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Izumi Walker, Daniel K.G. Chan, Masanori Nagami, Claire Bourguignon (Eds.)
New Perspectives on the Development of Communicative and Related
Competence in Foreign Language Education
Trends in Applied Linguistics

Edited by
Ulrike Jessner
Claire Kramsch

Volume 28
New Perspectives on the
Development of Communicative
and Related Competence in
Foreign Language Education

Edited by
Izumi Walker, Daniel K.G. Chan, Masanori Nagami,
Claire Bourguignon
ISBN 978-1-5015-1428-9
e-ISBN (PDF) 978-1-5015-0503-4
e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-1-5015-0501-0
ISSN 1868-6362

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek

The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;
detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de.

© 2018 Walter de Gruyter, Inc., Boston/Berlin

Typesetting: Integra Software Services, Pvt. Ltd.
Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck

www.degruyter.com
Preface

Competence is built upon a range of knowledge and skills, and enables one to
perform tasks successfully and effectively. In language education, communicative
competence has long been identified as a major objective of learning. Reflecting
the intricacies of human interactions and communication, communicative compe-
tence is a highly complex construct encompassing an array of sub-competencies
such as linguistic skills and proficiencies, knowledge of sociocultural and
sociopragmatic codes, and the ability to engage in textual and conversational
discourse. Findings from research in second language acquisition, linguistics,
cognitive psychology and other related disciplines have also pointed to the sig-
nificance of other factors that can contribute to the attainment of communicative
competence or are themselves desirable objectives of foreign language learning.
These include such notions as autonomy, learning and metacognitive compe-
tence, intercultural competence, digital literacy, and teacher/learner beliefs and
assumptions.
The theme for CLaSIC 2014 was “Knowledge, Skills and Competencies in
Foreign Language Education”. This conference provided a platform for researchers,
scholars, practitioners and developers in the area of foreign language education to
share and discuss findings and insights pertaining to the role and development of
communicative competence, as well as other critical forms of knowledge, skills and
competencies for foreign language teaching and learning.
The CLaSIC series of biennial conferences, organised by the Centre for
Language Studies (CLS) of the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, National
University of Singapore (NUS) since 2004, provides a platform for the dissemi-
nation of current research and the sharing of innovative practices in foreign lan-
guage education. CLaSIC 2014, which took place on 4–6 December, 2014, at the
University Town – Town Plaza at the NUS campus, brought together over 200
scholars, researchers and practitioners in the field of foreign language education
and its feeder disciplines from around the world for three invigorating days of
lectures, presentations and academic discourse.
The papers collected in the current volume were selected from the 140 pres-
entations at CLaSIC 2014 after two rounds of intensive reviews by the editors of
the book and a panel of international experts from four different continents,
namely, Asia, Australasia, Europe and North America. Then the name of the book,
New Perspectives on the Development of Communicative and Related Competence
in Foreign Language Education, was decided based on the themes and contents
of the selected papers. The members of this distinguished panel, to whom we
owe an immense debt of gratitude, were Anna Chamot (George Washington

https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501505034-201
VI Preface

University, USA), Tony Cripps (Nanzan University, Japan), Rod Ellis (Curtin
University, Australia), Richard Harrison (Kobe University, Japan), Larry Kimber
(Fukuoka University, Japan), Michael Levy (University of Queensland, Australia),
Naoki Sugino (Ritsumeikan University, Japan), Naoko Taguchi (Carnegie Mellon
University, USA) and Swathi Vanniarajan (San Jose State University, USA).
We would also like to thank many others for having contributed to the
success of CLaSIC 2014 and the preparation of this book. They include especially
the following people and institutions: the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences,
NUS, for a generous grant (Project No. N-127-000-012-021) in support of the
conference; our other sponsors and partners, including the Char Yong (DABU)
Clan Association Singapore, the Lee Foundation, the Japan Foundation, and the
Chinese Language Teaching and Research Fund administered jointly by CLS and
the Department of Chinese Studies at NUS; the anonymous re-viewers and editors
from De Gruyter Mouton; and Brinda Balasubramaniam, Grace Chong Si En, and
Yeo Rei Chi Lauren for their assistance in proofreading and formatting the man-
uscript. Finally, we would like to express our appreciation for the hard work and
dedication of our colleagues in the CLaSIC 2014 Organising Committee and the
CLS’ administrative support team, without whom the Conference would not have
been possible.
We would like to express our deepest regret at the passing of Professor Anna
Uhl Chamot and would like to acknowledge, with warmest appreciation, the con-
tribution of her dedicated support for CLaSIC from the inaugural conference in
2004 and up to 2014, as a Plenary Speaker as well as a member of the Scien-
tific Committee. We are truly honored to present one of her last manuscripts in
Chapter 3 of this book.

