NURSING RESEARCH

Summary of the Research Process • Protocol- all the researchers will follow this before,
Phase I: The Conceptual Phase during, and after giving the intervention to all
→ Keyword- concept, decision on what topic to research respondents, done to prevent bias
on 7. Identifying the population to be studied
1. Formulating and delimiting the problem 8. Designing the sampling plan
2. Review of related literature • Probability and nonprobability
• Purpose- to get an idea or background about the 9. Specifying the methods to measure the research
study variables
• What is already done and what is still not • Methods- tools or instruments for data collection
• Synthesis of previous studies that is related to 10. Developing methods for safeguarding human/animal
problem of interest- pinagsama-sama rights
11. Finalizing and reviewing the research plan
Steps and Strategies for Searching Literature
→ Determine concept/ issues/ topics Phase III: The Empirical Phase
→ Identify the variables and terms → Longest phase in research d/t collection, organizing,
• Variables are the focus of the research and preparation of data
→ Conduct computer search 12. Collecting data
→ Weed out irrelevant resources before printing 13. Preparing the data for analysis
• Print out for easier retrieval
→ Organize resources from print out for retrieval Phase IV: The Analytic Phase
→ Retrieve relevant resources 14. Analyzing the data
→ Copy articles 15. Interpreting the results
→ Conduct preliminary reading and weed out irrelevant
sources, do this to all your resources Phase V: The Disseminating Phase
→ Critically read each source—read and understand 16. Communicating the findings
→ Synthesize critical summaries of each article 17. Utilizing the findings
• Rephrase, but there are times that copying is • Evidence-based practice
needed—if vital to the research, but never forget
to cite and recognize the author Phases of Research
• Place in-text citations and quotation marks Phase I: The Conceptual Phase
• If not, plagiarism may be sued, under the The Problem
intellectual property law—copy right infringement → Sources of research problems (NITESS)
(most abused) • Nursing literature- nursing journals, magazines,
news letters
3. Undertaking a clinical fieldwork • Ideas from external sources- suggested by other
• Have the same purpose as the of the RRL people and not from the researcher himself
• To get an idea of the background of the study, • Theory- may be an existing or the researchers
alamin mo kung ano nang ginagawa sa area at own theory
hingdi pa • Experience and clinical fieldwork- issues
• Supports the RRL experienced in your work that you want to study
Research in nursing- issues in nursing o Richest in information—because the
→ RRL is sufficient for this researcher has experienced it first hand
o Most frequently used
4. Defining the framework and develop conceptual • Social issues- issues in the society that could
definitions affect the nursing profession
• Framework- a graphical representation of o E.g., alcoholism and autism
concepts and relationship between concepts • Scientific research- previous researches, d/t
• Findings are not included here innovation and modification e.g., cloning
o This is the least used, ‘wag mo tong isasagot
Two Types of Frameworks sa board
→ Conceptual- focus is the topic
• Concepts are related to the topic Two Types of Research in Nursing
→ Theoretical → Nursing research
• Focus is the theory, could be an existing theory or • More frequently used because most of the time
your own theory we deal with clinical problems
→ The only difference of these two are the focus → Research in nursing- issues

