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Millimeter-Wave Energy as Weapon

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DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-20794-6_7

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Chapter 7
Millimeter-Wave Energy as Weapon

The US Marine Corps says that it has developed a 95 GHz system as an antiperson-
nel “heat ray” and is conducting tests on animals and volunteers. The supposedly
nonlethal weapon, called “active denial technology,” has been in the works for the
last 10 years at the Air Force Research Laboratory (Kirtland, NM), in tandem with
the Marine Corps’ Joint Non-lethal Weapons Directorate. About $40 million has
been spent developing the weapon, according to the Air Force Research Laboratory
(AFRL), although it could be nearly another decade before it is used in conflict. The
earliest estimate for deployment is 2009. The system includes a millimeter-wave
energy source with waveguides to direct the energy to a dish antenna measuring
about 3  3 m, which forms a beam that can be swept across a battlefield or hostile
crowd. The aim is to deter or drive off adversaries caught out in the open with a beam
that inflicts pain without causing permanent damage. According to an AFRL fact
sheet, the 95 GHz energy penetrates 1/64 in. into the skin and produces an intense
burning sensation that stops when the transmitter is switched off or when the
individual moves out of the beam.

7.1 Introduction

“It works by heating the water molecules in the top 1/64-of-an-inch layer of the
skin,” said Marine Corps spokesman Maj. David Andersen.
According to reports, a 2-s burst from the system can heat the skin to a temper-
ature of 130  F. Elsewhere, the AFRL describes the sensation as similar to touching
an ordinary light bulb that has been left on for a while. “Unlike a light bulb,
however,” says the AFRL fact sheet, “Active-Denial technology (i.e. known as
Active Denial System (ADS)) will not cause rapid burning, because of the shallow
penetration of the beam and the low levels of energy used” (see Fig. 7.1).
Beam size, whether it is a convergent, focused beam or a divergent beam, and its
range are all classified information.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 377

B. Zohuri, Directed-Energy Beam Weapons,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20794-6_7
378 7 Millimeter-Wave Energy as Weapon

Fig. 7.1 Skin gets hot by

active denial system

“This is a beam that is going to be directed. It’s not harmful to internal organs
because it doesn’t penetrate the skin beyond 1/64 of an inch,” said Conrad
Dziewulski, a spokesman for the directed energy division of AFRL. “It will be
swept across the battlefield or directed at an individual for a few seconds.”
Dziewulski said that the system was intended to protect military personnel against
small-arms fire, which is generally taken to mean a range of 1000 m. Elsewhere, the
system is described as having a range of 700 yards.
While early tests have been carried out using a fixed antenna, the military now
plans to develop a mobile version of the system, otherwise known as vehicle-
mounted active denial system, or Vmads.
AFRL said Vmads could be mounted on a high-mobility multipurpose wheeled
vehicle (more commonly referred to as a Humvee). Later it could be mounted on
other vehicles such as aircraft, helicopters, and ships, officials said.
However, countermeasures against the weapon could be quite straightforward—
for example covering up the body with thick clothes or carrying a metallic sheet—or
even a trash can lid—as a shield or reflector. Also unclear is how the active denial
technology would work in rainy, foggy, or sea-spray conditions where the beam’s
energy could be absorbed by water in the atmosphere.
The technology was developed by two Air Force Research Laboratory teams: one
from the laboratory’s Directed Energy Directorate at Kirtland Air Force Base, and
the other from the Human Effectiveness Directorate at Brooks Air Force Base,
Texas.
The Air Force’s Electronic Systems Center at Hanscom Air Force Base, Mass.,
will manage acquisition of the Humvee Vmads system.
7.2 Active Denial System 379

Fig. 7.2 Active denial system II (Resource: Official Department of Defense Image)

7.2 Active Denial System

The active denial system (ADS) is a nonlethal, directed energy weapon developed by
the US military,1,2 designed for area denial, perimeter security, and crowd control.3
Informally, the weapon is also called the heat ray4 since it works by heating the
surface of targets, such as the skin of targeted human subjects. Raytheon is currently
marketing a reduced-range version of this technology5 (see Fig. 7.2).
The ADS was deployed in 2010 with the US military in the Afghanistan War, but
was withdrawn without seeing combat.6 On August 20, 2010, the Los Angeles
Sheriff’s Department announced its intent to use this technology on prisoners in
the Pitchess Detention Center in Los Angeles, stating its intent to use it in

1
“NATO NAVAL ARMAMENTS GROUP: Workshop on Counter Piracy Equipment and Tech-
nologies” (PDF). Nato.int. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 24, 2012. Retrieved
1 November 2014.
2
“Vehicle-Mounted Active Denial System (V-MADS).” Global Security. Archived from the orig-
inal on March 5, 2008. Retrieved March 2, 2008.
3
“DVIDS - News - New Marine Corps non-lethal weapon heats things up.” DVIDS. Retrieved
November 1, 2014.
4
Ross Kerber, “Ray gun, sci-fi staple, meets reality.” Boston Globe, September 24, 2004.
5
“Raytheon: Silent Guardian product brief”. 2006. Archived from the original on December
14, 2006.
6
“US army heat-ray gun in Afghanistan.” BBC News. July 15, 2010.
380 7 Millimeter-Wave Energy as Weapon

