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 Palgrave Studies in
World Environmental History

EL NIÑO
IN WORLD
HISTORY

Richard Grove and

George Adamson
Palgrave Studies in World Environmental History

Series Editors
Vinita Damodaran
Department of History
University of Sussex
Brighton, UK

Rohan D’Souza
Graduate School of Asian and African Area Studies
Kyoto University
Kyoto, Japan

Sujit Sivasundaram
Faculty of History
University of Cambridge
Cambridge, UK

James Beattie
Faculty of Science
Victoria University of Wellington
Wellington, New Zealand
The widespread perception of a global environmental crisis has
stimulated the burgeoning interest in environmental studies and has
­
encouraged a range of scholars, including historians, to place the envi-
ronment at the heart of their analytical and conceptual explorations.
An understanding of the history of human interactions with all parts
of the cultivated and non-cultivated surface of the earth and with liv-
ing organisms and other physical phenomena is increasingly seen as
an essential aspect both of historical scholarship and in adjacent fields,
such as the history of science, anthropology, geography and sociol-
ogy. Environmental history can be of considerable assistance in efforts
to comprehend the traumatic environmental difficulties facing us today,
while making us reconsider the bounds of possibility open to humans
over time and space in their interaction with different environments.
This series explores these interactions in studies that together touch
on all parts of the globe and all manner of environments including the
built environment. Books in the series come from a wide range of fields
of scholarship, from the sciences, social sciences and humanities. The
series particularly encourages interdisciplinary projects that emphasize
­historical engagement with science and other fields of study.

Editorial Board Members:

Prof. Mark Elvin, Australian National University, Australia
Prof. Heather Goodall, University of Technology Sydney, Australia
Prof. Edward Melillo, Amherst College, USA
Prof. Alan Mikhail, Yale University, USA
Prof. José Augusto Pádua, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Dr. Kate Showers, University of Sussex, UK
Prof. Graeme Wynn, University of British Columbia, Canada
Prof. Robert Peckham, Univerisy of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

More information about this series at

http://www.springer.com/series/14570
Richard Grove · George Adamson

El Niño in World
History
Richard Grove George Adamson
Centre for World Environmental Department of Geography
History King’s College London
University of Sussex London, UK
Brighton, UK

Palgrave Studies in World Environmental History

ISBN 978-1-137-45739-4 ISBN 978-1-137-45740-0 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-45740-0

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017948294

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

The author(s) has/have asserted their right(s) to be identified as the author(s) of this work
in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights
of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction
on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and
information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication.
Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied,
with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have
been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published
maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover credit: © JUAN GAERTNER/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY - Getty Images

Printed on acid-free paper

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Macmillan Publishers Ltd.
The registered company address is: The Campus, 4 Crinan Street, London, N1 9XW,
United Kingdom
For Edwin Grove
 Preface

It is not hard to appreciate the influence that Richard Grove has had
on historical and environmental scholarship in the twenty-first century.
At the time of writing the Centre for World Environmental History, at
the University of Sussex, that Richard founded has sixty-eight members,
associates and graduate students from around the world. In the last two
decades Richard’s ideas have informed the ‘cultural turn’ in climate sci-
ence, which incorporated physical climatologists as much as histori-
ans and social scientists.1 The Palgrave Series in World Environmental
History, in which this book is published, derives from Richard’s
vision. New networks such as the ACRE (Atmospheric Circulation
Reconstructions over the Earth) and IHOPE (Integrated History and
future of People on Earth) are taking this vision in new directions.
This book derives originally from Richard Grove’s work on the envi-
ronmental history of the British Empire and his increasing awareness dur-
ing the 1990s that climate extremes in diverse locations could be explained
by the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon. Richard
commenced his pioneering project to uncover the ‘millennial history of
El Niño’ after the devastating El Niño of 1997–98, a project designed to
trace El Niño’s impact from first appearance in the mid-Holocene to the
end of the twentieth century. This became Richard’s life work, resulting
in peer-reviewed journal publications in Nature and the Medieval History
Journal,2 as well as five book chapters3 and an edited book with John
Chappell entitled El Niño: History and Crisis.4 Tragically Richard was
never able to finish the project. Whilst in Australia in late-2006 Richard

vii
viii Preface

suffered a severe car accident that has since left him unable to work. The
monograph that was to underpin this project remained dormant.
My involvement in this project began in 2012 when I was working as a
postdoctoral research assistant on a research network Collaborative research
on the meteorological and botanical history of the Indian Ocean, a network
created by Richard and coordinated by his partner, the environmental his-
torian Vinita Damodaran, on the natural history collections of the British
Empire. The network built on the extensive international contacts that
Richard had developed during his career as an environmental historian and
represented a continuance of his vision to generate an environmental his-
tory of the world. The diversity of researchers involved reflected Richard’s
wide interdisciplinary interests: geographers, anthropologists, climatolo-
gists, art historians, archivists, digital archivists, librarians, NGO-workers
and environmental activists. Whilst working on the project I was humbled
to be offered the opportunity by Vinita to finish the manuscript, due to
the interest shared by Richard and me in the history of El Niño and its
effects on the Indian subcontinent and southern Africa.
I had first become aware of Richard Grove when researching for
a Ph.D. at the University of Brighton in 2009. His writings have had
an incredible influence on my work, particularly his 1997 monograph
Ecology, Climate and Empire. It is not an exaggeration to say that
Richard’s work has changed the way that I regard climate and what is
possible from historical climate research. In particular, Richard has
demonstrated the overwhelming potential of the East India Company
archives, seeing them as not merely the dry bureaucratic records of a
colonial state or trading company but as a remarkably diverse set of writ-
ings on meteorology, botany, environment, demographics, trade, history,
language and culture, written by an organisation whose desire for knowl-
edge was almost as strong as its appetite for revenue and power.
More fundamentally, Richard has also shown—through articulate and
well-reasoned argument derived from a number of geographical and his-
torical contexts—that climate cannot be detached from context. Or, to
adopt a terminology that has become more common during the last dec-
ade, climate has a dyadic relationship with culture.5 Climate is not just a
set of physical processes for individuals to respond to: it is loaded with
cultural meaning and this meaning is as important in informing the way
people respond to variability as is the intensity of a drought or flood or
the dynamics of a socio-political system. This has had profound implica-
tions both for the way we understand how societies responded to the
climates of the past and the challenges posed by climate today.6
 Preface ix