Conceptual Definition Criteria of a Good Research Problems

→ Variables of the research are defined here → SALTLIN
→ Operational definition- define the variables on how → S- significance of the study
they were used the study, depending on how you used • The research must have its purpose
it • The study is addressed to three different entities
• To the people, they must get something from it
5. Formulating the hypothesis • To the society at large- people who are not the
target of your research, because they might know
Phase II: The Design and Planning Phase a person who might get something from the
→ Most tedious in research, pinag-iisipan maigi research
5. Selecting a research design • To the profession- to improve the practice of
6. Developing protocols for the intervention nursing
• Optional, only used for experimental research o Next, improve client care
• Experimental research is the only study with o Improve health care
intervention → A- availability of the subjects
• You have to make sure that subjects are available,
because this is where you will get your information
→ L- limitation of subjects • Kahit maliit na pagkakaiba lang nadidistinguish na
• Subjects may have certain limitations e.g., blind, nung tool
no read-no write → If these criteria are not met, multiple instruments may
→ T- time allotment and research ability be used because each tool have its own limitation
• Time allotment- time that was given the → I- interest of the researcher
researcher to finish the research → Novelty/ Newness/ freshness of idea
• Ability to the research- is the researcher really • Do not copy original researches, that is why
capable of doing the research—the financial scientific method is the least used
capability is one of the things considered,
therefore, a feasibility study is done to determine if Hypothesis
the study can be researched → Tentative prediction of the relationship between the
→ L- limitation of tools research variables
• Each of the tools has certain limitations • At the end of the research, this will either be
• Tools should answer all the research questions accepted or rejected
Major Types of Data Collection Method
→ Use of existing data- data already available e.g., data Parts of Hypothesis
for case presentations, information was taken in the → Independent variable- cause
patient’s chart → Dependent variable- effect
• DOH charts, PSA census → Relationship
→ Self-reports- the use of interview and questionnaires → Population to which it applies- pinag-aaralan, pinag-
• Most widely used form of data collection because uusapan
can gather information that cannot be gathered by • Usually, the most neglected part but is the most
other methods important
o Usually gathers opinions
• Data may be gathered orally (interview) or in Steps in Identifying the IV and DV
writing (questionnaire) Sample Hypothesis: older patients are more at risk to fall
→ Observation than younger patients
• Participant observer- an intervention will be given 1. Population- identity all characteristics
then will be observed, also, if the researcher • Patients→ older and younger patients (identify the
disguised themselves as a participant characteristics)
• Nonparticipant- no interventions are done but to • Box or encircle it
observe, mere observer/ spectator 2. Set
• How many sets of population do you have?
Phenomena Amenable to Observations
→ Characteristics and condition of the subjects For >2 or more sets of variables
• E.g., when the person cannot answer to your → If >2 more, concentrate focus on the box forget the
questions but can observe the condition— rest of the hypothesis
jaundiced babies, coma patients • Older patients are more at risk to fall than younger
→ Activities and behavior patients
• Behavior- e.g., autistic with temper tantrums, (+) → Concentrate on their characteristics that differentiate
stereotype behaviors, fidgeting of the fingers, them
head banging when having temper tantrums • E.g., differ in age
• Activities- DAT (dementia of the Alzheimer’s type), → Whatever is fixed in the population, ano man ang
(+) apraxia- absence of purposeful movement, magkaibang characteristic ng population is the
nakakalimutan paano gamit ng mga bagay, INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
agnosia- sensory • The researcher sets the IV to the population
→ Skill attainment and performance → Whatever varies in the population is the DEPENDENT
• Performance appraisals VARIABLE
• Return demonstrations • Go back to the rest of your hypothesis, disregard
→ Environmental characteristics the boxed information
• PAG-ASA weather forecasts • Older patients are more at risk to fall than younger
→ Verbal communication patients
• Manner on how a person answers to questions— • Risk to fall may vary
pitch, tone, intonation, speed → Make the IV and DV more general
→ Nonverbal communication
• Gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, posture Sample Hypothesis: Girls are less sexually active than
• Determine congruence to feelings boys
→ Biophysiological measures- use of equipment or → IV- fixed, gender/ sex
gadgets → DV- sexual activity
• In vivo- measurement directly on the subjects e.g.,
BP measurements, pulse oximetry, ECG Sample Hypothesis: full term infants who are breastfed
• In vitro- measurement is performed outside e.g., weigh more than preterm infants who are mixed fed
laboratories—fecalysis, UA, SGOT/ SGPT, ABG → IV- term of infants and type of feeding
analysis → DV- weight