“operational evaluation” in situations such as breaking up prisoner fights.7 The ADS

is currently only a vehicle-mounted weapon, though US Marines and police are both
working on portable versions.8 ADS was developed under the sponsorship of the
DoD Non-Lethal Weapons Program with the Air Force Research Laboratory as the
lead agency.9,10 There are reports that Russia11 and China are developing their own
versions of the active denial system.12
Active denial technology produces a focused beam of directed energy to provide
our troops a nonlethal option to stop, deter, and turn back suspicious individuals with
minimal risk of injury. Active denial technology is designed to protect the innocent,
minimize fatalities, and limit collateral damage across the range of military
operations.
Active denial technology uses radio-frequency millimeter waves at a frequency of
95 gigahertz.
Traveling at the speed of light, the millimeter-wave directed energy engages the
subject, penetrating the skin to a depth of only about 1/64th of an inch, or the
equivalent of three sheets of paper. The beam produces an intolerable heating
sensation, compelling the targeted individual to instinctively move. The sensation
immediately ceases when the individual moves out of the beam or when the operator
turns off the beam. There is minimal risk of injury due to the shallow energy
penetration into the skin at this short wavelength and normal human instinctive
reactions.

7.3 Military Applications

Active denial technology can be used for both force application and force protection
missions.
Applications include crowd control, patrol and convoy protection, perimeter
security, and other defensive and offensive operations from both fixed-site or mobile
platforms.
Nonlethal directed energy weapons using active denial technology have the
potential to provide a nonlethal effect at distances up to and beyond small arms

7
“August 20, 2010 New Device Unveiled Intended to Stop or Lessen Inmate Assaults: Assault
Intervention Device (AID) . . . .” LA County Sheriff. August 20, 2010. Archived from the original
on September 4, 2010.
8
“US police could get ‘pain beam’ weapons.” Newscientist.com. Retrieved November 1, 2014.
9
Archived May 28, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.
10
“Non-Lethal Weapons Program.” Ndu.edu. Retrieved November 1, 2014.
11
“Why Russia Will Be the First to Use the Pain Ray.” Popular Mechanics. Retrieved November
1, 2014.
12
Rafi Letzer, “China’s New Long-Range Weapon Causes Non-Lethal Pain which was made up by
Stephen Pugh From Afar,” Popular Science, 8 December 2014.
7.3 Military Applications 381

range, providing US military forces with additional time and space to assess the
intent of potential adversaries.
Given its potential for sensing and high-data-rate communications, millimeter-
wave technology is a prime candidate for enabling the latest military, aerospace, and
security technology.
The spectrum congestion in the lower gigahertz region has caused many indus-
tries to seek technology solutions in the millimeter-wave spectrum. In fact, technol-
ogy developments for millimeter-wave solutions in sensing and telecommunications
have encouraged millimeter-wave research and development in almost every indus-
try. Specifically, the military and aerospace industries are looking to millimeter-
wave technology to increase connectivity and sensing for the next generation of
tactical networks, security, electronic warfare (EW), and active denial systems. This
interest is being met with sponsored initiatives or product developments from
military organizations, such as the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
(DARPA), Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL), and many military/security
contractors.
For its part, the AFRL—a dedicated organization within the US Air Force—is
tasked with developing warfighting technologies in the areas of air, space, and
cyberspace. To meet these goals, the AFRL is delving into millimeter-wave tech-
nologies including high-power transmit sources, low-noise receivers, control com-
ponent technologies, and multi-beam transmit arrays. The laboratory’s goal is to
enable the Air Force to address the latest in increased bandwidth, data rate, and
linearity requirements, thereby enhancing electromagnetic wave (EW) and commu-
nications systems with millimeter-wave technology (see Fig. 7.3).

Fig. 7.3 Fabricating millimeter-wave semiconductor technology (courtesy of AFRL Sensors

