Chapter 17: Fishery Biology

Fisheries biology is the scientific study of fish and their interaction with the environment,
focusing on critical aspects for the sustainable management of fishery resources. It provides the
biological basis for stock assessment, conservation, and rational utilization of fish populations.

1. Life History of Economically Important Fish Species

About Indian Fisheries
India is the third-largest fish-producing country in the world and the second-largest fish producer
through aquaculture. India contributes about 7% to global fish production. The country is home
to more than 10% of the global fish biodiversity and is one of the 17 mega-biodiverse countries.
Approximately 14 million people are associated with fisheries and their ancillary activities.
Andhra Pradesh is the largest fish producer in the country, followed by West Bengal and
Gujarat.
During the year 2017-18, the total fish production was estimated to be 12.60 million metric tons,
of which about 70% comes from the inland sector, and about 50% of the total production comes
from culture fisheries. More than 50 different types of fish and shellfish products are exported to
75 countries worldwide. Currently, fish and fish products have emerged as the largest group in
India's agricultural exports, with a volume of 1.377 million tons and a value of ₹45,106.89
crores. This accounts for about 10% of total exports and about 20% of agricultural exports, and
it contributes about 0.91% to the country's GDP and 5.23% to the agricultural GVA.

Fisheries
Fisheries is an economic activity that involves catching fish or any aquatic organisms from the
wild (capture fisheries) or raising them in a controlled environment (culture
fisheries/aquaculture). It can be a traditional/small-scale fishery (SSF) for subsistence or a
large-scale/commercial fishery for profit.

Fish (Generally)
A fish (generally) is a cold-blooded aquatic animal that breathes with gills and can swim with
fins; they are classified as finfish and shellfish.
●​ Finfish are cold-blooded aquatic vertebrates, which have gills, fins with rays, and scales
on the body.
●​ Shellfish are cold-blooded aquatic invertebrates, which have gills, various types of
locomotory organs, and a shell/exoskeleton on the body. It includes crustaceans and
mollusks.

Biodiversity
India has a large number of finfish species. According to the database of the National Bureau of
Fish Genetic Resources (NBFGR), Lucknow, 2,508 indigenous finfish species have been
recorded, of which 1,518 species are from the marine environment, 113 from brackish water,
and 877 from freshwater habitats. In addition, 291 exotic fish species are also found in India.
India's Fish Biodiversity
Ecosystem Number of Species
Marine Ecosystem 1518
Brackishwater Ecosystem 113
Freshwater Ecosystem 877
Sub-total (Native) 2508
Exotic Fishes 291
Total 2799
Source: Uttam Kumar Sarkar, J.K. Jena, Shri Prakash Singh, A.K. Singh and S.C. Rebello
(2012). Documenting Coastal Fish Biodiversity of India: Status, Issues and Challenges. Paper,
International Day for Biological Diversity, Marine Biodiversity, 22 May 2012, Uttar Pradesh State
Biodiversity Board, Lucknow, pp. 22-28.

Classification of Fish According to Their Habitat:

●​ Freshwater Fish: These are fish that spend most or all of their lives in freshwater, such
as rivers and lakes, with a salinity of less than 0.5 ppt. About 40% of the known species of
fish are found in freshwater. They can be divided into cold-water fish (5-20°C) and
warm-water fish (25-35°C).
○​ Example (Cold water): Mahseer, Trout, etc.
○​ Example (Warm water): Carps, Catfish, Snakeheads, Featherbacks, etc.
●​ Brackishwater Fish: These fish can tolerate a wide range of salinity (0.5 – 30.0 ppt) and
live in backwaters, estuaries, and coastal waters.
○​ Example: Mullet, Milkfish, Seabass, Pearlspot, Mudskipper, etc.
●​ Marine Fish: These fish spend most or all of their lives in saltwater, such as seas and
oceans, with a salinity of more than 30 ppt. About 240 species contribute to marine
fisheries.
○​ Example: Sardines, Mackerel, Ribbonfish, Anchovies, Grouper, Cobia, Tuna, etc.

II. Finfish Fisheries

1. Freshwater Fisheries
About 70% of India's fish production comes from inland water sources, of which about 65%
comes from aquaculture. Of the total inland aquaculture production, Indian Major Carps are the
most cultured freshwater fish, followed by Exotic Carps, Minor Carps, Catfish, and Trout. There
are about 1300 carp hatcheries in India that produce seed and supply it to fish farmers.
India's Inland Water Resources
Warm Water Resources Area
Rivers and Canals (km) 1,95,210
Ponds and Tanks (lakh ha) 24.14
Reservoirs (lakh ha) 31.50
Floodplains / Derelict Waterbodies (lakh ha) 8-12
Brackishwater Resources (lakh ha) 12.40
Warm Water Resources Area
Saline/Alkaline Affected Areas (lakh ha) 12.00
Coldwater Resources
Rivers (km) 8,253
Natural Lakes (ha) 21,900
Reservoirs (ha) 29,700
Classification of Inland Fisheries in India
Inland fisheries in India can be classified as follows: i. Lacustrine Fisheries: Fisheries in lakes
and reservoirs. ii. Riverine Fisheries: Fisheries in rivers and streams. iii. Estuarine Fisheries:
Fisheries in estuaries and backwaters. iv. Floodplain and Wetland Fisheries: Fisheries in
floodplains and inundated areas. v. Coldwater Fisheries: Fisheries in cold water areas. vi.
Ornamental Fisheries: Rearing of fish for ornamental purposes. vii. Sport Fisheries: Fishing
for recreation and sport. viii. Culture Fisheries/Aquaculture: Rearing of fish in a controlled
environment.

