AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING_MRCET (AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
UNIT I: FUNDAMENTALS OF PROPULSION
Aircraft Engine components- performance requirements, thermodynamic processes-
change of state- representation by T-s and p-v diagrams-pressure ratios, temperature
ratios. Energy transfer, losses entropy generation-mechanisms. Performance-
polytropic, stage and component efficiencies, burning efficiency
Station numbering in engine, thrust generation, momentum equations, equation of
thrust for installed and uninstalled cases, factors affecting thrust, Role of propulsion in
aircraft performance.
Thrust Development:
10
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING_MRCET (AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
History of Internal Combustion (I.C) Engines:
The first 4 stroke engine was built by the Germans, August Otto and Evgen Langer in 1876. As a
result, the 4 stroke engine cycle are always called Otto Cycle engines.
George Brayton of the USA, also built a gasoline engine in 1876. Gottieb Daimler has built
most successful 4 stroke engine in 1885. The first 4 stroke engine was built by the Germans,
August Otto and Evgen Langer in 1876. As a result, the 4 stroke engine cycle are always called
Otto Cycle engines.
Same year, Karl Benz, has built a similar engine. These two engines were extensively used in
automobiles.
Wright brothers used 4 stroke four cylinder IC Engine in 1903.
Types of Aerospace Propulsion:
Air Breathing Systems
Reciprocating Engines
Gas Turbine Engines
Ram Jets, Pulse Jets & Scram Jets
Non Air Breathing Systems
11
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING_MRCET (AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
Rockets
1.2.2. Working Principles, Advantages/Disadvantages & Applications:
1.2.2.1: Reciprocating Engines (I.C Engine): Working Principle: The four strokes of anInternal
Combustion (I.C)engine are Intake, Compression, Power and Exhaust strokes.
12
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING_MRCET (AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
During intake stroke, the piston moves downwards and the mixture of fuel and air (charge) is
admitted in to the cylinder. At the completion of intake stroke, the inlet valve closes.
During the compression stroke, the piston moves up, compressing the charge. At the end of
compression stroke, the electric spark ignites the charge.
On ignition, combustion of air fuel mixture releases thermal energy, exerting high force on the
piston. This commences the power stroke.
During the power stroke, the piston is driven downwards.
Once the power stroke is completed, the exhaust valve opens. While the piston is moving up,
the combustion gases are driven out of the cylinder through the exhaust valve. This creates a
suction in the cylinder, that initiates the next cycle of operations.
The reciprocating movement of piston is transmitted to the crankshaft and converted into
rotary motion. The crankshaft is connected to the propeller, which produces the forward thrust
force for the aircraft.
The rotating output shaft of the I.C engine can be connected to a propeller, ducted fan, or
helicopter rotor.
The propeller displaces a large mass of air rearwards, accelerating it in the process.
Reciprocating engines can produce up to 4000 KW power. Power to weight ratio (P/W) of up to
1.4 is produced.
The power produced by an I.C engine is given by
P= where
K = constant; either 1.0 for 2 stroke engine or 0.5 for 4 stroke engine
N = rpm (around 5000-9000 rpm)
= Volume of the cylinder
= density of air
f = fuel air ratio (usually 13 to 15 ie one part fuel to 15 parts of air to burn the fuel completely)
= Calorific value of fuel (kerosene- 42 MJ/kg)
= overall efficiency (usually 0.25 to 0.35)
13
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING_MRCET (AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
is the mass flow rate ingested in to the engine
Multiplying mass flow rate with f gives the amount of fuel
Multiplying with gives the heat energy released
To increase the power of the I.C engine, we need to
Increase N increases P
used.
