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MIDDLE EAST TODAY

Political Islamists
in Turkey and the
Gülen Movement

Recep Dogan
 Middle East Today

Series Editors
Fawaz A. Gerges
Department of International Relations
London School of Economics
London, UK

Nader Hashemi
Center for Middle East Studies Josef Korbel School
of International Studies
University of Denver
Denver, CO, USA
The Iranian Revolution of 1979, the Iran-Iraq War, the Gulf War, and
the US invasion and occupation of Iraq have dramatically altered the
geopolitical landscape of the contemporary Middle East. The Arab
Spring uprisings have complicated this picture. This series puts forward
a critical body of first-rate scholarship that reflects the current political
and social realities of the region, focusing on original research about
contentious politics and social movements; political institutions; the role
played by non-governmental organizations such as Hamas, Hezbollah,
and the Muslim Brotherhood; and the Israeli-Palestine conflict. Other
themes of interest include Iran and Turkey as emerging pre-eminent
powers in the region, the former an ‘Islamic Republic’ and the latter an
emerging democracy currently governed by a party with Islamic roots;
the Gulf monarchies, their petrol economies and regional ambitions;
potential problems of nuclear proliferation in the region; and the chal-
lenges confronting the United States, Europe, and the United Nations in
the greater Middle East. The focus of the series is on general topics such
as social turmoil, war and revolution, international relations, occupation,
radicalism, democracy, human rights, and Islam as a political force in the
context of the modern Middle East.

More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14803
 Recep Dogan

Political Islamists
in Turkey
and the Gülen
Movement
Recep Dogan
Wisdom College
Brisbane, QLD, Australia

Middle East Today

ISBN 978-3-030-29756-5 ISBN 978-3-030-29757-2 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29757-2

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights
of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction
on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and
information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication.
Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied,
with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have
been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published
maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover credit: Mikadun/shutterstock.com

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Preface

The Justice and Development Party (the AKP) and the Gülen movement
(aka Hizmet Movement) are religious groups that aim to serve Islam
and religious life. Both groups had a relationship for their mutual ben-
efit for a long time. The main issue in common for both groups was the
repression and restraining of the rigid secularists within the state institu-
tions and the military. Following the elimination of the ultra-­secularists
from the state apparatus, the positive relationship between the AKP and
the movement has turned into a brutal fight, especially after the cor-
ruption investigation against the AKP government and the members
of Erdogan’s family in 2013. This book aims to discuss the ideology of
political Islamists and its effects on religion and social life. Moreover, it
seeks to understand how and why the positive image of the Gülen move-
ment has been changed from a faith-inspired community to a “terrorist
organization” by the Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan and his
ruling party, the AKP. Due to the great polarization, hatred and enmity
of the ruling Erdogan government against all members of the Gülen
movement and its huge effect on society, it has become a necessity to
analyze political Islam and its fight against the Gülen movement.
After decades of rigid secularist rule which constantly threatened the
Islamist parties as well as religious groups in Turkey, political power
was finally transferred to the political Islamist AKP, the Justice and
Development Party, in the 2002 general elections. Nevertheless, the
AKP’s Kemalist and secularist rivals in the judiciary, military, and vari-
ous parts of the state bureaucracy continued to challenge the party.