Izumi Walker, Daniel Kwang Guan Chan, and Masanori Nagami

Singapore, May 2018
Contents

Izumi Walker, Daniel Kwang Guan Chan and Masanori Nagami

1 New perspectives on the development of communicative and related
competence in foreign language education: An introduction
to the book 1

Part I: Theoretical and pedagogical issues in the development

of competence

Rod Ellis
2 Taking the critics to task: The case for task-based teaching 23

Anna Uhl Chamot

3 Developing self-regulated learning in the language classroom 41

Naoko Taguchi
4 Pragmatic competence in foreign language education: Cultivating learner
autonomy and strategic learning of pragmatics 53

Brian Gaynor
5 Teaching English to young learners in Japan: Teacher competence and
classroom context 71

Izumi Walker, Akiko Ito and Etsuko Ishihara

6 What competence is necessary to be able to work in Japan-related
workplaces? A survey of Singaporean business persons 87

Part II: Empirical research on the acquisition of competence

Miho Mano, Yuko Yoshinari and Kiyoko Eguchi

7 The effects of the first language on the description of motion events:
Focusing on L2 Japanese learners of English and Hungarian 125

Takako Kondo and Tomohiko Shirahata

8 Explicit instruction on English verb structures in L2 classrooms 157
VIII Contents

Sun-A Kim and Jeong-Ah Shin

9 Character knowledge and reading stages of Chinese as a foreign
language 181

Yona Gilead
10 Developing communicative competence: The role of handover in scaffolding
oral communication 205

Part III: Practices in developing competence

Thi Thuy Minh Nguyen and Gia Anh Le Ho

11 Pragmatic development in the study abroad context: Impact of
a cross-cultural pragmatic strategies intervention 229

Matthew T. Apple and Jonathan Aliponga

12 Intercultural communication competence and possible L2 selves in a
short-term study abroad program 289

Cynthia Quinn
13 Corpora as an L2 writing reference tool: Classroom practice
and student response 309

Yuichi Ono
14 Effects of digital storytelling on Japanese EFL learners: Focus on anxiety and
PBL skills 339

Etsuko Toyoda and Richard Harrison

15 Evaluation of two communities of inquiry 363

Index 383
Izumi Walker, Daniel Kwang Guan Chan and Masanori Nagami
1 New perspectives on the development
of communicative and related competence
in foreign language education:
An introduction to the book
1 Communicative competence in foreign
language education
The ability to communicate in foreign languages undeniably plays a key role in
today’s era of globalisation. In fact, communication in foreign languages is one of
the eight key competences “individuals need for personal fulfilment and devel-
opment, active citizenship, social inclusion and employment” under the Euro-
pean Reference Framework (ERF), established in 2006 in response to the chal-
lenges brought about by globalisation. The ERF highlighted the need for people to
develop “a wide range of key competences to adapt flexibly to a rapidly changing
and highly interconnected world” (European Union 2006: L.394/13). Specifically,
“communication in foreign languages” is defined in the ERF as follows (European
Union 2006: L.394/14):
Communication in foreign languages broadly shares the main skill dimensions of commu-
nication in the mother tongue: it is based on the ability to understand, express and interpret
concepts, thoughts, feelings, facts and opinions in both oral and written form (listening,
speaking, reading and writing) in an appropriate range of societal and cultural contexts
(in education and training, work, home and leisure) according to one’s wants or needs.
Communication in foreign languages also calls for skills such as mediation and inter-
cultural understanding. An individual’s level of proficiency will vary between the four
dimensions (listening, speaking, reading and writing) and between the different languages
and according to that individual’s social and cultural background, environment, needs
and/or interests.

It is made quite clear in this definition that communication in a foreign language

involves not only linguistic or grammatical competence (i.e. the four basic lan-
guage skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing), but also the ability to
use the language appropriately depending on the context of language use or
purpose of communication and additionally, the capacity to deal with and act
skilfully in the light of intercultural differences.