Advantages of Reciprocating Engines:
Reciprocating engines provide excellent fuel economy and good take-off characteristics
within their range of operations
Highly suitable for small aircraft flying up to 500 km/hr and operating at low altitudes
Components of reciprocating engines are subjected less thermal stresses than gas
turbine-propeller combination
Aircraft fitted with reciprocating engines need short runways
Mainly used for business travel, farming & agriculture, air-taxi/ambulance, pilot training
and unmanned aerial vehicles
Disadvantages of Reciprocating Engines:
Reciprocating engines suffer drop in power at altitudes
Difficulty in cooling and lubrication
Low Power/Weight ratios compared to gas turbine engines
Need high octane fuels to improve power output
Increase in power output require larger number of cylinders, thereby increasing the
frontal area and weight
Use of reciprocating engines is limited to low speeds and altitudes
Development reached a saturation stage as far as maximum power is concerned
Maintenance requirement of piston-prop engines is more than turbojet aircraft
Exhaust gases have less impurities in turbojet engines
Aircraft gas turbine Engines
All modern aircraft are fitted with gas turbine engines. Gas turbine engines can be
classified into the following:-
(a) Turbojet engines
14
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING_MRCET (AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
(b) Turbofan engines
(c) Turbo-shaft engines
(d) Turboprop engines
Taken in the above order they provide propulsive jets of increasing mass flow and
decreasing jet velocity. Therefore, in that order, it will be seen that the turbojet
engines can be used for highest cruising speed whereas the turboprop engine will
be useful for the lower cruising speed at low altitudes.
In practice the choice of power plant will depend on the required cruising speed,
desired range of the aircraft and maximum rate of climb.
Turbojet Engine: Schematic diagram of a turbojet engine with station numbering
is given below:
Working Principle:
1. The thrust of a turbojet engine is developed by compressing the free
stream air in the diffuser or inlet and compressor. The diffuser converts the
kinetic energy of the entering air into pressure rise which is achieved by
ram effect. Diffusion in the inlet occurs due the geometric shaping of the
inlet.
2. The compressor is driven by the turbine. It rotates at high speed, adding
energy to the airflow and at the same time squeezing (compressing) it into
15
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING_MRCET (AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
a smaller space. Compressing the air increases its pressure and
temperature
3. Compressor types used in turbojets were typically axial or centrifugal.
4. Use of axial flow compressors enable high pressure ratios. Modern axial
compressors are split into low pressure and high pressure spools, driven by
corresponding two stage turbine. High compressor ratios of 15:1 or more
can be achieved while improving stability of operation at off-design
conditions.The high pressure air is then mixed with fuel and burnt in the
combustion chamber under constant pressure condition.
5. The combustion gasses at high temperature and pressure are expanded in
the turbine and the exhaust nozzle. The expansion of gasses in the turbine
provides power to drive the compressor while the exhaust nozzle expands
the gasses to atmospheric pressure, thereby producing propulsive force,
thrust.
6. The net thrust delivered by the engine is the result of converting internal
energy to kinetic energy.
7. The exhaust products downstream of the turbine still contain adequate
amount of oxygen. Additional thrust augmentation can be achieved by
providing an afterburner in the jet pipe in which additional amounts of fuel
can be burnt.
8. Turbojet engines are most suitable for speeds above 800 km/hr and up to
3.0 mach number
Advantages of Turbojet:
Power to Weight ratio is about 4 times that of Piston-Prop combination
Simple, easy to maintain, requires lower lubricating oil consumption.
Complete absence of liquid cooling reduces frontal area
Allows faster speeds, even at supersonic speeds.
16
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING_MRCET (AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
There is no limit to power output while piston engines reached their peak
power, beyond which any increase will result in high complexity and
greater weight/frontal area.
Speed of turbojet is not limited by the propeller. Turbojets can attain
higher speeds than turboprop aircraft
Disadvantages-Turbojet:
Fuel economy at low operational speeds is very poor
It has low take-off thrust and hence poor starting characteristics
High operating temperatures and engine parts are subjected to thermal
stresses
Application:Turbojet engine is highly suited for aircraft at speeds above 800
km/hr.
Advantages of Gas turbines over Reciprocating Engines:
Mechanical Efficiency: Mechanical efficiency of gas turbine engines is higher than
reciprocating engines. This is mainly due to high friction losses in reciprocating engines.
Balancing: Due to absence of reciprocating mass in gas turbine engines, balancing can be
near perfect. Torsional vibrations are absent because gas turbine is a flow machine.
Smooth & Vibration-free operation: Turboprop engines have fewer moving parts than
piston-prop engines, offering greater reliability and time-between-overhaul (TBO).