v
vi PREFACE

Thus, the Gülen Movement’s support was essential for the AKP to gain
control over the state institutions. For the Gülen Movement, aligning
with the ruling party was desirable too, because the success of politi-
cal Islamists enabled the Islamic civil society organizations, including
the movement, to grow rapidly with less interference from the secular-
ist elites, particularly during the first two terms of the AKP government.
Both groups cooperated in the Ergenekon and Sledgehammer (Balyoz)
trials to neutralize the tutelary capacity of the secularist military caste.
The strategic alliance peaked during the constitutional referendum of
September 12, 2010. Although it was easy for both groups to put aside
their differences in the ideologies when fighting the common enemy,
it was not easy for both to maintain their strategic alliance when the
Erdogan government exerted itself to bring all civil society organizations
into subjection. The alliance between the AKP and the Gülen movement
thus began to fall apart in 2011; it dramatically collapsed in 2013 and
finally evolved into an intense fight in the subsequent years.
Although the clash between the AKP and the Gülen movement is usu-
ally described as a power struggle within the state, this does not give the
full picture of the situation. The most powerful reason for the split of
the two groups from each other is directly related to their understanding
of Islam or, in other words, how each group interprets Islam in theory
and practice. The split between them is, in reality, the difference between
political Islam and civil Islam. While giving the history of relations
between the AKP and the Gülen movement, the book aims to explore
the reasons that caused a dramatic split between them. It also explains
human rights violations, restrictions on the media and the destruction of
democratic institutions in Erdogan’s “New Turkey” project. Moreover,
in order to help readers to better understand the difference between
Political Islam and civil Islam, the book explains the political theology
of each group. In this respect, political theologies of the AKP and the
Gülen movement are compared to each other in order to give a clear
picture of the differences between them. The book concludes with
how this fight would shape the future of Turkey as well as how it may
direct Muslims’ understanding of Islam when they adopt the ideology of
Political Islam or the ideology of civil Islam.

Brisbane, Australia Recep Dogan

 Contents

1 Introduction 1

2 Political Islam 9

3 The Gülen Movement 41

4 From a Strategic Alliance to a Terrorist Organization:

The History of the Relationship Between AKP
and the Gülen Movement from 2001 to 2019 51

5 Turkey’s Future Direction Under Erdogan’s Regime 105

6 The Political Theology of Political Islamists of Turkey 141

7 The Political Theology of the Gülen Movement 177

8 Conclusion: Comparison of the Two Groups 215

Bibliography 229

Index 259

vii
 Abbreviations

Aramco The Saudi-American oil company

BDP Kurdish Peace and Democracy Party
CHP The Republican People’s Party
DP Democrat Party
ECHR European Convention on Human Rights
ETÖ Ergenekon Terror Organization
EU European Union
FETÖ Gülenist Terror Organization
FP The Virtue Party
FRA Freedom Research Association
HSYK Supreme Council of Judges and Prosecutors
IHH The Turkish Foundation for Human Rights and Freedoms and
Humanitarian Relief
IMF The International Monetary Fund
KCK The Kurdistan Communities Union
MGK National Security Council
MHP The Nationalist Movement Party
MIT Turkish National Intelligence Agency
MNP The National Order Party
MSP The National Salvation Party
MÜSIAD The Independent Industrialists and Businessmen’s Association
NATO The North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
NPR National Public Radio
Oda TV Oda TV which was founded in 200 is an online news portal
based in Turkey

ix
x ABBREVIATIONS

OFAC The Office of Foreign Assets Control

PEJ The Equality and Justice Party in France
PKK The Kurdistan Workers’ Party
RP The Welfare Party
SP The Felicity Party
The AKP Adalet and Kalkınma Partisi (Justice and Development Party)
The DENK Dutch for “think” and Turkish for “equality”, self-styled
as DENK is a political party in The Netherlands that calls itself a
“movement”
The Diyanet Turkish Directory of Religious Affairs
The NBZ The Freedom Party of Austria is a right-wing populist, nation-
al-conservative political party in Austria
The UN The United Nations
The YÖK Council for Higher Education
TURGEV Youth Education and Service Foundation of Turkey
Türksat Turkish Satellite Communications Company
TUSKON The Turkish Confederation of Businessmen and Industrialists
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 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

1.1  Introduction
Islam has been interpreted in various ways by individuals since its birth
and Political Islam is one of its interpretations. Political Islam has a long
history, and Turkey’s Justice and Development Party—the AKP (Adalet
ve Kalkinma Partisi)—is a new face of it in the twenty-first century. The
main goals of writing this book are to define political Islam, especially
in the Turkish context with respect to the AKP, a political party which
has been in power in Turkey since 2002, and to try to understand the
nature of conflicts between the two Islamic groups: the AKP and the
Gülen Movement, a transnational social movement emerging originally
in Turkey in the early 1970s.
The Justice and Development Party (the AKP) and the Gülen
movement (aka Hizmet Movement) are religious groups that aim to
serve Islam and religious life. Both groups had a relationship for their
mutual benefit for a long time. The main issue in common for both
groups was the repression and restraining of the rigid secularists within
the state institutions and the military. Following the elimination of
the ultra-secularists from the state apparatus, the positive relationship
between the AKP and the movement has turned into a brutal fight, espe-
cially after the corruption investigation against the AKP government and
the members of Erdogan’s family in 2013. This book aims to discuss
the ideology of political Islamists and its effects on religion and social
life. Moreover, it seeks to understand how and why the positive image