1.1. Carps

Carps are the mainstay of aquaculture in India, contributing more than 85% to the total
aquaculture production. Of the 266 carp species available in the Indian region, about 34 are
economically important and are mainly produced from capture fisheries, while less than 10 carp
species are produced from both culture and capture fisheries in the country. India is called the
"carp country" because carps have been cultured here since ancient times and are considered a
delicacy in the country.
●​ Indian Major Carps (IMC): The carps that are native to the Indus-Ganga river systems /
Indo-Gangetic plains of India are known as Gangetic Carps or Indian Major Carps (IMC).
It includes Catla, Rohu, and Mrigal which contribute about 60% of the total carp
production.
●​ Exotic Carps: Carps introduced from other countries are known as exotic carps, such as
Silver Carp, Grass Carp, and Common Carp.
●​ Minor Carps: In addition to major carps, there are also smaller carps often called minor
carps, such as Reba (Cirrhinus reba), Bata (Labeo bata), Fringe-lipped Carp (Labeo
fimbriatus), Calbasu (Labeo calbasu), White carp (Cirrhinus cirrhosus), and Kontius
(Labeo kontius).

1.2. Catfish

Catfish are a diverse group of ray-finned fish, named for their prominent barbels, which
resemble a cat's whiskers (but not all catfish have prominent barbels). Catfish are generally
found in fast-flowing rivers and streams, but some catfish species have adapted to live in
shallow saltwater environments, while some other species live their lives in underground caves.
Most catfish are bottom feeders, as they are negatively buoyant (meaning they usually sink
rather than float due to a less-developed air bladder and a heavy, bony head). Air-breathing
catfish like Magur and Singhi live in shallow waters, can withstand low oxygen conditions, and
are known as "live fishes." These fish are sold alive and fetch high prices. Common Examples:
Magur/Walking Catfish (Clarias magur), Singhi/Stinging Catfish (Heteropneustes fossilis), Giant
River-Catfish (Sperata seenghala), Wallago (Wallago attu), Pabda Catfish (Ompok pabda),
Sutchi/Striped Catfish (Exotic) (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus).

1.3. Featherbacks

Featherbacks are fish that are adapted to live in flowing water. They are widely found in the
deep and clean waters of rivers, beels, reservoirs, and ponds. The bronze featherback fish has
also been reported to enter brackish water. These fish are carnivorous and predatory. They eat
aquatic insects, mollusks, shrimp, and small fish. In the early stages of life, they also eat insects
and tender roots of aquatic plants. These fish are rich in nutrients and, despite the large number
of intramuscular spines in their flesh, they command a high price in the market. Common
Examples: Chital (Chitala chitala), Bronze Featherback (Notopterus notopterus).

1.4. Small Indigenous Fish Species (SIFS)

Small Indigenous Fish Species (SIFS) are fish that grow to a maximum of 25-30 cm in the adult
stage of their life cycle. They live in rivers and their tributaries, floodplains, ponds and tanks,
lakes, beels, streams, low-lying areas, wetlands, and paddy fields. In India, out of 877
indigenous freshwater fish species, about 450 species are SIFS. The highest diversity of SIFS
in freshwater has been recorded in the North-East region, followed by the Western Ghats and
Central India. About 62 SIFS have been classified as food fish and 42 species as ornamental
fish. Examples of some culturable SIFS species include Mola, Climbing Perch, Barbs, Bata, etc.
Common Examples: Mola Carplet (Amblypharyngodon mola), Climbing Perch (Anabas
testudineus), Ticto Barb (Puntius ticto), Pool Barb (Puntius sophore), Silver Hatchet Chela
(Chela cachius).

