ax2+bx+c=0 with roots α and β:

1. Sum of Roots:

α+β=−ab

This can be derived by adding the two roots from the quadratic formula:

(2a−b+b2−4ac)+(2a−b−b2−4ac)=2a−b+Δ−b−Δ=2a−2b=−ab

2. Product of Roots:

αβ=ac

This can be derived by multiplying the two roots from the quadratic formula:

(2a−b+b2−4ac)×(2a−b−b2−4ac)

=(2a)2(−b)2−(b2−4ac)2 (using (A+B)(A−B)=A2−B2)

=4a2b2−(b2−4ac)=4a2b2−b2+4ac=4a24ac=ac

Forming a Quadratic Equation when Roots are Given:

If α and β are the roots of a quadratic equation, then:

 The equation can be expressed as a product of its linear factors:

(x−α)(x−β)=0

 Expanding this gives:

x2−βx−αx+αβ=0
16
x2−(α+β)x+αβ=0

 Let S=α+β (Sum of roots) and P=αβ (Product of roots).

Then the quadratic equation is:

x2−(Sum of Roots)x+(Product of Roots)=0x2−Sx+P=0

any non-zero constant k. However, for a unique equation, we often take k=1 or specify a.)

Example: Find the quadratic equation whose roots are 3+5 and 3−5.

 α=3+5
 β=3−5
 Sum of roots (S): α+β=(3+5)+(3−5)=3+3=6
 Product of roots (P): αβ=(3+5)(3−5)=32−(5)2=9−5=4
 The quadratic equation is: x2−Sx+P=0

x2−6x+4=0.

6. Problem-Solving Strategy for Word Problems Involving Quadratics

Word problems are where mathematics connects to the real world. Carefully setting up the equation is half the
battle.

Comprehensive Steps:

1. Thorough Reading and Analysis: Read the problem multiple times.

o What are the unknown quantities?
o What information is given?
o What are the relationships between the quantities? (e.g., "sum of squares," "product," "area,"
"speed and time").
o What is being asked for?
2. Define Variables Clearly: Assign a single variable (e.g., x) to the primary unknown. Express other
unknown quantities in terms of x.
o Example: If the problem involves two consecutive integers, let them be x and x+1 (or x and x−1).
If consecutive even integers, x and x+2.
3. Formulate the Equation: Translate the verbal statements into a mathematical quadratic equation. This
often requires careful interpretation of phrases.
o Look for clues that suggest a quadratic relationship (e.g., "area," "product," "square of a number,"
"inverses," "reciprocals").
o Draw diagrams for geometry problems.
o Organize information in tables for speed/time/distance problems.
4. Solve the Quadratic Equation: Choose the most appropriate method:
o Factorization: If the numbers are small and factors are obvious, this is the quickest.
17
o Quadratic Formula: Always reliable, especially if factorization seems difficult or if you
anticipate irrational roots. This is the go-to method if you're unsure.
o Completing the Square: Useful for deeper understanding or if specifically asked, but often more
tedious for general problem-solving.
5. Check and Interpret the Solutions:
o Mathematical Check: Substitute your calculated roots back into the original quadratic equation
you formed to ensure they satisfy it.
o Contextual Check: This is vital for word problems.
 Can a length be negative? No.
 Can time be negative? No.
 Can the number of people or items be a fraction? No.
 Are there any implicit conditions (e.g., "positive integer") that one of your roots might
violate?
o Discard Invalid Roots: If a root doesn't make sense in the real-world context of the problem,
discard it.
o State the Final Answer: Clearly write your answer in the context of the original question,
including units if necessary.

Example Word Problem (Advanced):

A train travels a distance of 480 km at a uniform speed. If the speed had been 8 km/h less, it would have taken 3
hours more to cover the same distance. Find the original speed of the train.

1. Define Variable: Let the original uniform speed of the train be x km/h.

Distance = 480 km.

2. Formulate Equations (using Time = Distance/Speed):

o Original time taken (T1): T1=x480 hours.
o New speed: (x−8) km/h.
o New time taken (T2): T2=x−8480 hours.
o Relationship: The new time is 3 hours more than the original time.