Power: The higher power of a turbo-prop engine allows it to fly at higher speeds and
altitudes.
Shape: Gas turbine engines have streamlined shape suitable from aerodynamic point of
view.
Fuel: Aviation turbine fuel is much cheaper than the high octane fuels used by
reciprocating engines.
Lower Cost: For a given power, gas turbine engine has lower cost and can be built faster
Weight: Gas turbine engineshave higher power-to-weight ratios. This means, for a given
weight, gas turbine engines develop more power.
Lubrication: Lubrication in gas turbine engines is much simpler than reciprocating
engines. The requirement is chiefly to lubricate the main bearing, compressor shaft and
bearing auxiliaries.
High operational speed: Turbine canbe run at much higher speed than reciprocating
engine. Turbine can also be made lighter than the reciprocating engine of similar output.
Therefore, for a given output, and higher speed, the torque can be lower. Gas turbine
engines have better torque characteristics.
17
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING_MRCET (AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
Silent Operation: Since exhaust from gas turbine engines occurs under practically
constant pressure conditions unlike the pulsating nature of the reciprocating engine
exhaust, the usual vibrational noises will be absent in gas turbine engines.
Maintenance: Relatively simpler in case of gas turbine engines.
Advantages of Reciprocating Engines over Gas turbine Engines:
Efficiency: The overall efficiency of gas turbine engines is much less than the
reciprocating engines.
Temperature Limitation: The turbine blades in gas turbine engine are exposed to
high temperature gasses continuously, and hence cannot exceed 1500 K.
Cooling: We can achieve very good results by cooling the cylinder walls effectively.
Cooling of turbine blades is complicated.
Ease of Starting: It is more difficult to start a gas turbine than a a reciprocating
engine.
Complexity: Reciprocating engines are far less complex than their turbo-prop counter
parts, from engineering considerations. This is primarily because of the high
temperatures and forces unique to turbo-prop engine operation, which must be
accommodated from materials and engine design.
1.2.2.3: Turboprop Engine: Schematic diagram is given below:
Working Principle: Turboprop engine is an intermediate between a pure jet engine and a
propeller engine.
Turboprop engine provides high thrust per unit mass flow of fuel burnt by increasing mass flow
of air. It offers better fuel economy. The propeller displaces a large mass of air rearwards,
thereby increasing the net thrust.
18
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING_MRCET (AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
The turbine extracts more power from the combustion gasses to drive the propeller. A small
remaining energy is extracted by expansion in the jet nozzle.
The propeller and the compressor may be mounted on a single shaft or on separate shafts with
a free turbine driving the propeller.
Advantages:
Turboprop engines have a higher thrust at take-off and better fuel economy.
The engine can operate economically over a wide range of speeds ranging from low speeds,
where turbojet is uneconomical, to high speeds of about 800 km/hr where piston-prop engine
cannot operate efficiently
It is easy to maintain and has lower vibration levels than piston-prop engine. The frontal area is
much less than corresponding piston-prop engine.
Disadvantages:
The main disadvantage is that the propeller efficiency decreases greatly at high speeds due flow
separation and shocks. The maximum speed is thus limited.
The turbine speeds need to be reduced through a suitable reduction gearing so that propeller
runs at lower speeds, which adds to weight.
Applications:
The turboprop engine is widely used in commercial and military aircraft due to its flexibility of
operation and good fuel economy.
19
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING_MRCET (AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
Turbofan Engine
Schematic Diagram of Turbofan (with station numbering): High by-pass ratio
(used for commercial aircraft)
Turbofan with afterburner & Mixed flow: Low by-pass ratio (used for military
aircraft)
Turbofan engine is designed as a compromise between turbojet and turbo prop
engines. The turbofan engine consists of a fan larger in diameter than the
compressor, driven by the turbine. The fan displaces/bypasses free stream air
around the primary engine. Two streams of air flow through the engine, primary
20
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING_MRCET (AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
airstream pass through the compressor and is delivered to the combustion
chamber at high pressure to mix with fuel, while the other stream bypasses the
primary engine to be expanded in the nozzle as a cold stream. The hot and cold
streams may be expanded through separate nozzles or combined together
through a single nozzle. The ratio of mass of cold air to the hot air is the by-pass
ratio.