Criteria used to Know Effectivity Sample Hypothesis: depressed patients who are living with
→ Validity- degree to which an instrument is able to significant others have lesser chances of committing
measure what is supposed to be measure suicide than those depressed patients who are living alone
• All questions should answer or pertain to the → IV- living conditions
research questions → DV- chances of committing suicide
→ Reliability- repeatability or consistency yields the same
result upon repeated use of the instrument For one set of variables only
• Upon repeating, the results gathered should be → If there is only one set, characteristic of the population
the same will not matter—eliminate the characteristic in the
→ Sensitivity- ability to detect fine differences/ small options
variations
→ After placing the population in the box, go back to the III. Approach or Design
hypothesis and ask—what is being studied in the → Specific research types
population? → Non-experimental- without manipulation
→ Experimental
Sample hypothesis: educational attainment is not related
to the compliance of PTB patients Non-Experimental
→ IV- educational attainment- fixed → Historical- study of the past, basta binalikan mo ang
→ DV- compliance- varies depending on the IV beginning or start
• Describes past issues
For experimental researches → Survey- the use of interviews and questionnaires to
→ (+) intervention/ manipulation- anything that is given to gather public opinion
the subjects→ this will be set by the researcher (fixed) → Case study- in depth or a person or entities
→ All manipulations are automatically the IV → Methodological- studies methods, tests, and
procedures
Sample hypothesis: music therapy is associated to the → Analytical- further analysis of present issues and
levels of anxiety among cancer patients events, deeper description of an issue or event
→ IV- music therapy (fixed) Experimental
→ DV- levels of anxiety (vary) → With manipulation
→ When you see only the word “experimental” in the
Phase II: The Design and Planning Phase board→ considered as true experimental
Different Types of Researches According to Categories → True experimental- there is strict control over the
I. Motive variables
→ Reason/ purpose why the research is done • Elements: manipulation, randomization, control
→ Basic/ pure- to gain new knowledge (should be complete)
→ Applied- to make new knowledge useful and practice; • Randomization- no idea on who the sample will be,
o Using the new knowledge into practice all part of the population has a chance to be part
of the study
II. Levels of Investigation o Blind experiment is usually done- the subject
→ Level I (exploratory)- wala ka pang alam, may gusto will not know to which group they are
kang malaman categorized
• Identifying the variables o Double blind- subject and researcher do not
• According to motive, this is categorized as basic know what groups the subjects are assigned
or pure research to, to prevent prediction of results
• If the research is trying to get opinions, • Manipulation- anything that is given
automatically exploratory→ if you see the word • Control- purpose is for the comparison to the
QUALITY experimental group
• If quality does not appear, check if the study looks → Quasi experimental
for CENSUS, basta nagbibilang exploratory • Quasi- just like
• Survey • But in this type, control overcomes the variables→
→ Level II (descriptive)- (+) knowledge already, but you manipulation was not effective, because it lacks
want to know whether variables are associated or randomization→ high risk for bias
related → Two set of subjects for experimental study
• Descriptive- describes variables as it is Experimental Group Control Group
• Correlational- describes relationship of the Manipulation
variables to one another Placebo or other
• Comparative- compares the variables to one therapies that is
different from the
another
manipulation in the
• Also categorized, to pure under motive experimental
• If you see the word DESCRIBE, group
RELATIONSHIP of two variables, SIMILARITIES/ When is placebo or other therapies given?
DIFFERENCES, FACTS AND ISSUES, STUDY → Placebo is given if there is no comparison
(talks about the case in detail), ANALYSIS (a → Others- with comparison
deeper description of the issue)
• Historical, case study, methodological, analytical Past board questions
You want to prove that cotrimoxazole is more effective than
→ Level III (experimental)- (+) rich information, but want
other drugs in treating respiratory infections among the
to find out the cause and effect of the variables to ambulatory patients in the community. What should be given to
each other the control group?
• E.g., can music therapy increase or decrease the a. Another experimental drug- only given
levels of anxiety? b. A standard drug given for respiratory infection as
• If you the word EFFECTS, if a study has placebo- placebo should not have a therapeutic effect
MANIPULATION c. Placebo
• Categorized as applied under motive d. Another drug for respiratory infection (AKA
others)