1.5. Snakeheads

Snakeheads are members of the freshwater perciform fish family Channidae, native to parts of
Africa and Asia. They live in swampy waters and their gills are adapted to breathe air. If they
remain moist, they can live out of water for up to four days, and they are known to migrate up to
400 meters on wet land to other water bodies by wriggling with their body and fins. They have a
pair of air-chambers (suprabranchial cavity), which develop from the pharyngeal region and are
lined with vascular epithelium. This chamber takes in air and functions like a lung. Snakeheads
eat plankton, aquatic insects, and mollusks in the early stages of life and become predatory and
carnivorous as they grow. Snakehead meat has a good taste, high nutritional content, and high
medicinal values. Snakehead also contains all the essential amino acids required for wound
healing, especially glycine, which is important for the formation of human skin collagen.
Common Examples: Striped Murrel/Snakehead (Channa striata), Spotted Murrel/Snakehead
(Channa punctata), Flower Murrel/Bullseye Snakehead (Channa marulius), Dwarf
Murrel/Snakehead (Channa gachua).

1.6. Tilapias

Tilapia is a group of "Cichlid" fish native to the African continent. After World War II, tilapia
farming began in ponds in Central African countries and then spread rapidly to most tropical and
sub-tropical countries of the world, hence it is also known as an international fish. Although most
of the natural resources of tilapia are mainly found in Africa, about 80% of the global
aquaculture production of tilapia, which is about 5.0 million metric tons, comes from Asia. Tilapia
is considered the most important aquaculture species of the 21st century and is cultured
commercially in 100 countries of the world, from extensive to super-intensive scales. Common
Examples: Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), GIFT Strain (Oreochromis niloticus), Red Tilapia
(Oreochromis niloticus), Mozambique Tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus).

1.7. Coldwater Fishes

Coldwater fishes hold an important place among the freshwater fishes of India. Coldwater
fisheries are related to aquatic activities where the water temperature is between 5 to 20
degrees Celsius. To adapt to the cold temperature, the gills of cold-water fish are largely small
and the gill opening is also small in size. Important cold-water fishes of India include Mahseer
like Tor putitora, T. tor, T. khudree, T. mosal, Snow Trout like Schizothorax richardsonii and
Schizothoraichthys esocinus, Mountain Trout like Barilius vagra, B. bendelisis, and other fishes
like Glyptothorax sp, Garra sp, etc. The Mahseer is also called the "Tiger of the Rivers".
Common Examples: Golden Mahseer (Tor putitora), Tor Mahseer (Tor tor), Deccan Mahseer
(Tor khudree), Chocolate Mahseer (Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis), Common Snow Trout
(Schizothorax richardsonii), Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), Brown Trout (Salmo trutta),
Brook Trout (Salvelinus fontinalis).

2. Brackishwater Fisheries
India has about 1.2 million hectares of brackishwater resources, which include estuaries,
coastal lagoons, backwaters, tidal creeks, canals, mudflats, and mangroves. These water
bodies, which are located between freshwater and marine water, have some special
characteristics: (i) Fluctuation in water level with tides. (ii) A wide range of salinity from 0-35 ppt.
(iii) High nutrients and productivity. (iv) Function as nursery grounds for numerous marine
organisms. (v) Rich biodiversity of flora and fauna. (vi) Supporting artisanal fishing and providing
livelihood to coastal fishermen.
The small fish and shrimp that come with the tidal currents, and the fluctuations in the water
level, laid the foundation for the traditional brackishwater fish and shrimp farming practices in
the Bheris of West Bengal and the Pokkali paddy fields of Kerala. Scientific brackishwater
aquaculture began in the 1980s, with shrimp being cultured in well-designed and managed
ponds due to high demand in the export market.
Currently, about 0.16 million hectares of area is under shrimp culture. The states of Andhra
Pradesh and West Bengal are the major producers of shrimp, accounting for about 80% of the
country's total production. However, recently, high-value euryhaline marine fish species are
being cultured in brackishwater ponds and cages to meet the demand of the domestic market.
The most commonly cultured fish include Mullets, Milkfish, Seabass, Pompano, Grouper, etc.
●​ Mullets: Thirteen species of mullet are found in India, of which eight species contribute to
the commercial catch. Mugil cephalus and M. parsia are two culturable species. They are
euryhaline, omnivorous, and known for high protein and vitamins. The roe from adult
females is a delicacy.
●​ Milkfish: Chanos chanos is widely distributed in the tropical and sub-tropical regions of
the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is one of the most important fish species cultured in
Southeast Asia.
●​ Bass: Asian Seabass (Lates calcarifer) is an economically important food fish in the
tropical and sub-tropical regions of Asia and the Pacific Ocean. Crescent Bass or Tiger
Bass (Terapon jarbua) is also common.
 ●​ Pearlspot: Green Chromide Pearlspot (Etroplus suratensis) is the state fish of Kerala,
locally known as "Karimeen". It is a euryhaline species suitable for polyculture.
●​ Grouper: Over 64 species of grouper are found in Indian waters. It is an important and
economically valuable aquaculture species in Southeast Asian countries, ideal for
intensive aquaculture due to high consumer demand and fast growth.
●​ Scat: Spotted Scat (Scatophagus argus) is a euryhaline sub-tropical fish widely
distributed in the Indo-Pacific region. It is an important aquaculture food fish and a popular
aquarium species.
●​ Catfish: Nuna Tengara or Long Whiskers Catfish (Mystus gulio) is a popular fish due to
its nutritional value and taste. Striped Dwarf Catfish (Mystus vittatus) is also found in
brackishwater systems.
●​ Pompano: Silver Pompano (Trachinotus blochii) is one of the most promising species for
coastal aquaculture due to its high growth rate, good meat quality, and high market price.