Directorate)
382 7 Millimeter-Wave Energy as Weapon

As it is illustrated in Fig. 7.3, fabricating millimeter-wave semiconductor tech-

nology involves many sensitive procedures that require the most advanced
cleanroom environments.
“Many of the components we currently work with and will be working with in the
future use the benefits of shorter wavelengths to provide an advantage with compact
solid-state and vacuum circuits,” says Dr. Lois Kehias, a principal engineer in the
AFRL’s Aerospace Components & Subsystems Technology Division. “We are
looking at opportunities that millimeter waves provide in terms of additional fre-
quency spectrum, wider bandwidths and higher data rates.”
By taking advantage of the more compact solid-state and vacuum components
available with millimeter-wave technology, the AFRL may be looking to reduce the
size and weight of deployed systems. Of course, enabling such developments
requires the use of solid-state transistor technologies, such as gallium nitride
(GaN) and indium phosphide (InP). Innovative millimeter-wave vacuum-tube elec-
tronics also must be developed, which can handle high power and thus exceed the
performance of traditional coupled cavity vacuum electronics.
In terms of millimeter-wave semiconductor material, GaN is increasingly
attracting interest for high-frequency and wide-bandwidth power electronics. Its
high power density and high breakdown voltage make it well suited for such
applications. For mission-critical applications, the robustness of the device is con-
sidered as critical as its performance. While GaN carves its niche, InP technologies
are mainly being pursued for low-power and receive devices that require extremely
linear and low-noise properties. Although gallium arsenide (GaAs) technology may
not be considered a fit for the latest military applications, it may still find a niche in
lower millimeter-wave, low-power applications.
All new technology approaches come at the cost of substantial research, which
must be done to overcome challenges and limitations. Generally, these higher
frequency electronic materials degrade in performance and efficiency as frequency
increases. The added challenge of losing efficiency at millimeter-wave frequencies is
managing thermal dissipation and reliability in both solid-state and vacuum elec-
tronics in much reduced dimensions. Modeling these technologies also is a chal-
lenge, as no accurate models exist that can predict design performance for high-heat,
high-frequency, and small-size compact devices. Fabrication yields and thermal and
mechanical reliability issues also increase design complexity while limiting perfor-
mance predictability. As a result, rigorous testing at a statistically significant level is
necessary to produce viable models and reliability data. Figure 7.4 is an illustration
of latest solid-state devices that meet the stringent criteria for aerospace applications;
many of these devices are tested rigorously to produce statistically viable reliability
data.
Of particular interest to the AFRL is the development of several key components,
such as ultra-wideband, agile, and survivable photonic RF receiver front ends. The
goal of such front ends is to perform with enhanced receiver dynamic range and
signal suppression while boasting compact up/down conversion electronics, which
would support the use of photonic transmission lines as opposed to less efficient
coax. Linearity and efficiency are critical for high-power, solid-state power
7.3 Military Applications 383

Fig. 7.4 The latest solid-state devices meet the stringent criteria for aerospace applications
(courtesy of AFRL Sensors Directorate)

amplifiers and drivers. As a result, current research aims to increase the linearity and
efficiency of these amplifiers.
Increasing the efficiency of wideband vacuum electronic devices (VEDs) also
would help to reduce thermal stress, system size, and power budget for these devices.
“We are looking at using photonic technologies for broadband and low-loss signal
transmission to overcome high losses from traditional microwave transmission lines,
like coax,” says Dr. Steve Hary, also a principal engineer in the AFRL’s Aerospace
Components & Subsystems Technology Division. “Other focus areas include
advanced high-density packaging, such as 2 and 3D packages. As we pack things
more densely with 3D technologies, the development of advanced thermal manage-
ment techniques is required.”
To enable the latest in solid-state and vacuum-based millimeter-wave compo-
nents and systems, several advances in device/circuit designs are needed. Also, in
demand is power-combining circuitry as well as higher performance designs that are
more linear, efficient, and wider bandwidth. The assembly, modeling, design, and
process for manufacturing these devices also must be improved to meet yield,
performance, and reliability requirements. To enable the photonic transmission-
line systems, for example, advances are centering on photonic receiver components
that support low-loss, millimeter-wave multi-beam transmit arrays and signal detec-
tors over wide bandwidths.
To promote such evolution, the Manufacturing and Industrial Technologies
Directorate (a section within the AFRL) has made investments in GaN fabrication
technology. Its plan is to enhance the millimeter-wave development goals of the
AFRL. It already is making progress, as evidenced by the $9.7-million agreement
that the directorate entered into with RFMD to produce and transfer 0.14-ìm GaN
384 7 Millimeter-Wave Energy as Weapon

Fig. 7.5 Integrated circuit

system illustration (courtesy
of AFRL Sensors
Directorate)