Izumi Walker, Daniel Kwang Guan Chan and Masanori Nagami, National University of
Singapore, Singapore

https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501505034-001
2 Izumi Walker, Daniel Kwang Guan Chan and Masanori Nagami

The complex nature of communicative competence is also recognized in the

National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project (NSFLEP 2015), which
sets the benchmarks for the performance outcomes of foreign language learners
in the United States. Identified as the first of five key areas of achievements
(commonly referred to as the 5 Cs), communication – together with cultures, con-
nections, comparisons and communities – is a goal that enables foreign language
learners to become world-ready educated citizens with the ability to communicate
and interact effectively with local and global communities, in different types of sit-
uations and for various purposes. Under the NSFLEP, the “communication” goal
is measured by three standards, corresponding to three communicative modes,
contexts or purposes. These include the foreign language learner’s ability to:
– interact and negotiate meaning in spoken, signed or written conversations to
share information, reactions, feelings and opinions (NSFLEP 2015, “Interper-
sonal Communication”)
– understand, interpret and analyze what is heard, read or viewed on a variety
of topics (NSFLEP 2015, “Interpretive Communication”)
– present information, concepts and ideas to inform, explain, persuade and
narrate on a variety of topics using appropriate media and adapting to
various audiences of listeners, readers or viewers (NSFLEP 2015, “Presenta-
tional Communication”)

The crucial role of communicative competence in the teaching and learning of

languages can be traced back to the 1960s. The term “competence” first emerged
in a dichotomy made by Chomsky (1965: 4) between “a speaker-hearer’s knowl-
edge of his language” (competence) and his “actual use of language in concrete
situations” (performance). As Hymes pointed out, such a dichotomy between
language knowledge and language use fails
to account for the fact that a normal child acquires knowledge of sentences not only as
grammatical, but also as appropriate. He or she acquires competence as to when to speak,
when not and as to what to talk about with whom, when, where, in what manner. In short,
a child becomes able to accomplish a repertoire of speech acts, to take part in speech events
and to evaluate their accomplishment by others (Hymes 1972: 277).

In response to the inadequacy of Chomsky’s dichotomy, Hymes (1971, 1972,

1973, 1974) coined the term “communicative competence” to include not only
grammatical competence (the ability to use language correctly), but also the
(sociolinguistic) ability to use grammatical competence in different communica-
tive situations (including the ability to know when, how and to whom language
can be used appropriately). He defined “communicative competence” as “the
most general term for the speaking and hearing capabilities of a person” (Hymes
1971: 16). He makes a distinction between competence and performance: the
 New perspectives on the development of communicative and related competence 3

former depends “upon both (tacit) knowledge and (ability for) use” (Hymes 1972:
282), while performance “takes into account the interaction between competence
(knowledge, ability for use), competence of others and cybernetical and emergent
properties of events themselves” (Hymes 1972: 283).
Half a century later, Hymes’ concept of communicative competence contin-
ues to be fine-tuned and still influences research areas in language teaching and
learning, while helping to shape the objectives of foreign language education.
As shown with the ERF and the NSFLEP, attempts have been made to formalize
the theoretical construct of communicative competence so that reference frame-
works can establish instructional objectives and standards for the measurement
of foreign language learners’ proficiency levels. Other earlier examples include
Canale (1983), who examined how a theoretical framework of communicative
competence is instrumental in designing and implementing a testing programme
for students learning French as a second language in some Canadian elementary
and secondary schools. Similarly, Bachman (1990) used a “communicative lan-
guage ability” framework to develop language tests that demonstrate reliability
of test scores and validity of test use. Celce-Murcia, Dörnyei and Thurrell (1995),
motivated by the practical needs for language teaching and teacher training, also
argued for the need to have a comprehensible and accessible description of com-
ponents of communicative competence so as to serve as an elaborated ‘checklist’
that practitioners can refer to (see Section 2).
In sum, communicative competence is a relevant and crucial concept in
foreign language education, especially in the ERF and the NSFLEP, two of the
most influential reference frameworks and benchmarks in foreign language
education. To better understand the complexities of communicative competence,
it is useful to recall why and how the theoretical construct of communicative com-
petence has evolved over the past few decades, as well as its impact on foreign
language education. This in turn puts the chapters in this volume into perspective
and context.

2 Theoretical developments of the communicative

competence model and their impact on foreign
language education
In this section, we present some of the more well-known theoretical models of
language ability and how they have developed over the past decades. We then
discuss their impact on foreign language education in today’s contexts.
4 Izumi Walker, Daniel Kwang Guan Chan and Masanori Nagami

2.1 Canale and Swain (1980)/Canale (1983)

For Canale and Swain (1980) and Canale (1983), communicative competence
is viewed as a synthesis of underlying knowledge and skills that are required
for communication. Knowledge is understood as an individual’s (conscious or
unconscious) knowledge about language and other aspects of language use.
Based on the ideas of Hymes (1971, 1972, 1973, 1974) mentioned above, Canale
and Swain (1980: 27–31) first produced a model of “communicative competence”
involving just three types of knowledge:
– Knowledge of grammar, lexis, morphology, syntax, semantics and phonology
(“Grammatical competence”)
– Knowledge of sociocultural rules of language use and rules of discourse
(“Sociolinguistic competence”)
– Knowledge of how to compensate for breakdowns when faced with difficul-
ties in communication (“Strategic competence”)