3. Marine Fisheries
India has a coastline of 8,118 kilometers spread across 9 maritime states and 4 union territories.
The nine maritime states are: Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Odisha,
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Goa. The four maritime union territories are: Daman and Diu,
Puducherry, Lakshadweep Islands, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. India also has a
continental shelf of 0.53 million square kilometers and an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of
2.02 million square kilometers. The annual potential yield of fish from the EEZ is estimated at
3.93 million tons. Marine fisheries play a major role in the Indian fisheries sector. The major
marine catches come from the coasts of Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, West Bengal, and
Maharashtra.
India's Marine Fisheries Resources
Resource Value
Coastline Length (km) 8,118
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) (sq. km) 2,020,000
Continental Shelf (sq. km) 530,000
Territorial Sea (up to 12 nautical miles) (sq. km) 193,834
Number of Fish Landing Centers 1,537
Number of Fishing Villages 3,432
Number of Fishermen Families 874,749
Fishermen Population 4,056,213
Important marine fisheries can be classified into the following categories:
1.​ Surface-water fishes (Pelagic): Sardines, Anchovies, Ribbonfish, Mackerel, Seerfish,
Tuna, etc.
2.​ Mid-water fishes (Pelagic): Bombay duck, Cobia, Silver bellies, Horse mackerel, etc.
3.​ Bottom-water fishes (Demersal): Perches, Catfish, Pomfrets, Flatfish, Eels, etc.
●​ Sardines: One of the two most important commercial pelagic shoaling fishes in India (the
other being mackerel). The Indian Oil Sardine (Sardinella longiceps) contributes to the
country's largest single-species fishery. Other species are called "Lesser Sardines".
●​ Anchovies: Small fish that contribute about 6% to India's total pelagic fish catch. 28
species are recorded in Indian waters.
●​ Mackerels: A common name for several species of epipelagic shoaling fishes of the
family Scombridae. The Indian Mackerel (Rastrelliger kanagurta) is a key species.
 ●​ Seerfishes: Another commercially important group belonging to the family Scombridae,
represented by the Narrow-barred Spanish Mackerel (Scomberomorus commerson) and
the Indo-Pacific King Mackerel (Scomberomorus guttatus).
●​ Tunas: Among the largest, most specialized, and commercially most important of all
fishes. The waters of the Andaman Islands are known to have some of the richest tuna
stocks in the world.
●​ Bombay-duck: Harpodon nehereus is a white, soft, and delicate fish found in the
mid-water column in the Indo-West Pacific. It contributes to a major fishery off the coasts
of Maharashtra and Gujarat.
●​ Cobia: Rachycentron canadum is found throughout the water column in warm-temperate
to tropical waters. It is one of the fastest-growing and high-value marine fishes, cultured in
sea cages in India.

2. Food and Feeding Habits

Studying the food and feeding habits helps to know the contribution of fish to the food web, their
trophic level, and competition for food.
Types of Diet:
●​ Herbivores: Eat plants or algae.
●​ Carnivores: Eat other animals.
●​ Omnivores: Eat a mixed diet.
●​ Detritivores: Eat decaying organic matter.
Methods for Studying Food and Feeding Habits:
●​ Gut Content Analysis: This method involves examining the food present in the stomach
and intestines of the fish.
○​ Qualitative Analysis: Identifies which food items are present.
○​ Quantitative Analysis: Determines the proportion of different food items, using
methods like:
■​ Frequency of Occurrence: Shows the percentage of fish stomachs in which
a particular food item was found.
■​ Numerical Method: Counts the individual units of each food item.
■​ Gravimetric Method: Weighs each food item.
■​ Index of Relative Importance (IRI): Combines frequency, numerical, and
gravimetric methods to get a precise measure of the importance of food.
●​ Stable Isotope Analysis: This involves analyzing the ratio of stable isotopes (e.g.,
Carbon-13, Nitrogen-15) in fish tissues to infer their long-term dietary history and trophic
level.
●​ Molecular Methods: Uses DNA analysis of gut contents (e.g., DNA barcoding) to identify
digested prey species.