monolithic microwave integrated circuit (MMIC) technology. The GaN MMIC

technology will be produced on 6 in. scaled wafers with RFMD’s 6 in. GaN-on-
silicon carbide (SiC) manufacturing line. This fabrication technology could enable
GaN MMICs that operate beyond 100 GHz and enable new technologies for radar,
military communications, and commercial applications using millimeter waves for
telecommunications.
With the move to a 6 in. wafer, this process could provide up to 2.5 times more
usable space over standard 4 in. GaN wafer processes. That translates into an
increased number of GaN MMICs per wafer. The price of these ultra-wide-band-
width, high-frequency, and high-power technologies could make some applications
more accessible for the commercial and military industry. RFMD is developing this
technology for mass production in its US-based open foundry.
DARPA is another defense-oriented technology sponsor that is actively pursuing
millimeter-wave technology for military applications. Recently, DARPA announced
a prototype developed with Northrop Grumman Aerospace Systems. They demon-
strated a complete system-on-a-chip (SoC) transmitter—made completely from
silicon—that operates at 94 GHz. Figure 7.5 is depiction of both the commercial
and military industries that have been pursuing millimeter-wave systems-on-a-chip
to create compact and energy-efficient transceiver technology.
This prototype hails from the efficient linearized all-silicon transmitter (ELASTx)
integrated circuit (IC) program, which was developed to enable compact and high-
data-rate millimeter-wave wireless communications that are smaller, lighter, higher
performing, and less expensive. As opposed to GaAs or GaN millimeter-wave SoCs,
an all-silicon SoC would be cost effective for a wide range of applications. Another
7.3 Military Applications 385

Fig. 7.6 Unmanned aerial

vehicle system (courtesy of
AFRL Sensors Directorate)

benefit of using all-silicon technology is the ability to design RF and digital circuitry
in the same IC.
This approach opens many doors to developing highly refined digital control
circuitry that can enhance the raw performance of RF designs. Embracing this
concept, the digitally assisted power amplifier on the SoC transmitter can dynami-
cally adjust the amplifier’s key parameters to adapt to different signal requirements.
With the ability to use real-time optimization for power, linearity, and efficiency,
many tactical network-based systems could rapidly and efficiently be implemented.
Various aerospace and space applications, such as satellite communications for
ground troops, could be enabled by the breakthroughs associated with this
technology.
DARPA also is looking to advance the frontline soldier’s tactical capabilities via
millimeter-wave-based mobile wireless hotspots, which will be mounted on
unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) platforms (Fig. 7.6). The goal of this initiative is
to deploy a 1 Gb/s communications backbone to warfighting units in even the most
remote environments. To enable this system, steerable millimeter-wave antennas,
low-noise amplifiers, and efficient/higher powered power amplifiers are being
investigated.
Such devices are critical to enabling the low size, weight, and power (SWaP)
performance targeted by this project. In the project’s second phase, L-3 Communi-
cations and FIRST RF will lead teams to enable this development. The project
details a lightweight pod to be mounted on an SRQ-7 Shadow UAV. It will weigh
under 20 lbs. while measuring less than 8 in. wide.
As these examples have shown, the majority of military applications have been
explored using millimeter waves as an enhancement technology. However, the US
386 7 Millimeter-Wave Energy as Weapon

Fig. 7.7 Using millimeter-wave technology in sensitive areas (courtesy of AFRL Sensors
Directorate)

Army Armaments Research Development and Engineering Center is collaborating

with the Department of Defense Non-Lethal Weapons Program to develop a
millimeter-wave-based solid-state active denial technology (SS-ADT).
As it can be seen in Fig. 7.6, it gives troops in remote areas the benefit of military
tactical networks, and unmanned aerial vehicles are being explored as a means of
providing consistent and high-performing mobile networks.
As Fig. 7.7 presents, using millimeter-wave technology to limit access to sensi-
tive locations is a unique application of the technology. It could provide nonlethal
deterrent systems that could be installed on mobile or fixed platforms.
The SS-ADT uses a 95 GHz steerable array that projects high-powered waves
towards people in an undesired location (Fig. 7.7). By their nature, the 95 GHz
waves theoretically allow only limited penetration (up to 1/64th of an inch into the
skin). Although the body’s water molecules and nervous system would be heated
and disrupted by the millimeter-wave radiation, no permanent injury would suppos-
edly occur as long as people were only exposed to minor doses.
Millimeter-wave technology already is established in imaging security applica-
tions, such as airport screening equipment. Radio Physics Solutions, for example,
produces a Millimeter Radar Threat Level Evaluation (MiRTLE) unit that is
designed to detect concealed threats at ranges of several to tens of meters. The
technology works by using low-power, ultra-wideband millimeter-wave illumina-
tion to capture and analyze reflected waveforms. The radar signatures for concealed
weapons and explosives differ considerably from the signatures of casual items. As a
result, detection algorithms can be used to analyze the specific reflected signals of
each object to detect threatening objects. This detection approach could allow for a
less invasive and safe way of scanning many people and objects from longer ranges.
7.4 Current Configuration 387

Fig. 7.8 Millimeter-wave (MW) technology (courtesy of AFRL Sensors Directorate)