It is this element of the culture of climate that I have chosen to explore

in my contributions to this book. It was an early decision of mine not to
try to ‘finish’ Richard’s work. I would not like to second-guess what his
final ideas were for the project, and neither would Richard have approved
if I had. I have instead framed my contributions as a complement to
Richard’s, attempting to elucidate in more detail society’s understand-
ing of the El Niño phenomenon. Some of these contributions have built
directly on sections that Richard had planned or partially completed,
including the introduction, a section on El Niño in the twentieth century,
and the history of El Niño’s scientific discovery. My final section—on El
Niño in the public imagination—is entirely new. The narratives provided
by Richard and me are designed to be complementary and I hope that any
tension between chapters strengthens the book rather than diminishing it.
One area of science that has moved on significantly since 2006 is the
reconstruction of past El Niño behaviour. This is the only area where I
have made alterations to Richard’s draft. In general the new evidence for
El Niño’s behaviour in the past overwhelmingly supports and strength-
ens Richard’s arguments on El Niño’s role in human history. In these
cases I have referenced the new evidence as appropriate but left the nar-
rative the same. In one or two cases new evidence has suggested that
events previously considered to be related to El Niño were in fact caused
by other factors. Here I have adjusted Richard’s writing accordingly,
but these adjustments are rare and very minor. Otherwise I have left his
­contributions as they were.
I hope this book proves to be a worthy addition to Richard’s impor-
tant legacy.

February 2017 George Adamson

London, UK
x Preface

Notes
1. See for example M. Hulme (2009) Why We Disagree About
Climate Change (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press);
J.B. Thornes (2005) ‘Cultural Climatology’, Encyclopedia of World
Climatology, 308–309; J.B. Thornes (2008) ‘Cultural Climatology and the
Representation of Sky, Atmosphere, Weather and Climate in Selected Works
of Constable, Monet and Eliasson’, Geoforum, IXL, 570–580; N. Stehr
and H. von Storch (1995) ‘The Social Construct of Climate and Climate
Change’, Climate Research, V, 99–105; H. von Storch and N. Stehr (2006)
‘Anthropogenic Climate Change: A reason for concern since the eighteenth
century and earlier’, Geografiska Annaler, LXXXVIII, 107–113.
2. R.H. Grove (1998) ‘Global Impact of the 1789–93 El Niño’, Nature,
XCDIII, 318–319; R.H. Grove (2007) ‘The Great El Niño of 1789–93
and its Global Consequences: Reconstructing an extreme climate event in
world environmental history’, The Medieval History Journal, X, 75–98.
3. R.H. Grove (1997) Ecology, Climate and Empire (Winwick: White Horse
Press); R.H. Grove, V. Damodaran and S. Sangwan (1998) Nature
and the Orient: The environmental history of South and Southeast Asia
(Delhi: Oxford University Press); R. Grove (2002) ‘El Niño Chronology
and the History of Socio-economic and Agrarian Crisis in South and
Southeast Asia 1250–1900’ in Y.P. Abrol, S. Sangwan and M.K. Tiwari
(eds.) Land Use—Historical Perspectives: Focus on Indo-Gangetic Plains
(New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd.), pp. 133–172; R.H. Grove
(2005) ‘Revolutionary Weather: The climatic and economic crisis of
1788–1795 and the discovery of El Niño’ in T. Sherratt,
T. Griffiths and L. Robin (eds.) A Change in the Weather: Climate and
culture in Australia (Canberra: National Museum of Australia Press),
128–140; R.H. Grove (2007) ‘Revolutionary Weather: The climatic
and economic crisis of 1788–1795 and the discovery of El Niño’ in R.
Costanza, L.J. Graumlich and W. Steffen (eds.) Sustainability or Collapse:
An integrated history and future of people on Earth (Cambridge: The MIT
Press), pp. 151–169.
4. R.H. Grove and J. Chappell (2000) ‘El Niño Chronology and the History
of Global Crises during the Little Ice Age’ in R.H. Grove and J. Chappell
(eds.) El Niño History and Crisis: Studies from the Asia-Pacific region
(Cambridge: The White Horse Press).
5. This relationship has been articulated recently by Mike Hulme in M.
Hulme (2015) ‘Climate and its Changes: A cultural appraisal’, Geo:
Geography and Environment, II, 1–11.
6. M. Hulme (2016) Weathered: Cultures of Climate (London: Sage).
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