Thus the turbofan accelerates a larger mass of air at lower velocity than turbojet
for a higher propulsive efficiency. Turbofan engines can also employ afterburner
for higher thrust.
Turbofan engines can be aft-fan or forward fan (position of the fan), mixed or
unmixed (hot and cold air streams) and high and low bypass ratio configuration
Advantages:
Fan is not as large as the propeller, therefore higher aircraft speeds can be
attained without facing flow separation problems.
Turbofan engines do not encounter vibration problems associated with
propellers. The fan could be encased in a duct/cowling to provide better
aerodynamic shape.
A geared fan connected to turbine reduces power consumed by the fan. It also
produces low sound.
Turbofan is fuel efficient than turbojet, offers better propulsive efficiencies.
Lowers the sound levels of the exhaust gasses.
21
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING_MRCET (AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
Ramjet Engine
Schematic Diagram:
Operating Principle:
Ramjet Engine consists of supersonic diffuser, subsonic diffuser, combustion chamber and
nozzle section
Air from atmosphere enters the supersonic diffuser at a very high speed. The air velocity gets
reduced in the supersonic diffuser through normal and oblique shock waves.
Air velocity is furthur reduced in the subsonic diffuser.
The diffuser converts the kinetic energy of the entering air into static pressure and
temperature rise which is achieved by ram effect. Diffusion in the inlet also occurs due the
geometric shaping of the diffuser. The diffuser thus slows down the air enabling combustion.
Fuel is injected into the combustor through suitable injectors causing mixing of fuel with the air
and the mixture is burnt
Combustion gases attain a temperature of around 1500-2000 k by continuous combustion of
fuel air mixture
Fresh air supply continuously will not allow gasses towards the diffuser. Instead, gases are
made to expand towards the tail pipe and nozzle, which expands the gases completely.
The gases leave the engine with a speed much higher than the air entering the engine.
The rate of increase of momentum of the working fluid produces thrust F in the direction of
flight
22
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING_MRCET (AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
Distinguishing Features:
Air enters the engine at supersonic speeds, must be slowed down to subsonic value, to prevent
blow out of the flame in the combustor
Velocity must be low enough (approximately around 0.2-0.4 mach number) to allow mixing of
fuel and stable combustion
Cycle pressure ratio depends on the diffusion pressure ratio. Very high pressure ratios of about
8 to 10 through ram compression is possible, therefore, a mechanical compressor is not
required
Slowing down speeds from mach 3.0 to 0.3 will result in a pressure ratio of more than 30
As the ram pressure increases, a condition is reached where the nozzle gets choked. Thereafter,
the nozzle operates at Mach 1 condition at throat
Advantages:
Ramjet is a simple machine and does not have any moving parts
Since turbine is not used, maximum temperature allowed is very high, around 2000 C, as
compared to around 900 C in turbojets.
We can burn air/fuel ratios of 13:1which gives greater thrust
Specific fuel consumption is much better than other gas turbine engines, at high speeds and
altitudes
Wide range of fuels can be used
It is very cheap to produce; adoptable for mass production
It is not possible to start a ramjet engine without an external launching device
The engine heavily relies on the diffuser and it is very difficult to design a diffuser which gives
good pressure recovery over a wide range of speeds
Due to high air speed, the combustion chamber requires flame holders to stabilize the
combustion
At very high temperatures of about 2000 C, dissociation of combustion products take place,
reducing the efficiency of the plant
23
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING_MRCET (AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
High fuel consumption at low speeds
Applications:
Highly suitable for propelling missiles.
Used in high speed military aircraft, in a combined cycle engine (Turbojet-Ramjet combination).
Development is in progress for a hypersonic aircraft system using turbojet-ram-scramjet
combined cycle.
Subsonic ramjets are used as target weapons in conjunction with turbojet aircraft.
Pulsejet Engine:
Schematic Diagram:
Basic Components are diffuser, Valve grid with spring loaded flapper valves, Combustion
chamber with spark plug, tail pipe and discharge nozzle
Operation:
The diffuser converts the kinetic energy of the entering air into static pressure rise and slows
down the air. Ram action also builds pressure in the diffuser.