Military contractors, such as Raytheon, also are using millimeter-wave technol-

ogy for imaging applications that extend the resilience of their airborne deployed
bombs (Fig. 7.8). The Small Diameter Bomb II (SDB II) uses a tri-mode seeker
comprised of a millimeter-wave radar, uncooled infrared (IR) imager, and digital
semi-active laser sensor mounted in tandem on the same gimbal. The integrated
seeker can fuse the targeting information between all three modes, which enhances
the weapon’s ability to engage targets even in adverse weather.
Here, the millimeter-wave radar enables the seeker to image effectively even
when faced with a lot of debris, low visibility, low reflectivity, and dusty/sandy
environments. The ability of millimeter waves to penetrate (or suffer limited atten-
uation) in these environments makes this technology a key component of all-weather
and day/night visibility. Yet millimeter-wave technology has a drawback: its sus-
ceptibility to attenuation under moist atmospheric conditions, such as rain or fog. As
military interests continue to raise investments in millimeter-wave technology, the
challenges and cost concerns associated with implementing these systems will
diminish. When the SWaP benefits of millimeter-wave technology can be realized,
the unique and versatile application of millimeter-wave energy could lead to more
advances in security, imaging, and communications. In turn, the commercial sector
will benefit from the investment in enabling technologies. In a not too far-flung
future, there may be readily available millimeter-wave wireless data for cell phones
(5G, perhaps) with aerial drones supporting mobile millimeter-wave hotspots.

7.4 Current Configuration

Two active denial systems (ADS) were developed under a Defense Department
“Advanced Concept Technology Demonstration” Program (now known as Joint
Concept Technology Demonstration Program) from 2002 to 2007. Unlike typical
weapons development programs in the Defense Department, ACTDs/JCTDs are not
388 7 Millimeter-Wave Energy as Weapon

focused on optimizing the technology; rather they are focused on rapidly assembling
the technology in a configuration suitable for user evaluation.13
From 2002 to 2007, the Active Denial System Advanced Concept Technology
Demonstration integrated and packaged active denial technology into two system
configurations. System 1, the technology prototype, integrated the technology into a
high-mobility multipurpose wheeled vehicle. System 2 was built as an armored,
containerized system transportable by tactical vehicles. Both systems successfully
completed a series of land and maritime-based military utility assessments. During
2014–2015, System 1 was refurbished into a more robust and mobile system
transported by a Marine Corps Medium Tactical Vehicle Replacement truck. See
Fig. 7.2.
Both prototypes are long-range, large-spot-size systems, available for service or
combatant command exercises and suitable for operational employment.

7.5 Effects and Critical Issues

The ADS works by firing a high-powered beam of 95 GHz waves at a target, which
corresponds to a wavelength of 3.2 mm (see footnote 13). The ADS millimeter-wave
energy works on a similar principle as a microwave oven, exciting the water and fat
molecules in the skin, and instantly heating them via dielectric heating. One signif-
icant difference is that a microwave oven uses the much lower frequency (and longer
wavelength) of 2.45 GHz. The short millimeter waves used in ADS only penetrate
the top layers of skin, with most of the energy being absorbed within 0.4 mm
(1/64 in.),14 whereas microwaves will penetrate into human tissue about 17 mm
(0.67 in.).15
The ADS’s effect of repelling humans occurs at slightly higher than 44  C
(111  F), though first-degree burns occur at about 51  C (124  F), and second-
degree burns occur at about 58  C (136  F) (see footnote 14). In testing, pea-sized
blisters have been observed in less than 0.1% of ADS exposures, indicating that
second-degree surface burns have been caused by the device.16 The radiation burns
caused are similar to microwave burns, but only on the skin surface due to the

13
Archived March 2, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.
14
Archived February 16, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.
15
“Wired News: Say Hello to the Goodbye Weapon.” Wired. December 5, 2006. Archived from the
original on July 5, 2008.
16
Millimeter Waves, Lasers, Acoustics for Non-Lethal Weapons, Physics Analyses and Inferences
Archived November 5, 2010, at the Wayback Machine. “Ordinary household aluminum foil of
many m thickness covering all parts of the body exposed towards the antenna would provide
protection; gaps where the radiation could enter would have to be avoided. To allow vision a very
fine-grained mesh in front of the face would be needed (holes markedly smaller than the wavelength
of 3.2 mm; that is not bigger than, say, 0.1 mm).”
7.5 Effects and Critical Issues 389