T2=T1+3

x−8480=x480+3

3. Convert to Standard Quadratic Form:

x−8480−x480=3

Find common denominator (x(x−8)):

x(x−8)480x−480(x−8)=3

x2−8x480x−480x+3840=3

18
3840=3(x2−8x)

1280=x2−8x (Dividing by 3)

x2−8x−1280=0

4. Solve the Quadratic Equation: Use the quadratic formula (a=1,b=−8,c=−1280).

Δ=b2−4ac=(−8)2−4(1)(−1280)

Δ=64+5120=5184

x=2(1)−(−8)±5184

x=28±72 (5184=72)

x1=28+72=280=40

x2=28−72=2−64=−32

5. Check and Interpret:

o x represents the speed of the train. Speed cannot be negative. So, x=−32 is discarded.
o x=40 km/h is a valid speed.
o Check: Original time = 480/40=12 hours. New speed = 40−8=32 km/h. New time = 480/32=15
hours. Difference = 15−12=3 hours. (Matches the problem statement).

Final Answer: The original speed of the train is 40 km/h.

7. Common Mistakes and Pro-Tips for Success

 Sign Errors are the #1 Culprit: Always double-check signs, especially when substituting into the
quadratic formula or splitting the middle term. A minus sign missed or misplaced can completely alter the answer.
 Order of Operations: Follow PEMDAS/BODMAS diligently when calculating the discriminant and the
roots.
 Misidentifying a,b,c: Always ensure the equation is in the standard form ax2+bx+c=0 before picking out
the coefficients. Terms on the wrong side of the equals sign must be transposed with a sign change.
 Forgetting ±: When taking the square root, never forget the ± sign. This is what gives rise to the two
roots.
 Simplifying Radicals: Practice simplifying square roots (e.g., 12=23) to give answers in the simplest surd
form.
 Factorization vs. Formula: Don't force factorization if it's not obvious. If you struggle for more than a
minute to find factors, switch to the quadratic formula. It's guaranteed to work.
 Contextual Validity: For word problems, always, always, always check if your numerical answers make
sense in the real-world context.
 Units: Include units in your final answers for word problems.
 Practice, Practice, Practice: The concepts are straightforward, but accuracy comes from consistent
practice with various types of problems.

19
This highly detailed set of notes aims to cover virtually every aspect of Quadratic Equations for Class 10,
providing a solid theoretical foundation and practical problem-solving guidance. Mastering this chapter is crucial
for higher mathematics.

You're truly committed to mastering Arithmetic Progressions! That's a great attitude. Let's dig even deeper,
covering more subtle points, typical variations in problems, and common conceptual traps.

Here's an even more exhaustive and granular set of notes on Arithmetic Progressions (AP) for Class 10 Maths:

Arithmetic Progressions (AP) - Class 10 Maths (Ultimate Detailed

Notes)
1. Re-establishing the Foundation: Sequences, Series, and AP Defined

To truly grasp APs, a solid understanding of the broader context is essential.

 Sequence: A sequence is an ordered list of numbers. Each number in the list is called a term. The order is
determined by a specific rule or pattern.
o Finite Sequence: Has a limited number of terms. Example: 2, 4, 6, 8 (4 terms).
o Infinite Sequence: Has an unlimited number of terms, indicated by ellipses (...). Example: 2, 4, 6,
8, ...
o Notation: Terms are usually denoted as a1,a2,a3,…,an, where the subscript indicates the position
of the term in the sequence. an is the nth term.
 Series: A series is the sum of the terms of a sequence.
o Finite Series: Sum of terms of a finite sequence. Example: 2+4+6+8.
o Infinite Series: Sum of terms of an infinite sequence. Example: 2+4+6+8+…. (In Class 10, we
primarily focus on finite series sums).
 Arithmetic Progression (AP): The Core Concept

An Arithmetic Progression is a special type of sequence where the difference between any term and its preceding
term is constant. This constant difference is unique to an AP and is called the common difference.

o Mathematical Representation: For an AP a1,a2,a3,…,an,…, the defining property is:

ak+1−ak=dfor all integers k≥1

where d is the common difference.

o Nature of Common Difference (d):

 d>0 (Positive): The AP is an increasing AP. Terms continuously get larger. Example: 3, 7,
11, 15, ... (d=4)
 d<0 (Negative): The AP is a decreasing AP. Terms continuously get smaller. Example:
10, 7, 4, 1, ... (d=−3)
 d=0 (Zero): The AP is a constant AP. All terms are the same. Example: 5, 5, 5, 5, ... (d=0)
20
o General Form (Recursive Definition):

If a is the first term, then:

a1=a

a2=a1+d=a+d

a3=a2+d=(a+d)+d=a+2d

a4=a3+d=(a+2d)+d=a+3d

This clearly shows how each subsequent term is generated.

2. The nth Term of an AP (The General Term Formula)

The formula for the nth term is incredibly powerful as it allows us to find any term directly, without having to list
all the preceding terms.

Let a be the first term and d be the common difference.