3. Reproductive Biology
Understanding the reproductive biology of fish is very important for determining their spawning
stock biomass, estimating the number of recruits, and establishing appropriate fishing seasons
and areas.
●​ Maturity Stages: The gonads of fish pass through several developmental stages from
immature to fully ripe. These stages are usually classified using macroscopic (visual
 inspection) or microscopic (histological) methods (e.g., Stages I to VII/VIII).
●​ Fecundity: The number of eggs produced by a female fish during a single spawning
event.
○​ Absolute Fecundity: The total number of eggs.
○​ Relative Fecundity: The number of eggs per unit of body weight or length.
○​ Estimation Methods: Gravimetric (weighing sub-samples of eggs), volumetric
(measuring egg size), or direct counting.
●​ Ova Diameter Studies: Measuring the diameter of developing eggs provides information
about the spawning pattern (such as single spawners versus batch spawners, which lay
eggs in more than one batch) and spawning frequency.
●​ Breeding Cycles: This refers to the period of reproduction (e.g., annual, semi-annual),
the specific spawning season, and the environmental cues (temperature, photoperiod,
salinity) that induce spawning.

4. Length-Weight Relationships, Condition Factor,

Gonado-Somatic Index (GSI)
These morphometric and physiological indices provide information about the growth, health, and
reproductive status of fish.
●​ Length-Weight Relationship (LWR): This shows the mathematical relationship between
the length and weight of a fish. It is commonly expressed as W = aL^b, where W is
weight, L is length, 'a' is a constant, and 'b' is the allometric coefficient.
○​ If b ≈ 3, growth is isometric (the fish grows proportionally in all dimensions).
○​ If b ≠ 3, growth is allometric (positive if b>3, i.e., the fish becomes heavier for its
length; negative if b<3, i.e., the fish becomes thinner).
○​ Importance: It is used to convert length-frequency data to biomass, estimate the
average weight at a specific length, and compare different populations.
●​ Condition Factor (K) (or Fulton's Condition Factor): This is an indicator of the
physiological well-being or "plumpness" of a fish, usually calculated by the formula K =
(W/L³) × 100, where W is weight (in grams) and L is length (in centimeters). Changes in K
can indicate food availability, reproductive stress, or environmental conditions.
●​ Gonado-Somatic Index (GSI): This measures the size of the gonads relative to body
weight, expressed as GSI = (Gonad Weight / Body Weight) × 100. GSI values usually
peak during the spawning season, indicating reproductive readiness and helping to
identify the spawning period.

5. Age and Growth Studies

Growth is a bio-energetic process, defined as the change in length and weight of a fish over a
period. It indicates the health of an individual fish and its population and has been widely
studied for various fish species. The growth and age of a fish are closely related and depend on
many factors.
●​ Length and Weight: These two parameters indicate the growth of a fish. Growth in length
suggests a long-term change, while growth in weight is more subject to seasonal
variations.
●​ Absolute Growth: This means the maximum or complete growth of a fish from embryonic
 to senescence.
●​ Relative Growth: This means the comparison of growth from one life stage to another.
Naturally, growth during any two life stages is not the same.
●​ Isometric Growth: This means the similarity of measurement in a fish, where the plane
of projection is equally inclined to the three perpendicular axes that are perpendicular to
each other. If a fish follows the cube law, its growth is called isometric.
●​ Allometric Growth: This is an unequal growth. There can be different patterns of this
type of growth. For example, some fish grow more in length than in width and weight.
Factors Affecting Fish Growth:
●​ Temperature
●​ Photoperiod
●​ Quantity and quality of available food
●​ Dissolved oxygen
●​ Ammonia in water
●​ Salinity
●​ Age and maturity stage of the fish
●​ Inter-specific and intra-specific competition
●​ Stocking density
●​ Disease
Condition Factor or Ponderal Index The condition factor, or ponderal index, or coefficient of
correlation, statistically represents the condition of a fish, such as the degree of well-being,
relative robustness, plumpness, or fatness. The condition factor is determined from the length
and weight of the fish.
●​ Ponderal Index or Condition Factor k = 100W / L³
●​ Where L is the length in centimeters and W is the weight of the fish in grams. The cube of
the length is taken because the growth in weight is proportional to the growth in volume.
●​ A high value of K indicates that plenty of food is available to support the development of
the fish's physiological and reproductive organs.
●​ The value of K varies with the season and is influenced by maturity as well as
reproduction. The value of K is maximum during the spawning season.
Methods for Determining Growth:
●​ Direct Method: The growth rate can be determined directly by rearing fish under
controlled conditions.
●​ Fish Marking and Tagging: In this method, fish are marked or tagged for identification,
their length and weight are measured, and then they are released into their natural
habitat. After a few months, these fish are recaptured and measured again. The change in
size during this period indicates the growth rate.
Methods for Determining Age:
●​ By counting the annuli or marks on the bones.
●​ By counting the annuli or marks on the otolith.
●​ By counting the annuli or marks on the scales.