The pressure differential opens the flapper valves which are spring loaded and the high
pressure air enters the combustion chamber.
Fuel is injected and ignited by the spark plug
Combustion proceeds at constant volume with sudden explosion.
24
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING_MRCET (AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
There is a sudden pressure rises in the combustion chamber which closes the flapper valves
The combustion gasses expand in the nozzle and escape to the atmosphere at high velocity
As combustion products leave the combustion chamber, a low pressure is created which causes
the valves to open and a new charge of air enters the chamber
Distinguishing feature: Since the combustion chamber builds pressure, the engine can operate
in static condition also. Proper design makes the duct to fire at a given pulse rate which can be
as high as 500 cycles/sec
Advantages:
1. Simple to construct and hence cheap.
2. Can be mass produced in a short time.
3. Since it does not have any moving parts like compressor of turbine, it can be used in high
temperatures.
4. Can be used for military applications.
Disadvantages:
1. It is having limited flight speed only.
2. Limited flying altitude.
3. High vibration and noise due to the pulses of thrust produced
Scramjet Engine:
Scramjet engine stands for supersonic combustion ramjet engine.
The flow speed in the combustion chamber is supersonic
Scramjet engine is characterized by high flow speeds ie low residence times in the
engine.
The engine needs larger combustion volumes; leading to integrated design of
airframe and engine.
In scramjet aircraft, the entire lower body of the aircraft is occupied by the engine.
The front portion of the underside operates as external/internal diffuser, with rear
portion providing expansion surface.
25
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING_MRCET (AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
The scramjet consists of
Diffuser (compression component) consisting of external ramp intake and engine
intake
Isolator
Supersonic combustor
Exhaust nozzle or aft body expansion component
Scramjet Engine- Construction: Scramjet engine is characterized by slow reaction times and
high flow speeds ie low residence times in the engine. The engine needs larger combustion
volumes; leading to integrated design of airframe and engine. In scramjet aircraft, the entire
lower body of the aircraft is occupied by the engine. The front (fore) portion of the underside
operates as external/internal diffuser, with rear (aft) portion providing expansion surface.
The scramjet consists of
Diffuser (compression component) consisting of external ramp intake and engine intake
Isolator
Supersonic combustor
Exhaust nozzle or aft body expansion component
Diffuser
26
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING_MRCET (AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
It consists of fore-body external intake and internal intake
The fore-body provides the initial external compression and contributes to the drag and
moments of the vehicle.
The internal inlet compression provides the final compression of the propulsion cycle.
Since the flow upstream is supersonic, the geometry of the diffuser is entirely convergent.
Isolator: Isolator is constant area diffuser containing the internal shock structure, swallowed
isolator is inserted before the combustor to diffuse the flow further, through a shock train,
producing desired flow speeds in the combustors. The function of the isolator is:
The shock train provides a mechanism for the supersonic flow to adjust to a static back
pressure higher than its inlet static pressure
The isolator cross-sectional area may be constant or slightly divergent to accommodate
boundary layer separation.
When the combustion process begins to separate the boundary layer in the combustor,
a pre-combustion shock train forms.
The shock structure allows the required pressure rise, thus isolating the combustion
process from the inlet compression process. Thus the isolator functions to prevent inlet
Combustor: Main features include:
Avoidance of hot pockets near the walls implies that the fuel be injected from centrally
located struts.
The usual circular configuration for combustors can be sacrificed in favor of a
rectangular configuration.
Typical velocities in the combustion chamber are about 1 to 1.5 km/s and the Mach
numbers will be 1.4 to 2.3 for a typical combustor entry Mach number of 2.5
27
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING_MRCET (AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
Combustion limits: Two limits are very critical for the operation
First, since when a supersonic flow is compressed, it slows down, the level of
compression must be low enough (or the initial speed high enough) not to slow the gas
below Mach 1. If the gas within a scramjet goes below Mach 1 the engine will "choke",
transitioning to subsonic flow in the combustion chamber. Additionally, the sudden
increase in pressure and temperature in the engine can lead to an acceleration of the
combustion, leading to the combustion chamber exploding.