From the general form observed above:

 a1=a+(1−1)d=a+0d=a
 a2=a+(2−1)d=a+1d
 a3=a+(3−1)d=a+2d
 a4=a+(4−1)d=a+3d

This pattern leads directly to the formula for the nth term:

an=a+(n−1)d

Key Variables and Their Meanings:

 an: The value of the term at the nth position. It's an output.
 a: The first term.
 n: The position or count of the term. Crucially, n must always be a positive integer. If you solve for n
and get a fraction, negative number, or zero, then the value an is not a term of that specific AP.
 d: The common difference.

Practical Applications and Problem Variations:

1. Finding a Specific Term:

o Example: Find the 15th term of the AP: -5, -1, 3, 7, ...
 a=−5
 d=−1−(−5)=−1+5=4
 n=15
 a15=a+(15−1)d=−5+14(4)=−5+56=51.
2. Finding the Number of Terms (n):
21
o Example: How many terms are in the AP: 7, 10, 13, ..., 151?
 a=7
 d=10−7=3
 an=151 (This is the last term, acting as an)
 151=7+(n−1)3
 144=(n−1)3
 48=n−1
 n=49. There are 49 terms in this AP.
3. Finding the First Term (a) or Common Difference (d):
o Often, you'll be given two terms of an AP and asked to find a and d. This leads to a system of two
linear equations.
o Example: The 5th term of an AP is 17 and the 10th term is 32. Find the AP.
 a5=a+4d=17…(1)
 a10=a+9d=32…(2)
 Subtract (1) from (2): (a+9d)−(a+4d)=32−17⟹5d=15⟹d=3.
 Substitute d=3 into (1): a+4(3)=17⟹a+12=17⟹a=5.
 The AP is: 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, ...
4. nth Term from the End:
o To find the nth term from the end of an AP, given the last term l, the first term a, and common
difference d.
o The AP in reverse order would have a first term l and a common difference −d.
o So, the nth term from the end is l+(n−1)(−d)=l−(n−1)d.
o Alternatively: Find the total number of terms (N). Then the nth term from the end is the
(N−n+1)th term from the beginning.
o Example: Find the 11th term from the end of the AP: 10, 7, 4, ..., -62.
 First, find N: a=10,d=−3,aN=−62.

−62=10+(N−1)(−3)⟹−72=−3(N−1)⟹24=N−1⟹N=25.

 Using the formula l−(n−1)d: −62−(11−1)(−3)=−62−10(−3)=−62+30=−32.

 Using N−n+1: 11th term from end is (25−11+1)=15th term from beginning.

a15=a+14d=10+14(−3)=10−42=−32. (Both methods yield same result).

3. Sum of the First n Terms of an AP (Sn)

The ability to sum terms quickly is crucial. Two main formulas are used, derived from pairing terms from the
beginning and end.

Formulas for Sn:

1. Using First Term (a) and Common Difference (d):

Sn=2n[2a+(n−1)d]

o This is the most general formula, as it only requires a,d,n.

2. Using First Term (a) and Last Term (l or an):

22
Sn=2n[a+l]

o This formula is convenient when the last term of the finite AP is known. Remember l=an.

Detailed Examples and Common Scenarios:

1. Finding Sum given a,d,n:

o Example: Find the sum of the first 25 terms of the AP: 5, 8, 11, ...
 a=5,d=3,n=25.
 S25=225[2(5)+(25−1)3]=225[10+24×3]=225[10+72]=225[82]
 S25=25×41=1025.
2. Finding Sum given a range of terms (Implies finding n first):
o Example: Find the sum of all odd numbers between 0 and 100.
 The AP is: 1, 3, 5, ..., 99.
 a=1,d=2,l=99.
 First, find n: an=a+(n−1)d⟹99=1+(n−1)2⟹98=2(n−1)⟹49=n−1⟹n=50.
 Now, find S50: S50=250[1+99]=25[100]=2500.
3. Relating Sn and an:
o The nth term of an AP is the difference between the sum of the first n terms and the sum of the
first (n−1) terms.
o an=Sn−Sn−1for n>1
o And a1=S1.
o Example: If the sum of the first n terms of an AP is given by Sn=2n2−n, find the first term and the
common difference.
 a1=S1=2(1)2−1=2−1=1. (This is our first term)
 To find a2: S2=2(2)2−2=2(4)−2=8−2=6.
 a2=S2−S1=6−1=5.
 Now we have a1=1 and a2=5.
 Common difference d=a2−a1=5−1=4.
 We can verify by finding an using an=Sn−Sn−1:

Sn−1=2(n−1)2−(n−1)=2(n2−2n+1)−n+1=2n2−4n+2−n+1=2n2−5n+3.

an=(2n2−n)−(2n2−5n+3)=2n2−n−2n2+5n−3=4n−3.