decreased penetration of shorter millimeter waves. The surface temperature of a

target will continue to rise so long as the beam is applied, at a rate dictated by the
target’s material and distance from the transmitter, along with the beam’s frequency
and power level set by the operator. Most human test subjects reached their pain
threshold within 3 s, and none could endure more than 5 s.17
A spokesman for the Air Force Research Laboratory described his experience as a
test subject for the system:
For the first millisecond, it just felt like the skin was warming up. Then it got
warmer and warmer and you felt like it was on fire. . . . As soon as you’re away from
that beam your skin returns to normal and there is no pain.
Like all focused energy, the beam will irradiate all matter in the targeted area,
including everything beyond/behind it that is not shielded, with no possible discrim-
ination between individuals, objects, or materials. Anyone incapable of leaving
the target area (e.g., physically handicapped, infants, incapacitated, trapped)
would continue to receive radiation until the operator turned off the beam. Reflective
materials such as aluminum cooking foil should reflect this radiation and could
be used to make clothing that would be protective against this radiation (see
footnote 16).
Following approximately 10,000 test exposures of volunteers to ADS beams (see
footnote 15), a Penn State Human Effects Advisory Panel (HEAP) concluded that
ADS is a nonlethal weapon that has a high probability of effectiveness with a low
probability of injury (see footnote 14):
• No significant effects for wearers of contact lenses or other eyewear (including
night-vision goggles).
• Normal skin applications, such as cosmetics, have little effect on ADS’s interac-
tion with skin.
• No age-related differences in response to ADS exposures.
• No effect on the male reproduction system.
• Damage was the occurrence of pea-sized blisters in less than 0.1% of the
exposures (6 of 10,000 exposures) (see footnote 15).
In April 2007, one airman in an ADS test was overdosed and received second-
degree burns on both legs and was treated in a hospital for 2 ays (see footnotes
16 and 17). There was also one laboratory accident in 1999 that resulted in a small
second-degree burn (see footnote 15).
As part of effects of millimeter wave (MW), we need to look at Critical Issue by
“Determining Intent” of let say Pirate vs. Fisherman by raising the issue of the
following:
• Are the existing warning zone capabilities effective enough to support emerging
maritime counter piracy tactics, techniques, and procedures?

17
Kris Osborn, “Airman injured in heat-beam test,” Army Times, April 5, 2007.
390 7 Millimeter-Wave Energy as Weapon

Fig. 7.9 Threat, warning, and assessment zone illustration

• Can active denial provide a significant mission capability to effectively control

the next maritime piracy engagement situation?
This critical issue is illustrated artistically in Fig. 7.9 and leveraging technology to
mitigate the next counter piracy situation.

7.5.1 Human Effects

Human effect testing on the large-scale version of active denial technology has
included more than 13,000 exposures on volunteer subjects both in static demon-
strations and in realistic operational assessments. Both laboratory research and full-
scale test results demonstrated that there is only a 1/10th of 1% chance of injury from
a System 1 or System 2 exposure. Research on the safety and effectiveness of
95 gigahertz millimeter-wave directed energy has been peer reviewed in numerous
professional journals and independently reviewed by the Human Effects Advisory
Panel.

7.5.2 Possible Long-Term Effects

Many possible long-term effects have been studied, with the conclusion that no long-
term effects are likely at the exposure levels studied (see footnote 13). However,
overexposures of either operators or targets may cause thermal injury. According to
an official military assessment, “In the event of an overexposure to a power density
sufficient to produce thermal injury, there is an extremely low probability that scars
derived from such injury might later become cancerous. Proper wound management
further decreases this probability, as well as the probability of hypertrophic scarring
or keloid formation.”18

18
Protocol # FWR 2003-03-31-H, Limited Military Utility Assessment of the Active Denial System
(ADS)cached copy.
7.7 Emerging Technogym Configuration 391

Cancer: A mouse cancer study was performed at two energy levels and exposures
with a 94 GHz transmitter: a single 10 s, 1 W/cm2 exposure, and repeated 10-s
exposures over 2-week period at 333 mW/cm2. At both energy levels, no increase in
skin cancers was observed.19 No studies of higher energy levels or longer exposure
times have been performed on millimeter-wave systems.
• Cornea damage: Tests on nonhuman primate eyes have observed no short-term or
long-term damage as the blink reflex protects the eye from damage within
0.25 s [1].
• Birth defects: Millimeter waves only penetrate 0.4 mm (1/64 in.) into the skin,
making direct damage to the testes or ovaries impossible.
• Blisters and scarring: Pea-sized blistering due to second-degree burns occurred in
a very small minority (less than 0.1%) of tested exposures, which have a remote
potential for scarring.
ADS operators would be exposed to more than the standard maximum permissi-
ble exposure (MPE) limits for RF energy, and military use requires an exception to
these exposure limits.20

7.6 Technogym Demonstration

Due to the novel nature of the active denial technology nonlethal effect, the Joint
Non-Lethal Weapons Program has had a proactive strategy in raising the awareness
of the benefits, safety, and effectiveness of this new technology. Several major
broadcast and print media reporters have attended technology demonstrations,
allowing for first-hand accounts on experiencing the effect of System 1 or 2. Active
denial technology has been featured on CBS’s 60 Minutes, the Discovery Channel’s
Future Weapons program, and the History Channel’s Modern Marvels program.

7.7 Emerging Technogym Configuration

While the Active Denial System Advanced Concept Technology Demonstration

succeeded in demonstrating a large-scale version of active denial technology, a
smaller-scale, more mobile version is also of military interest. Several efforts are
underway to identify new millimeter-wave sources that will allow for reduced size,
weight, and system cost with instant “turn-on” and “shoot-on-the-move” capabili-
ties. See Fig. 7.10 for more details.

