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A HI S T O R Y O F E U R O P E A N L I T E R A T U R E
A History of European
Literature
The West and the World from
Antiquity to the Present

WALTER COHEN

1
 3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Walter Cohen 2017
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 2017
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016942729
ISBN 978–0–19–873267–9
Printed in Great Britain by
Clays Ltd, St Ives plc
Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
 In memory of my parents,
Arthur and Phyllis Cohen,
and
to my children,
Ana, Jonah, and Lawrence Brown-Cohen
 Contents
Acknowledgements xi

1. Introduction 1
1. Argument 1
2. Inferences 6
3. Assumptions 8

PART 1. ANTIQUITY
2. The Old World Literary System 17
1. Introduction 17
2. The Near Eastern Invention of Literature, 3000–1200 BCE 18
3. Literacy and Literature, 1200–500 BCE: Chinese, Hebrew, Greek 20
4. Imperial Literary Languages, 550 BCE–750 CE 28
5. Conclusion 41

3. Empire and Its Discontents in Classical Latin 43

1. Introduction 43
2. Plautus and the Early Republic 45
3. The Late Republic and Golden Age / Augustan Age 47
a. Introduction 47
b. Horace, the Cleopatra Ode 49
c. Virgil, Aeneid 54
4. The Silver Age / Early Empire / Principate 57
a. Introduction 57
b. Lucan, Civil War 58
c. Tacitus, Annals 62
5. Late Classical Latin Literature / Later Empire / Dominate 65
a. Apuleius and the Later Empire 65
b. Christianity and the Revival of Latin Literature 70
c. Augustine and Late Antiquity 72
6. Rome in Antiquity 77

P AR T 2 . T HE V E R N AC U L AR : F RO M T HE M ID D L E
A G E S T O E AR L Y M O D E R N IT Y
4. The Vernacular 83
1. The Spoken Vernacular 83
2. The Written Vernacular 92
3. The Medieval European Written Vernacular 108

5. Medieval Epic 117

1. Latin and the Vernacular Epic 117
2. Celtic Epic 119
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 23/12/2016, SPi

viii Contents

3. Germanic Epic 120

4. Romance Epic 126
5. Epic beyond Western Europe 130
6. Conclusion 137

6. Medieval Lyric 140

1. Introduction 140
2. Greek and Latin 142
3. Celtic and Germanic Poetry 150
4. Semitic Lyric 152
5. Occitan Lyric and Its Influence 161

7. Medieval Narrative after 1100 168

1. Romance 169
2. Allegory 177
3. Frame-Tale Collection 189
4. Conclusion 198

8. Language, Literature, and Popular Culture in the Age

of the Reformation 200
1. Literature 201
a. The Continental Sonnet 201
b. The English Sonnet 203
c. Epic and Drama 211
2. Religion 216
a. The Language of the Reformation 216
b. Luther 220
c. Milton 226
3. Western Europe and South Asia 232

PART 3. EARLY MODERNITY

9. The Representation of Empire in the Renaissance, 1: Europe
and the Mediterranean 239
1. Nation and Empire 240
2. Europe 240
a. Introduction 240
b. Shakespeare, Hamlet 244
3. The Mediterranean 251
a. Shakespeare and the Mediterranean 252
b. Shakespeare, Othello 257
c. Cervantes, Don Quijote 261

10. The Representation of Empire in the Renaissance, 2:

Global Perspectives 273
1. The Old World: Camões 273
2. The New World 280
a. America and the Renaissance 280
b. The Literature of America 285
c. Shakespeare and Overseas Expansion 294
3. Conclusion 305
 Contents ix

11. Eurasian Literature through the Eighteenth Century 309

1. Literature and Empire in Western Europe, 1650–1800 310
2. The Realist Novel in Europe before 1800 315
3. Asian Fiction 318
4. Drama 324
5. Epic and Drama 327
6. Drama and Novel 331
7. Literature and History 334

PART 4. MODERNITY
12. Nineteenth-Century Poetry: Romanticism and After 343
1. Europe 344
a. Introduction 344
b. Pushkin and Mickiewicz 345
2. Beyond Europe 350
a. Introduction 350
b. Leopardi 356
3. Conclusion 366

13. Nineteenth-Century Fiction 368

1. The Realist Novel 368
2. Alternatives to Realism 373
3. The European Periphery 379
a. Russia 380
b. The United States 384
i. Introduction 384
ii. Melville, Moby-Dick 387
4. Beyond the European Periphery 398
5. The Legacy of Tristram Shandy 403

14. Jewishness and Modernist Fiction 406

1. Jewishness and Fiction 407
2. Modernism 413
3. Proust 421
4. Kafka 426
5. Joyce 432
6. Conclusion 440

15. World Literature and Contemporary Fiction 443

1. Introduction 443
2. Narrators 448
3. Writing 453
a. Introduction 453
b. Nabokov, Pale Fire 455
4. Coherence 470
5. The Supernatural 478
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