6. Taxonomy of Major Fish Groups

Taxonomy is the science of classifying organisms. The correct identification of fish species is
fundamental for accurate data collection, stock assessment, management, and conservation
efforts.
 ●​ Hierarchy: Fish are classified in a hierarchical manner: Kingdom, Phylum (Chordata),
Class (e.g., Chondrichthyes - cartilaginous fish like sharks and rays; Osteichthyes - bony
fish), Order, Family, Genus, and Species.
●​ Importance: It is extremely necessary to differentiate between similar-looking species, as
their lifestyles, ecological roles, or sensitivity to fishing pressure may differ.
General Classification Outline
●​ Phylum Chordata
○​ Subphylum Vertebrata
■​ Superclass Agnatha (Jawless fishes)
■​ Orders: Osteostraci, Anaspida, Heterostraci, Cephalopida (all extinct)
■​ Order Cyclostomata
■​ Class Myxinoidea (Hagfish)
■​ Class Petromyzontida (Lampreys)
■​ Superclass Gnathostomata (Jawed vertebrates)
■​ Class Chondrichthyes (Cartilaginous fish)
■​ Subclass Elasmobranchii (Sharks, Skates, Rays)
■​ Subclass Holocephali (Chimaeras or Ratfish)
■​ Class Actinopterygii (Ray-finned fishes)
■​ Subclass Chondrostei
■​ Subclass Neopterygii
■​ Infraclass Holostei (Gars, Bowfins)
■​ Infraclass Teleostei (Most bony fishes)
■​ Class Sarcopterygii (Lobe-finned fishes)
■​ Subclass Crossopterygii (Ancestors of land vertebrates)
■​ Order Dipnoi (Lungfish)

7. Recruitment, Growth, and Mortality in Natural

Waters
●​ Recruitment: This is the process by which new individual fish enter the exploitable stock.
It refers to the number of fish that survive to a certain size or age, where they become
vulnerable to fishing gear. The strength of recruitment is highly variable and is influenced
by spawning success, larval survival, and environmental conditions.
●​ Growth: This is the increase in the individual size or weight of a fish over time. As
described by the VBGF (Von Bertalanffy Growth Function), it is a key factor in how much
biomass a stock can produce.
●​ Mortality: This is the rate at which fish are removed from the population.
○​ Total Mortality (Z): The overall rate of death, which includes:
■​ Natural Mortality (M): Mortality due to natural causes such as predation,
disease, old age, starvation, and adverse environmental conditions.
■​ Fishing Mortality (F): Mortality directly caused by fishing activities.
○​ Relationship: Z = F + M. Estimating these parameters is extremely important for
determining sustainable harvest levels.

8. Fish Stock Assessment Models

 ●​ Analytical Models (Age-based/Cohort-based Models): These models use detailed
age-based data (catch-at-age, age-specific growth and mortality) to reconstruct historical
stock sizes and predict future trends.
○​ Virtual Population Analysis (VPA) / Cohort Analysis: Reconstructs the historical
number of fish in each age class by back-calculating from the observed catch of
older fish.
○​ Yield-Per-Recruit (YPR) Models (e.g., Beverton-Holt Model): Predicts the yield
(total weight of catch) from a single cohort of fish, based on its growth rate, natural
mortality, and fishing mortality at different ages.
●​ Holistic Models (Surplus Production/Biomass-based Models): These models simplify
population dynamics, using total catch and effort data without requiring age structure.
They assume that the fish population produces a "surplus" that can be harvested.
○​ Schaefer Model, Fox Model: These models relate the stock's biomass (or an index
like CPUE) to the surplus production.
●​ Macro-analytical Models: Also known as synthetic or global models. The overall net
effect of all factors controlling biomass is considered together.
●​ Micro-analytical Models: Also known as dynamic pool models, they consider
recruitment, mortality, age, growth, and all other factors affecting the stock.

9. Concept of Catch Per Unit Effort (CPUE), Maximum

Sustainable Yield (MSY), and Maximum Economic
Yield (MEY)
●​ Catch Per Unit Effort (CPUE): This is the amount of fish caught per standardized unit of
fishing effort (e.g., kilograms per hour of trawling, number of fish per thousand hooks). It is
often used as an indicator of the abundance of a fish stock: generally, high CPUE
suggests a healthy stock.
●​ Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY): This is the largest average annual catch that can be
taken from a fish stock for an indefinite period under existing environmental conditions. It
is a biological reference point representing the peak of the surplus production curve. The
aim of harvesting at MSY is to maximize long-term biological productivity.
●​ Maximum Economic Yield (MEY): This is the level of catch that maximizes the net
economic return (profit) from a fishery, considering both the cost of fishing and the
revenue from sales. In open-access fisheries, overfishing often pushes effort beyond MEY
and even MSY. MEY generally occurs at a lower fishing effort and a larger stock size than
MSY, meaning it is biologically more conservative and economically more profitable.

10. Use of Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographical

Information System (GIS) in Resource Mapping and
Forecasting
●​ Remote Sensing (RS): The process of acquiring information about an object or
phenomenon without making physical contact with it (e.g., satellite imagery, aerial
photography).
○​ Uses in Fisheries: Identifying Potential Fishing Zones (PFZs) by measuring Sea
 Surface Temperature (SST), chlorophyll-a concentration (an indicator of primary
productivity), and ocean currents and fronts.
●​ Geographical Information System (GIS): A system designed to capture, store,
manipulate, analyze, manage, and present all types of spatial or geographical data.
○​ Uses in Fisheries: Mapping fishing grounds, habitat types, species distribution,
and marine protected areas. It helps in spatial analysis by overlaying RS data with
catch data to identify patterns and optimize fishing strategies.