Second, the heating of the gas by combustion causes the speed of sound in the gas to
increase (through increase of and hence cause Mach number to decrease) even though
the gas is still travelling at the same speed. Forcing the speed of air flow in the
combustion chamber under Mach 1 in this way is called "thermal choking".
A thermal throat results when the flow is slowed through tailored heat for causing dual-
mode operation.
There are engine designs where a ramjet transforms into a scramjet over the Mach 3-6
range, known as dual-mode scramjets.
Expansion System:
The expansion system, consists of
a. Internal nozzle
b. Vehicle aft body
It completes the propulsion flow path and controls the expansion of the high pressure
and temperature gas mixture to produce net thrust.
Applications of Scramjets:
Weapons systems -hypersonic cruise missiles
Aircraft systems - global strike / reconnaissance
28
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING_MRCET (AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
Space access systems that will take off and land horizontally like commercial
Airplanes
Using these Scramjet technologies, along with additional ground-and flight-test
experiments, will pave the way for affordable and reusable air-breathing
hypersonic propulsion systems such as missiles, long range aircraft and space-
access vehicles
Advantages:
1. Need not carry oxygen on board
2. No rotating parts makes it easier to manufacture than a turbojet
3. Has a higher specific impulse (change in momentum per unit of propellant) than a
rocket engine; could provide between 1000 and 4000 seconds, while a rocket only
provides 450 seconds or less
4. Higher speed could mean cheaper access to outer space in the future
Flight Limits/Operating Envelope:
29
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING_MRCET (AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
Operating Limits:
30
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING_MRCET (AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
Performance Characteristics:
Thrust generation at Low Speeds:
Propulsive Efficiency at Low Speeds
31
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING_MRCET (AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
Engine Components-Function:
Brief function of engine components:
Function of Components:
1. Diffuser (or air inlet): The thrust of a turbojet engine is developed by compressing the
free stream air in the diffuser (or air inlet) and compressor. The diffuser converts the
kinetic energy of the entering air into pressure rise.
Diffuser provides the air required by the engine from free stream conditions to the
conditions required by the compressor entrance with minimum pressure loss. It
reduces/supplies air to the compressor at a low velocity of around 0.4 Mach.
Diffusion (conversion of velocity of air in to pressure) in the inlet occurs due the
geometric shaping of the inlet. Design and geometric shaping of the diffuser (or air inlet)
depends on whether air entering the diffuser is subsonic or supersonic.
Performance Requirements: The air velocity is reduced through a diffusion process
which increases the air pressure. The inlet must supply mass flow of air to the
compressor at uniform speeds at all off-design conditions. The operation and design of
an inlet depend on whether the air entering the inlet is subsonic or supersonic.
As the aircraft approaches the speed of sound, the air at the entry to the inlet tends to
be compressed more and at mach 1, shock waves will occur. Shock waves are
compression waves, with high pressure loss across the shock wave. At higher mach
numbers, the shock waves get stronger.
32
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING_MRCET (AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
Thermodynamic Relations:
Inlets(Air Intakes):
denotes isentropic condition.
33
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING_MRCET (AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
denotes total or stagnation condition.
0 denotes free stream condition
The static pressure rises from to . Since, it is the stagnation pressure at
compressor inlet ( ) which is required for cycle calculations, we obtain ( ) by
adding to . The pressure rise ( ) is called ram pressure rise. At
subsonic speeds, it is due to subsonic diffusion and at supersonic speeds, it
comprises of pressure rise across a system of shock waves at the inlet followed by
that due to subsonic diffusion.
is the temperature which would have reached after an isentropic ram
compression to .
is the total (stagnation) pressure at exit of diffuser if all the dynamic pressure
( ) is captured without losses. (wall friction, non-isentropicity, & shock).
is the temperature corresponding to .
Pressure recovery, is the figure of merit
The isentropic efficiency of the diffuser is defined as
Compressor:
34
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING_MRCET (AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
2. Compressor: The compressor is driven by the turbine. It rotates at high speed, adding
energy to the airflow and at the same time squeezing (compressing) it into a smaller space.