© The Author(s) 2020 1

R. Dogan, Political Islamists in Turkey and the Gülen Movement,
Middle East Today, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29757-2_1
2 R. DOGAN

of the Gülen movement has been changed from a faith-inspired commu-

nity to a “terrorist organization” by the Turkish President Recep Tayyip
Erdogan and his ruling party, the AKP.
Although the Justice and Development Party (the AKP) has long
benefitted greatly from the valuable support of Fethullah Gülen and his
followers in the way of democratizing the state and its institutions, the
two groups have clearly separated from each other since the 2013 cor-
ruption scandals or perhaps a little earlier.1 This separation has created
a massive impact on practicing Muslims as well as on others. Due to the
great polarization, hatred and enmity of the ruling Erdogan govern-
ment against all members of the Gülen movement and its huge effect on
society, it has become a necessity to analyze political Islam and its fight
against the Gülen movement.
Fethullah Gülen and Recep Tayyip Erdogan have great influence on
Turkish people. Both use Islamic concepts to revive Islamic life in Turkey
and receive support from Muslims. Erdogan and AKP’s elite come from
the late Necmettin Erbakan’s2 National Outlook Movement3 (Milli
Görüş), the religiopolitical movement which seeks a religious revival
through the ideology of political Islam, whereas Fethullah Gülen aims
to promote civil Islam among different segments of society without seek-
ing to establish an Islamic state. Gülen refrained from partisan politics
and employed a gradualist approach focusing on a bottom-up spiritual
progress of society. Thus, the Gülen movement has invested its capital
and energy mostly in education and dialogue. In order to avoid confron-
tation with the secularist Turkish state, the movement stayed away from
political Islamists, including the National Outlook.
Looking back to its recent history, the National Outlook Movement
pursued a political path of forming political parties that would ultimately
establish an Islamic state much like the Muslim Brotherhood4 tried in
Egypt. Erbakan adopted a discourse infused with anti-Western and
antisecularist sentiments, thus experiencing military intervention several
times. Avoiding the mistakes of the past, the reformists led by Tayyip
Erdogan, Abdullah Gül, and Bülent Arınç, ultimately split from the
National Outlook Movement and formed the AKP on August 14, 2001.
After decades of rigid secularist rule which constantly threatened the
Islamist parties as well as religious groups in Turkey, political power
was finally transferred to the political Islamist AKP, the Justice and
Development Party, in the 2002 general elections. The ruling AKP has
increased its control over the government and consolidated its power
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 Dentistry - Concept Map
Fall 2023 - Institute

Prepared by: Prof. Davis

Date: August 12, 2025

Practice 1: Critical analysis and evaluation

Learning Objective 1: Current trends and future directions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 2: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 3: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 3: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 4: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 5: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 6: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 8: Study tips and learning strategies
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 9: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
References 2: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Practice Problem 10: Experimental procedures and results
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 11: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 12: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 14: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 17: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 18: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Test 3: Comparative analysis and synthesis
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 22: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 23: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 25: Best practices and recommendations
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 26: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 26: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 27: Ethical considerations and implications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 28: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 29: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Module 4: Key terms and definitions
Example 30: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 31: Experimental procedures and results
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 32: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 33: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 34: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 35: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 36: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 36: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 37: Historical development and evolution
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 39: Key terms and definitions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Exercise 5: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 41: Case studies and real-world applications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 43: Experimental procedures and results
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 45: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 45: Historical development and evolution
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 46: Historical development and evolution
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 48: Historical development and evolution
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 49: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 49: Best practices and recommendations
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Section 6: Key terms and definitions
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 51: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 52: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 53: Experimental procedures and results
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 55: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 57: Current trends and future directions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Introduction 7: Fundamental concepts and principles
Example 60: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 62: Case studies and real-world applications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 63: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 63: Study tips and learning strategies
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
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