11. Methods for Data Collection, Storage, Retrieval,

and Processing for National Estimates in India
●​ Data Acquisition:
○​ Catch Data: Collected through landing surveys, logbooks, processing plant
records, and market surveys.
○​ Effort Data: Measured by fishing days, fishing hours, number of nets used, gear
dimensions, vessel size, and engine power.
○​ Biological Data: Samples of length, weight, sex, maturity stage, gonad weight, and
otoliths/scales are collected from caught fish.
●​ Storage: Data is typically stored in centralized, structured databases.
●​ Retrieval: Sophisticated query tools allow researchers and managers to extract specific
datasets for analysis.
●​ Processing for National Estimates: Statistical methods are used to raise sample data to
estimate total national catch, effort, and value.

12. Tools for Ecosystem-Based Fisheries Management

(EBFM)
EBFM is a holistic approach that moves beyond managing a single species to consider the
entire ecosystem.
●​ Tools:
○​ Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) / No-Take Zones: Designated areas where
fishing is restricted to protect habitats and biodiversity.
○​ Bycatch Reduction Devices (BRDs): Gear modifications aimed at reducing the
capture of non-target species.
○​ Habitat Restoration: Efforts to restore degraded marine habitats (e.g., coral reefs,
mangroves).
○​ Multi-species Management: Considers predator-prey relationships and
competition between species.
○​ Consideration of Climate Change Impacts: Integrating climate change
projections into management plans.
○​ Precautionary Approach: Applying cautious measures to protect resources even
with scientific uncertainty.

13. Monitoring, Control, and Surveillance (MCS)

Systems
MCS systems are crucial for enforcing fishery regulations and combating Illegal, Unreported,
and Unregulated (IUU) fishing.
●​ Monitoring: The continuous collection of information on fishery operations (e.g., catch,
effort, landings) through logbooks, observer programs, and Vessel Monitoring Systems
(VMS).
●​ Control: The conditions and rules under which resources can be harvested (e.g.,
licenses, quotas, closed seasons/areas, gear restrictions).
●​ Surveillance: The oversight of fishing activities to ensure compliance with laws (e.g.,
aerial/sea patrols, port inspections).

14. Use of Computer Software in Stock Assessment;

Use of Virtual Population Analysis (VPA) and
Predictive Models
Modern stock assessment relies heavily on specialized computer software for complex
statistical analysis and modeling.
●​ Computer Software:
○​ General Statistical Software: R (with numerous specialized packages like 'FLR',
'FSA'), Python.
○​ Specialized Fisheries Software: FISAT II, CEDA, and various other packages for
complex models.
●​ Virtual Population Analysis (VPA): A widely used analytical model implemented in
software. It reconstructs historical population sizes in a cohort by "peeling off" the catch
sequentially.
●​ Predictive Models: Used to forecast future stock status and potential yield under different
management scenarios (e.g., changes in fishing mortality, recruitment). They help
managers evaluate the consequences of different policy choices before implementation.