19
Patrick A. Mason. “Lack of effect of 94 GHz radio frequency radiation exposure in an animal
model of skin carcinogenesis.” Carcin.oxfordjournals.org. Retrieved November 1, 2014.
20
“Non-Ionizing Radiation.” Retrieved March 8, 2012.
392 7 Millimeter-Wave Energy as Weapon

Fig. 7.10 Conceptual next-generation ADT system

7.8 Active Denial System II

In 2011, the ADS was redesigned to make it smaller, more reliable, and able to be
used on the move. ADS II is being designed to operate from moving aircraft, as well
as moving ground vehicles. The redesign does not address problems in different
environmental conditions.21
The Air Force Special Operations Command is experimenting with mounting an
ADS of the AC-130 J Ghostrider gunship to target threatening crowds or individuals
on the ground. This is to give the gunship a nonlethal option, so the crew has more
engagement options. Due to the increasing number of engagements in populated
areas, the Air Force is aiming to have field a system within 5–10 years to have
enough aircraft available with less lethal systems (see footnote 35). The aircraft will
apparently use the ADS II version.22

7.9 Concepts for Use

ADS was developed as a nonlethal weapon. According to Department of Defense

policy, nonlethal weapons “are explicitly designed and primarily employed so as to
incapacitate personnel or material, while minimizing fatalities, permanent injury to

21
Death Ray Turns Warm And Fuzzy—Strategypage.com, October 3, 2012.
22
AC-130 J Gets A Ray Gun - Strategypage.com, 10 August 2015.
7.9 Concepts for Use 393

personnel, and undesired damage to property and the environment.”23 ADS has
applications for crowd control and perimeter defense, and filling “the gap between
shouting and shooting.” Other crowd control methods—including pepper spray, tear
gas, water cannons, slippery foam, and rubber bullets—carry implicit dangers of
temporary or permanent injury or accidental death, and often leave residue or
residual material. Combinations of acoustic and optical system platforms with
ADS can be used to effectively communicate to, warn of escalation of force,
introduce optical and auditory deterrents and step function the escalation of trans-
mitted force from relatively benign to ultimately forced dispersal of a crowd, or to
deny them from an area or access to an area. A group of people can theoretically be
dispersed or induced to leave an area in a manner unlikely to damage personnel,
noninvolved civilians (no stray bullets), or to nearby buildings or the environment.
Nonlethal weapons are intended to provide options to US troops, for example, “to
stop suspicious vehicles without killing the drivers.”24 Although the ADS
millimeter-wave frequency does not affect a car’s electronic components, it can be
used to deter a driver in an approaching vehicle.25 In a broader strategic context,
nonlethal weapons such as ADS have the potential to offer “precision, accuracy, and
effective duration that can help save military and civilian lives, break the cycle of
violence by offering a more graduated response, and even prevent violence from
occurring if the opportunity for early or precautionary engagement arises.”26
The Council on Foreign Relations noted that “wider integration of existing types
of nonlethal weapons (NLW) into the U.S. Army and Marine Corps could have
helped to reduce the damage done by widespread looting and sabotage after the
cessation of major conflict in Iraq.”27
In Afghanistan, the need to minimize civilian casualties has led to restrictive rules
of engagement on the use of lethal force by US troops. A National Public Radio
correspondent in Afghanistan “witnessed troops grappling with the dilemma of
whether to shoot.”28 Nonlethal weapons such as ADS provide an option for US
forces in those situations.29

23
“DoD Executive Agent for Non-Lethal Weapons (NLW), and NLW Policy” (PDF). Dtic.mil.
Retrieved 1 November 2014.
24
Michael O’Hanlon. “Opinion: Troops need not shoot in Afghanistan.” Politico. Retrieved
November 1, 2014.
25
Archived September 15, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.
26
Archived March 5, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.
27
Graham T. Allison. “Nonlethal Weapons and Capabilities.” Council on Foreign Relations.
Retrieved November 1, 2014.
28
Archived October 27, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.
29
“Joint Non-Lethal Weapons Program Website – ADS.” Jnlwp.com. Archived from the original on
September 30, 2007. Retrieved December 26, 2008.
394 7 Millimeter-Wave Energy as Weapon