Check for n=1: a1=4(1)−3=1.

Check for n=2: a2=4(2)−3=5. (This matches our findings).

4. Properties and Advanced Concepts of APs

These properties can simplify problem-solving and provide deeper insight.

 Property of Constant Differences: The definition itself. If you take terms ax,ay,az from an AP, then ay
−ax=(y−x)d and az−ay=(z−y)d.
 Arithmetic Mean: If three numbers A,B,C are in AP, then the middle term B is the arithmetic mean of
the other two: B=2A+C. This can be extended to any two terms equidistant from a middle term.
o For example, in a1,a2,a3,a4,a5: a3=2a2+a4=2a1+a5.

23
 Equidistance Property: In a finite AP, the sum of terms equidistant from the beginning and the end is
constant and equal to the sum of the first and last terms.
o a1+an=a2+an−1=a3+an−2=…
o This property is key to the derivation of the Sn formula using Sn=2n(a+l).
 Choosing Terms for Simplification (Strategic Selection):

When the problem involves a sum or product of a specific number of terms in an AP, choosing terms strategically
can drastically simplify calculations (especially when their sum is given).

o 3 terms: a−d,a,a+d (Sum = 3a)

o 4 terms: a−3d,a−d,a+d,a+3d (Sum = 4a, Common difference between chosen terms is 2d)
o 5 terms: a−2d,a−d,a,a+d,a+2d (Sum = 5a)
o Rationale: This choice makes the sum of the terms directly equal to a multiple of 'a', eliminating 'd'
from the sum equation, making it easier to find 'a'.
o Example: The sum of three numbers in an AP is 21 and their product is 315. Find the numbers.
 Let the numbers be a−d,a,a+d.
 Sum: (a−d)+a+(a+d)=21⟹3a=21⟹a=7.
 Product: (a−d)×a×(a+d)=315

a(a2−d2)=315

Substitute a=7: 7(72−d2)=315

7(49−d2)=315

49−d2=7315=45

d2=49−45=4

d=±2.

 If d=2: The numbers are 7−2,7,7+2⟹5,7,9.

 If d=−2: The numbers are 7−(−2),7,7+(−2)⟹9,7,5.
 The numbers are 5, 7, 9.
 Relationship between Coefficients of an and Sn formulas (for competitive insights):

If an=An+B (a linear expression in n), then the sequence is an AP. The common difference d=A.

If Sn=Pn2+Qn (a quadratic expression in n with no constant term), then the sequence is an AP. The common
difference d=2P. (This is derived from an=Sn−Sn−1).

5. Advanced Problem-Solving Strategies & Common Pitfalls

 Missing Terms: Be careful if an AP is given with gaps, e.g., a1,_,a3,_,a5. Use the general formula to set
up equations.
 "Sum of first n terms is X" and "Sum of next m terms is Y": This often requires calculating Sn and
Sn+m, then finding the sum of the next m terms as Sn+m−Sn.

24
 Simultaneous Equations: Many AP problems will boil down to solving a system of two linear equations
in a and d.
 Quadratic Equations in Disguise: Sometimes, when solving for n or d, you might end up with a
quadratic equation. Make sure you know how to solve them and interpret their roots in the context of the problem
(e.g., n cannot be negative or fractional).
 "Which term is zero?" / "Which term is negative?": Set an=0 or an<0 and solve for n.
 "Divisible by..." problems: These form APs. For example, "numbers between 100 and 500 divisible by
7".
o Find the first term (a) by finding the smallest number ≥100 divisible by 7.
o Find the last term (l) by finding the largest number ≤500 divisible by 7.
o The common difference (d) will be 7.
o Then use an=a+(n−1)d to find n, and then Sn.

Common Mistakes to Avoid:

 Sign Errors: Especially when calculating common difference d=ak+1−ak or substituting negative values
into formulas.
 Mistaking an for n (and vice versa): n is the count/position, an is the value at that position.
 Incorrectly Calculating n for sums/ranges: Always ensure you have the correct number of terms in a
given range. For example, the count of integers from x to y (inclusive) is y−x+1.
 Forgetting Units: In word problems, final answers should always include appropriate units.
 Arithmetic Blunders: AP problems involve a lot of basic arithmetic. Be meticulous.
 Not checking for feasibility: For instance, if n represents the number of days, it must be a positive
integer. Discard non-sensical solutions.

By delving into these details, you gain a truly robust understanding of Arithmetic Progressions, enabling you to
confidently tackle a wide range of problems in Class 10 Maths and beyond.

25