Compressing the air increases its pressure and temperature.
Function: The function of the compressor is to increase the pressure of the incoming air so that
the combustion process and the expansion process after combustion can be carried out more
efficiently.
By increasing the pressure of the air, volume of the air is reduced and the combustion of
fuel/air mixture will occur in a smaller volume.
Two types of compressors are used in turbojet engines; axial flow compressor or centrifugal
flow compressor. Centrifugal flow compressor can provide pressure ratios of up to 4.0, whereas
axial flow compressor provides up to 1.2 pressure ratio. However, a number of stages (multi-
staging) of axial flow compressor can provide much higher pressure ratios above 8.0.
Use of axial flow compressors enable high pressure ratios. Modern axial compressors are split
into low pressure and high pressure spools (twin-spooling), driven by corresponding two stages
of turbine. High compressor ratios of 15:1 or more can be achieved while improving stability of
operation at off-design conditions.
Requirements : The basic requirements of compressors for gas turbine engine are
High air flow capacity per unit frontal area
High pressure ratio per stage
High efficiency
Stable off-design performance
Discharge direction suitable for multi-staging
Because of the demand for rapid engine acceleration and for operation over a wide range of
flight conditions, a high level of aerodynamic performance must be maintained over a wide
range of mass flow rates and speeds.
The compressor must be designed in such a way to have minimum length and low weight. The
structure must be mechanically rugged and have high reliability.
35
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING_MRCET (AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
Compression process is an adiabatic process. The performance of a compressor is
measured by the isentropic efficiency c . If c is the pressure recovery ratio
across the compressor, then,
c=
The actual work per unit mass in the T-S diagram is Cp(
The ideal work per unit mass is Cp (
Therefore, c =
Turbine:
The turbine extracts kinetic energy from the high pressure/high temperature gases which flow
from the combustion chamber. The kinetic energy is converted to shaft horsepower to drive the
compressor and the fan. Nearly three fourth of the available energy is used to drive the
compressor.
Like axial compressor, the axial turbine is usually multi-staged. There are generally fewer stages
than the compressor, since in the turbine pressure is decreasing (expansion process), whereas
36
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING_MRCET (AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
in the compressor, the pressure is increasing (compression process).In both the processes, the
blades act as aerofoils.
Operating Principle:
There are two types of turbines, impulse type and reaction type.
In impulse turbine, there is no change in the gas pressure in the rotor and the relative velocity
of gases at rotor entry and exit remains same. The stator nozzles are shaped to form passages
which increase the velocity and decrease the pressure of the escaping gases.
In a reaction type turbine, the relative discharge velocity of the gases increases and the
pressure decreases in the rotor passages. The stator nozzle passages merely alter the direction
of flow.
Most turbines in jet engines are a combination of impulse and reaction turbines.
Construction: Two types turbines are in use; Axial flow turbine and radial flow turbine.
The axial flow turbine consists of a rotor and set of stationary vanes (nozzles) stator. Each stage
of turbine consists of a set of stationary vanes that form a series of nozzles which discharge of
gases on to the rotor blades. The discharge of the hot gases allows the kinetic energy of the
gases to be transformed to mechanical shaft energy.
37
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING_MRCET (AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
The isentropic efficiency of turbine is given by
Combustion Chamber: The high pressure air is then mixed with fuel and burnt in the
combustion chamber under constant pressure conditions.
The combustion chamber is designed to burn a fuel/air mixture and to deliver the hot gasses to
the turbine at uniform temperature. The gas temperature must not exceed the allowable
structural temperature of the turbine.
The high pressure air from the compressor enters the combustion chamber. Of this, less than
half of the total volume of air mixes with fuel and burns. The rest of the air, known as
secondary air is used as cooling the products of combustion or the burner walls. The ratio of
total air to fuel varies between 30 to 60 parts of air to 1 part of fuel by weight.
The pressure loss as the gasses pass through the burner must be minimum and the combustion
efficiency must be high. There should be no tendency for burner to flame-out.
38
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING_MRCET (AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
Combustion chambers are of three types; can, annular and can-annular types. Typical
arrangement is as follows:
39