Fisheries Biology MCQs

1.​ In which stage of a fish's life cycle is natural mortality due to predation and
environmental factors the highest? c) Larva
2.​ Which method of studying a fish's diet involves weighing each food item found in
its gut? c) Gravimetric Method
3.​ What is the term for the number of eggs produced by a female fish in a single
spawning event? c) Fecundity
4.​ Which remote sensing parameter is frequently used as an indicator of primary
productivity and to identify potential fishing zones? c) Chlorophyll-a concentration
5.​ What is the term for the largest average annual catch that can be taken from a stock
for an indefinite period under existing environmental conditions? c) Maximum
Sustainable Yield (MSY)
6.​ If the value of 'b' in a fish's length-weight relationship (W = aL^b) is approximately
3, what does it indicate? b) Isometric growth.
7.​ Which hard part is considered most reliable for determining age in fish because it
grows continuously throughout life? b) Otoliths
8.​ What is the process by which new individual organisms enter the exploitable stock
and become vulnerable to fishing gear? d) Recruitment
9.​ Which stock assessment model is classified as an "analytical model" and
reconstructs historical population numbers based on catch-at-age data? c) Virtual
Population Analysis (VPA)
10.​What is the system designed to capture, store, analyze, and manage geographically
referenced data for fisheries applications? c) Geographical Information System (GIS)
11.​What is the Gonado-Somatic Index (GSI) primarily used to assess? b) The
reproductive activity and maturity of a fish.
12.​When examining the length-frequency distributions of a fish population, which
method is commonly used to identify age cohorts? c) Petersen Method or ELEFAN
13.​If the 'b' value in the length-weight relationship is greater than 3 (b>3), what does it
indicate the fish is becoming? b) Heavier for its length.
14.​The total mortality (Z) of a fish population is the sum of what? b) Natural mortality
and fishing mortality.
15.​Which type of stock assessment model requires only total catch and effort data and
estimates surplus production? c) Surplus Production Model (Holistic Model)
16.​What is Catch Per Unit Effort (CPUE) often used as an indicator of? c) The
abundance of the fish stock.
17.​Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and bycatch reduction technologies (BRDs) are
examples of tools for what type of management? b) Ecosystem-Based Fisheries
Management (EBFM).
18.​What does the 'Control' component of a Monitoring, Control, and Surveillance
(MCS) system refer to? b) Applying regulations such as licenses, quotas, and gear
restrictions.
19.​Why is computer software like FISAT II commonly used? b) For fish stock assessment
and data analysis.
20.​What does the concept of Maximum Economic Yield (MEY) aim to maximize? c) The
net economic return (profit) from the fishery.
21.​What is the main purpose of studying ova diameter in fish reproductive biology? b)
To identify spawning patterns (e.g., batch spawning) and frequency.
22.​The Von Bertalanffy Growth Function (VBGF) describes growth as what kind of
process? b) An asymptotic process.
23.​In food and feeding studies, what does the 'Index of Relative Importance (IRI)'
combine? b) Frequency of occurrence, numerical, and gravimetric methods.
24.​If the 'b' value in the length-weight relationship is less than 3 (b<3), what does it
indicate? b) The fish is becoming relatively thinner for its length.
25.​Natural mortality (M) in a fish population is caused by which factors? b) Predation,
disease, starvation, and old age.
26.​The Yield-Per-Recruit (YPR) model is particularly useful for giving management
advice on what? b) The optimal mesh size or age at first capture.
27.​What remote sensing data is used to predict Potential Fishing Zones (PFZs)? a)
Ocean currents and chlorophyll-a concentration.
28.​What is the main goal of Monitoring, Control, and Surveillance (MCS) systems in
fisheries? b) To combat Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) fishing.
29.​Why is taxonomy in biology important for management and conservation? b) To
 correctly identify fish species.
30.​Which index typically peaks during the spawning season, indicating a fish's
readiness to reproduce? c) Gonado-Somatic Index (GSI)
31.​What is a direct method of studying fish growth? c) Tagging and recapture.
32.​The process of sampling at fish landing centers, by which total catch and species
composition are estimated, is called what? c) Landing surveys.
33.​Ecosystem-Based Fisheries Management (EBFM) considers the interactions
between what? c) Species, habitat, and environmental variability throughout the
ecosystem.
34.​Virtual Population Analysis (VPA) is a powerful tool for what? b) Reconstructing
historical fish stock sizes by age.
35.​In an open-access fishery, fishing effort tends to go beyond which level? c) Both
MSY and MEY.
36.​What does the 'Monitoring' component of MCS systems typically involve? b)
Collecting data on catch, effort, and landings.
37.​Which type of model uses historical data and current conditions to forecast future
stock dynamics under different management scenarios? b) Predictive model.
38.​Which of the following is NOT a method for estimating fecundity? d) Otolith reading.
39.​The Condition Factor (K) is an indicator of what? c) The physiological well-being or
"plumpness" of a fish.
40.​In the Von Bertalanffy Growth Function (VBGF), what does the 't0' parameter
represent? c) The hypothetical age at which the fish's length would be zero.
41.​Using satellite imagery to identify areas with the appropriate Sea Surface
Temperature (SST) for a specific fish species is an application of what method? c)
Remote Sensing
42.​Why are 'logbooks' primarily used in fish production data collection? c) To record
catch, effort, and operational area by fishing vessels.
43.​Which of the following tools is NOT commonly used in Ecosystem-Based Fisheries
Management (EBFM)? c) Single-species population models without ecological context.
44.​What does the 'Surveillance' component of MCS systems primarily involve? b)
Overseeing fishing activities to ensure compliance (e.g., patrolling, inspection).
45.​The science of classifying organisms, which is critical for correctly identifying fish
species, is called what? c) Taxonomy.
46.​When a fish releases eggs in several batches during a spawning season, what is it
called? b) Batch spawning.
47.​In the Von Bertalanffy Growth Function (VBGF), what does the 'K' parameter
represent? b) The growth coefficient, indicating how quickly the fish approaches L∞.
48.​In age determination studies (e.g., using otoliths), what is the main purpose of
'validation'? b) To confirm that the observed marks actually correspond to annual growth.
49.​Comparing Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) and Maximum Economic Yield (MEY),
at what level does MEY generally occur? c) At a lower fishing effort and larger stock
size than MSY.
50.​Which type of data is NOT typically collected during landing surveys for fish
production data collection? d) The purchase price of the vessel.