7.10 Controversy

The effects of this radio frequency on humans have been studied by the military for
years, and much, but not all, of the research has been published openly in peer-
reviewed journals.30
A news article criticized the sheer amount of time it is taking to field this system,
citing the potential it had to avert a great deal of pain and suffering in volatile areas
around the world.31
Although the effects are described as simply “unpleasant,” the device has the
“potential for death.”32
While it is claimed not to cause burns under “ordinary use,”33,34 it is also
described as being similar to that of an incandescent light bulb being pressed against
the skin (see footnote 31), which can cause severe burns in just a few seconds. The
beam can be focused up to 700 meters away and is said to penetrate thick clothing
although not walls.35 At 95 GHz, the frequency is much higher than the 2.45 GHz of
a microwave oven. This frequency was chosen because it penetrates less than 1/64 of
an inch (0.4 mm), which—in most humans, except for eyelids and babies—avoids
the second skin layer (the dermis) where critical structures are found such as nerve
endings and blood vessels.
The early methodology of testing, in which volunteers were asked to remove
glasses, contact lenses, and metallic objects that could cause hot spots, raised
concerns as to whether the device would remain true to its purpose of nonlethal
temporary incapacitation if used in the field where safety precautions would not be
taken. However, these tests were early in the program and part of a thorough and
methodical process to demonstrate the safety and effectiveness of the technology,
which has now involved more than 600 volunteer subjects and some 10,200 expo-
sures. As safety was demonstrated in each step of the process, restrictions were
removed, and now, according to ADS proponents, there are no restrictions or pre-
cautions necessary for volunteers experiencing the effect. Long-term exposure to the
beam may cause more serious damage, especially to sensitive tissues, such as those
of the eyes. Two people have received second-degree burns after exposure to the

30
“Pentagon nixes ray gun weapon in Iraq” Archived February 2, 2009, at the Wayback Machine..
By Richard Lardner, Associated Press.
31
Hambling, David (October 10, 2008). “Army Orders Pain Ray Trucks; New Report Shows
‘Potential for Death’.” Wired.
32
“Moody Airmen test new, nonlethal method of repelling enemy – Eric Schloeffel.” January
25, 2007. Archived from the original on December 13, 2007. Retrieved December 22, 2007.
33
Jump up to: a b Shachtman, Noah (April 6, 2007). “Pain Ray Injures Airman.” Wired. Archived
from the original on February 2, 2009. Retrieved December 26, 2008.
34
Hooper, Duncan (January 25, 2007). “US unveils ‘heat gun’.” The Daily Telegraph. London.
Retrieved April 23, 2010.
35
Active Denial System Factsheet. Joint non-lethal weapons program, 2007. Archived September
30, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
7.10 Controversy 395

device36,37,38,39,40,41 (the actual number of injuries, according to Ms. Stephanie

Miller of AFRL/RDHR, is a total of eight—the two previously mentioned, and six
others, who healed without medical intervention) [citation needed].
In addition, some claim that subjects who have body piercings, jewelry, or tattoos
are likely to suffer serious skin damage. Tattooed people can become ill due to high
amounts of toxic substances released from heated/melted tattoo pigment. Human
effects testing on the large-scale version of ADS included more than 11,000 expo-
sures on over 700 volunteers. Both laboratory research and full-scale test results
demonstrated that there is only a 0.1% chance of injury from a System 1 or System
2 exposure.42
Critics cite that, although the stated intent of the ADS is to be a nonlethal device
designed to temporarily incapacitate, modifications or incorrect use by the operator
could turn the ADS into a more damaging weapon that could violate international
conventions on warfare (although at this time, ADS has gone through numerous
treaty compliance reviews and legal reviews by AF/JAO, and in all cases complies
with every treaty and law).43
Some have focused on the lower threshold of use which may lead those who
use them (especially civilian police) to become “trigger-happy,” especially in deal-
ing with peaceful protesters. Others have focused on concerns that weapons
whose operative principle is that of inflicting pain (though “nonlethal”) might be
useful for such purposes as torture, as they leave no evidence of use, but undoubtedly
have the capacity to inflict horrific pain on a restrained subject. According to
Wired Magazine, the active denial system has been rejected for fielding in Iraq
due to Pentagon fears that it would be regarded as an instrument of torture
(see footnote 43).

36
Hearn, Kelly (August 19, 2005). “Rumsfeld’s Ray Gun.” AlterNet. Archived from the original on
August 12, 2006. Retrieved August 15, 2006.
37
“PADS – Cold Stress.” Labor.state.ak.us. Archived from the original on February 2, 2009.
Retrieved December 26, 2008.
38
https://www.jnlwp.com/misc/fact_sheets/ADT%20Fact%20Sheet%20Aug%2009%20FINAL.
pdf. Retrieved September 23, 2009. Missing or empty |title ¼ (help)[dead link]
39
Joint Non-Lethal Weapons Directorate Archived September 16, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
Source Documentation found in numerous press releases and Media Demo Days.
40
Weinberger, Sharon (August 30, 2007). “No Pain Ray for Iraq.” Wired. Archived from the
original on December 10, 2008. Retrieved December 13, 2008.
41
Hambling, David (May 8, 2009). “‘Pain ray’ first commercial sale looms.” Wired. Retrieved
October 2, 2018.
42
“New ‘Laser’ Weapon Debuts in LA County Jail.” NBC Southern California. Retrieved
November 1, 2014.
43
“Run away the ray-gun is coming: We test US army’s new secret weapon.” The Daily Mail.
London. September 18, 2007.
 396 7 Millimeter-Wave Energy as Weapon

Reference

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the nonhuman primate eye at 35 GHz and 94 GHz. Health Phys. 83(1), 83–90 (2002)

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