In the later model by Canale (1983), rules of discourse were separated from soci-
olinguistic knowledge, leading to four competence areas of communicative com-
petence:
– Grammatical competence: the mastery of the language code (verbal or
non-verbal) including features and rules of the language such as vocabulary,
word formation, sentence formation, pronunciation, spelling and linguistic
semantics.
– Sociolinguistic competence: the knowledge of sociocultural rules of language
use. It addresses the extent to which utterances are produced and understood
appropriately in different sociolinguistic contexts depending on contextual
factors such as status of participants, purposes of the interaction and norms
or conventions of interaction.
– Discourse competence: the mastery of how to combine grammatical forms
and meanings to achieve a unified spoken or written text in different genres.
Unity of a text is achieved through cohesion in form and coherence in
meaning.
– Strategic competence: the knowledge of how to overcome problems when
faced with difficulties in communication.

2.2 Bachman (1990)/Bachman and Palmer (1996)

Bachman (1990) proposed a more comprehensive model of communicative com-

petence by building on Canale and Swain’s (1980) model with three components
 New perspectives on the development of communicative and related competence 5

relating to language ability: (1) language competence, (2) strategic competence

and (3) psychophysiological mechanisms. His model, known as the communica-
tive language ability, is different from earlier models as it clarifies two things,
which were left unclear in that of Canale and Swain’s. Firstly, it clearly distin-
guishes what constitutes knowledge from what constitutes a skill. Secondly, it
explicitly “attempts to characterize the processes by which the various compo-
nents interact with each other and the context in which language use occurs”
(Bachman 1990: 81). Communicative language ability by Bachman (1990) is
composed of the following components:
– Language competence: “a set of specific knowledge components that are
utilized in communication via language”.
– Strategic competence: “the mental capacity for implementing the compo-
nents of language competence in contextualized communicative language
use”, which relates to both language competence (knowledge of language)
and sociocultural knowledge (knowledge of the world).
– Psychophysiological mechanism: “the neurological and psychological pro-
cesses involved in the actual execution of language as a physical phenome-
non [such as] sound [and] light”.

The interplay between Bachman’s components of communicative language

ability is illustrated in Figure 1.

Knowledge structures Language structures

(Knowledge of the world) (Knowledge of language)

Strategic
competence

Psychophysiological
mechanisms

Context of
situation

Figure 1: Components of communicative language ability (Bachman 1990: 85).

6 Izumi Walker, Daniel Kwang Guan Chan and Masanori Nagami

The model in Figure 1 was amended and restructured by Bachman and Palmer’s
(1996) model, which is significant in at least two ways. Firstly, strategic compe-
tence has been revised as “a set of metacognitive components or strategies, which
can be thought of as higher order executive processes that provide a cognitive
management function in language use, as well as in other cognitive activities”
(Bachman & Palmer 1996: 70). Secondly, it includes personal characteristics of
the individual language learner, such as topical knowledge and affective schemata
(“the affective or emotional correlates of topical knowledge” [Bachman & Palmer
1996: 72]). The addition of affective schemata in Bachman and Palmer’s (1996)
model is seen as an important step towards the incorporation of Hymes’ (1972)
notion of “ability for use” and expands on the model of language performance
by including non-linguistic elements (such as personality and emotional states).
In this model, language ability is viewed in terms of language knowledge and
strategic competence. The former consists of two sub-components (organisational
knowledge and pragmatic knowledge), which are complementary to each other
in achieving effective language use in communication. The sub-components of
language knowledge are shown in Figure 2.

LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE

ORGANISATIONAL KNOWLEDGE PRAGMATIC KNOWLEDGE

GRAMMATICAL TEXTUAL FUNCTIONAL SOCIOLINGUISTIC

KNOWLEDGE KNOWLEDGE KNOWLEDGE KNOWLEDGE
vocabulary cohesion ideational functions dialects and language
syntax rhetorical and conver- manipulative functions varieties
phonology/graphology sational organisation heuristic functions registers
imaginative functions cultural references natural and idiomatic
and figures of speech expressions

Figure 2: Areas of language knowledge (Bachman and Palmer 1996: 68).

2.3 Celce-Murcia, Dörnyei and Thurrell (1995)

Celce-Murcia, Dörnyei and Thurrell (1995) proposed another model, which

includes actional competence, which is related to the understanding of speakers’
communicative intent by performing and interpreting speech act sets. In this
model, the discourse component is in the central position where the linguistic
elements, the actional skills of communicative intent and the sociocultural
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