Categorizing the Types of Researches You wanted to prove if cotrimoxazole is effective in treating
→ Read the research first respiratory infections. What should be given to the control
→ Look at the options, look for what is meaning to speed group? Placebo—because there is no longer comparison
up the process of elimination
→ Look first if the study is looking for an opinion—quality, Time Frame
census→ explorative → Cross sectional- one-time study
→ If (x) opinion or exploratory is not the choices, look for • Can already done one time and already gather
manipulation (anything given) → experimental results
o Experimental- random • Descriptive
o Quasi- nonrandom, participants are chosen → Longitudinal- repetitive studies
→ If (x) manipulation→ then the only answer is • Kailangan balik-balikan to establish the results
descriptive • Experimental trials
• Trend studies
→ Retrospective- study of the past to explain the present • Usually for locations
• Historical studies- but the focus here is the issues → Systematic- every Kth of
→ Prospective- study of the present to predict the future the list
• Global warming
To Solve for the Samples Needed
Sampling Designs → Slovin’s formula
→ Population- the entire aggregate of cases that meet a • Denominator “Isa kasama ni
designated set of criteria nene”
• The study is about hypertension—all persons who • The margin of error should be
are hypertensive regardless of their different converted to decimal since it is
characteristics are included expressed in percentage
→ Eligibility criteria
• For the researcher to decide who will only be Four Basic Rights of Research Subjects
included in the study → Right not to be harmed- protect the subjects to
• The exact criteria by which it could be decided possible harms and inconveniences
whether an individual would or would not be • Beneficence and non-maleficence are used here
classified as a member of the population in (bioethical principles)
question Beneficence Non-maleficence
• E.g., hypertensive with maintenance medicines To do To prevent harm/ to protect
only • Harm is not always prevented e.g., injections are
→ Accessible population needed in the manipulation, therefore, full
• The aggregate of cases that is within the reach of disclosure is necessary
the researcher. → Right to full disclosure- veracity (truthfulness)
• All hypertensive with maintenance within manila • In the research, the researcher is responsible to
→ Target population/ universe tell the subject everything—benefits, risks, time
• The aggregate of cases about which the ending and start, contact information of the
researcher would like to make generalizations researchers, services they can access
• Researchers will focus here → Right to self-determination- autonomy
• E.g., all hypertensive with maintenance medicines • Right to withdraw anytime- if the subject quits→
in Pasay accept
→ Sampling → Right to privacy, anonymity, and confidentiality
• Process used to get a representative of the • Anonymity- (x) identifying information
population • Privacy- private, personal information, private
→ Sample moments, parts, and property
• The representatives of the population • Confidentiality- (x) disclosure of identifying
• Number 1 characteristic of a sample is information and case
representativeness or representation o Only those professional and directly involved
→ Sampling plans in the care of the patient can know the case
• Non-probability sampling- non-random, not o Or if allowed by the law, if (+) subpoena is
everybody has the chance to be a part of the filed
study
• Probability sampling- random, everybody has the Phase III: The Empirical Phase
chance to be a part of the study Levels of Measurement
→ Assignment of numbers according to rules
Non-probability Sampling → Nominal- name the categories e.g., gender
Categorical
→ Convenience or accidental- samples are readily → Ordinal- with order/ ranks e.g., board ranking
available, kung sino ang nandyan → Interval- zero is not absolute, shows ranking of events
Numerical with equal intervals, (+) negative value e.g.,
• Convenient for the researcher
→ Quota- you get a proportion of the population, there is temperature
a limit in the number people you will get → Ratio- zero is absolute, (-) negative value e.g., weight
• E.g., limit is 200, even if you see other persons
who are still eligible you will no longer take them Phase IV: The Analytic Phase
as samples because quota has been reached Descriptive Analysis
→ Purposive/ judgmental- samples are handpicked by → Do not prove the hypothesis, only summarized the
the researcher based on the purpose of the research data
and judgment of the population → Frequency distribution- use of tables and graphs
• A criterion will be set for the samples • Representation of data through tables
→ Snowball- networking, referral system • Pie, bar, frequency polygons, etc.
• The tables and graphs communicate to the
Probability Sampling readers
→ More accurate → Measures of central tendency- mean, median, mode
→ Used for experimental researches, except for quasi • Mean- average
(no randomization) • Median- middle value (arrange first) if two
→ Simple random- everybody has a chance to become a numbers are middle values add it then divide by 2
sample, fishbowl technique • Mode- most frequently appears
• No groupings are created → Measures of variability
→ Stratified random- strata are created, divide the • Simple rank
population into homogenous groups (same • Range
characteristics) o Formula- (highest)-(lowest)
• Use the word characteristics instead of strata, • Variance
group them according to characteristics • Standard deviation- distance from the mean
• Basis of grouping is the characteristics
→ Cluster- successive random sampling e.g., Inferential Statistics
provinces→ cities→ barangays → Proves the hypothesis
• Cluster- big groups e.g., grapes → ANOVA/ analysis of variance- three more sets of the
• No basis of groupings population compared to one variable
 • E.g., study the levels of anxiety between the
Asians, Americans, Hispanics, and Caucasians
→ Chi-square- one set of population compared to two or
more variables that is focused in frequency
• E.g., educational attainment is not related to the
compliance of PTB patients
→ Pearson product moment of correlation (Pearson R)
• Similar to chi- square but the focus is interval or
ratio data—numbers
• E.g., relationship of infant birthweight to maternal
weight in postpartum mothers
→ T-tests
• Student/ independent T-test- two sets of
population compared to one variable
o Similar to ANOVA but if it >2, already ANOVA
o E.g., levels of anxiety of Americans and
Asians
• Paired T-test- one set of population and studying
dependent groups/results
o Dependent results- two or more results that
are dependent with one another, one cannot
exist without the other, results are always pre
and post e.g., study of average blood
pressure of women before and after
menstruation

Identifying Inferential Statistics (Simplified)

→ Determine the population first- focus on the set
→ 3 sets→ ANOVA
→ 2 sets→ student/ independent T-test
→ 1 set→ look for before and after→ paired t-test
→ 1 set→ numbers→ Pearson R
→ If all are not in the situation→ chi-square

Phase V: The Disseminating Phase

→ Communication of findings, reviewed
→ Utilization of results in practice→ evidence- based
practice